General Science:

1
Cells and its organelles: 3
1. Cells 3
2. Cell theory 3
3. Prokaryotic cells Vs Eukaryotic Cells 3
4. Unicellular v/s Multicellular Organisms 5
5. Components of Cells 5
5.1 Cell membrane / Plasma membrane: 5
5.2 Cell wall 6
5.3 Cytoplasm 6
5.4 Nucleus 6
5.5 Ribosomes 6
5.6 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 7
5.6 Mitochondria 7
5.7 Plastids 9
5.8 Lysosomes 9
5.9 Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) 10
5.10 Vacuoles 10
6. Plant cell v/s Animal cell 10
7. DNA, RNA, and related concepts 11
7.2 Chromosomes 12
7.3 Gene 12
7.4: DNA vs RNA 12
8. Cell division 13
Immunity and vaccination: 14
1. Basic concepts involved 14
2. Innate immunity 14
3. Acquired immunity (Specific immunity) 15
4. Active vs Passive immunity 16
5. Principle of Vaccination 16
6. Types of Vaccination 16
Blood and its components: 17
1. Basics 17
2. Plasma 17
3. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) 17
4. White Blood Cells (WBCs) 20
5. Platelets 21
Food and its Nutrients: 22
1. Basic introduction 22
2. Carbohydrate 22
 3. Protein 24
4. Fat 25
5. Vitamins 27
6. Minerals 32
Endocrine gland system: 33
1. Basics 33
2. Key Endocrine Glands and Their Functions 34
Human digestive system: 38
1. Basics 38
2. Organs of the Digestive System 38
3. Summary of enzymes and digestive processes: 40
Human respiratory system: 40
Waves and Electromagnetic spectrum: 41
1. Basics of wave 41
2. Electromagnetic spectrum 42
Cells and its organelles:

1. Cells:
● All living things are made up of microscopic units called cells. It means the cell is the
fundamental structural unit of life.
● Cells are also the smallest unit of life. Each living cell has the capacity to perform certain
basic functions that are characteristic of all living forms. Anything less than a complete
structure of a cell does not ensure independent living.
● Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.

2. Cell theory:
● It was proposed by Two scientists Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839) The theory was
further expanded by Virchow (1855). The cells theory states three things:
i. All living organisms are composed of cells.
ii. Cells are the basic units of life.
iii. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

3. Prokaryotic cells Vs Eukaryotic Cells

● All cells can be classified into one of two groups: eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Nucleus No well defined nucleus A membrane bound nucleus is

present

Genetic material The genetic material is basically The genetic material is inside the
(DNA) naked, not enveloped by a nuclear nucleus
membrane

Organelle Membrane bound organelles are Membrane bound organelles are

absent present

Size Generally smaller Generally bigger

Unicellular V/s Always present in unicellular Can be in both unicellular as well

Multicellular organisms. E.g. Bacteria, as multicellular organisms. E.g.
Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green algae), All plants, animals, fungi, &
Archaea. protista (protozoa, algae, etc.)
4. Unicellular v/s Multicellular Organisms:
● Unicellular organism: Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell that carries out
all of the functions needed by the organism. E.g. Bacteria, Amoeba etc.
● Multicellular organism: These are the organisms which are made up of numerous cells. In
this case, Multiple cells perform different functions. E.g. Plants and animals.

Levels of organization: Form cell to Organism:

Cell: Cell is the smallest unit of life. Every cell has its own life. It feeds, respires, excretes,
responds and even reproduces, and after getting old and aged it dies.

Tissue: Tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a particular function. E.g. Muscular
tissue is made up of muscular cells, which is responsible for movement.

Organ: Organ is formed of many tissues, which work in a coordinated manner to perform a
specific function in the body. E.g. Stomach is an organ made up of various tissues & cells. But
as a whole it is concerned with a specific task i.e. digestion.

Organ system: Organ system is formed of many organs that act together to perform a
specific life process, such as digestion. E.g. Digestive system is an organ system that
includes various organs like stomach, small intestine, large intestine etc.

Organism: It is the whole living being.

5. Components of Cells:
Each cell is composed of various components called “Organelle”. Each cell organelle performs a
specific function.

5.1 Cell membrane / Plasma membrane:

● It is found in all cells and separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.
● In animal cells, the cell membrane is the outermost layer of the cell. Whereas, in a plant cell,
there is an additional structure known as a cell wall outside the cell membrane.
● It is semipermeable, i.e. it allows some substances to pass inward or outward while
preventing the others.
● It is made up of proteins and lipids.
● It regulates the movement of molecules inside and outside the cell.
 ○ Transportation of molecules across the plasma membrane can be done by two ways:
Diffusion and Osmosis.
○ Diffusion: Movement of solutes from higher concentration to lower concentration.
○ Osmosis: Movement of solvent from a region of lower solute concentration to a region
of higher solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

5.2 Cell wall:

● Cell wall is an additional protective layer over the cell membrane in certain cells.
● Cell wall is present in plant cells, fungi, and most prokaryotic cells. But the cell wall is absent
in the animal cell.
● Cell wall gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection.
● In a plant cell, the cell wall is chiefly made up of cellulose.
● Cell wall is freely permeable allowing substances to pass through in and out without any
hindrance.

5.3 Cytoplasm:
● It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
● Various other components, or organelles, of cells are present in the cytoplasm.

5.4 Nucleus:
● The nucleus coordinates the activities of the entire cell.
● Nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes.
○ The chromosomes carry the DNA of the organism.
○ One segment of DNA is known as Gene. Genes help in the transfer of a hereditary
characteristic from parents to children.
○ Genetic codes are the instructions contained in a gene that tell a cell how to make a
specific protein.
● The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.
● In eukaryotes, the nucleus has a membrane around it. There are pores in this nuclear
membrane that allow molecules to go in and out of the nucleus.

5.5 Ribosomes:
● Ribosomes are organelles without a membrane.
● They are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell. Ribosomes contain the cellular machinery
responsible for making proteins.
● Ribosomes get their orders for protein synthesis from the nucleus. (The detailed procedure
has been described later in the notes).
5.6 Endoplasmic reticulum
(ER):
● Endoplasmic reticulums are
tiny tubular structures scattered
in the cytoplasm.
● It’s a network of membranes
inside a cell through which
proteins and other molecules
move.
● The endoplasmic reticulum can
either be smooth or rough.
○ Rough endoplasmic
reticulum means it has
ribosomes attached to its
surface.
○ Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum means it has
absence of ribosomes on its surface

5.6 Mitochondria:
● Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell as its main function is to produce
energy required for various activities within the cell.
● Mitochondria produce energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) molecules.
○ ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
○ The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and for
mechanical work.
● Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration.
● No. of mitochondria is more in those cells which require more energy.
● Although most of our DNA is stored in the nucleus of each cell, mitochondria have their own
DNA. Generally, mitochondria, and hence mitochondrial DNA, are inherited only from mother

Cellular respiration:

● Cellular respiration is the process of breakdown of glucose to generate usable energy in

the form of ATP.
● It can be of two types: Aerobic respiration (in presence of oxygen), and anaerobic (in
absence of oxygen)
 ● Aerobic respiration:
○ It involves the complete breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce
energy in the form of ATP. Carbon dioxide and water are created as byproducts.
○ Aerobic respiration takes place in multiple steps.
○ The first step is breakdown of Glucose (a six-carbon molecule) into Pyruvate (a
three-carbon molecule). This process is known as Glycolysis. It takes place in
cytoplasm. It does not require Oxygen.
○ If oxygen is present, the further breakdown of Pyruvate using oxygen will take place in
mitochondria. This reaction will produce energy (ATP) and Carbon dioxide and water
as byproducts. This reaction is called the Krebs cycle.

● Anaerobic respiration:
○ This is a way of breaking down glucose into energy (ATP) in the absence of oxygen.
The byproduct released in anaerobic respiration is Lactic acid (in animals) or Yeast (in
plants).
○ The energy released in anaerobic process is a lot less than the aerobic respiration.
○ The first step of anaerobic respiration is the same, i.e. Glycolysis — Breakdown of
Glucose into Pyruvate in the cytoplasm in the absence of oxygen.
○ But in this case, oxygen is absent, so the breakdown of pyruvate happens in a
different way. In case of animals (including humans), the Pyruvate breaks down in
absence of oxygen into Lactic acid and energy (ATP). This happens in cytoplasm
itself.
○ Anaerobic respiration happens in human muscles during hard exercise when oxygen
is not sufficient. The buildup of lactic acid is what causes muscle soreness after hard
exercise.

5.7 Plastids:
● It is a cell organelle present only in plant cells (absent in animal cells).
● There are two types of plastids: Chromoplasts and Leucoplasts.
● Chromoplasts:
○ These are coloured plastids. i.e. contain coloured pigments.
○ Chloroplasts: Chromoplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as
chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants, and provide them
with a green color.
 ○ Carotenoid pigments present in some chromoplasts are responsible for giving
yellow-orange colors to some parts of the plants. β-Carotene is one such carotenoid
found in many fruits and vegetables like carrots. β-Carotene gets converted into
Vitamin A inside the body.
● Leucoplasts:
○ They are colorless plastids.
○ They are primarily responsible for storage of materials such as starch, oils and protein
granules.

Photosynthesis Cellular respiration

Definition It is the process by which green plants It is the process of breakdown of glucose
and certain other organisms use into energy (ATP). Carbon dioxide and
sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to water are released as byproducts. Oxygen
prepare their food (sugar). Oxygen is is consumed in this process.
released in this process.

Input and Input: Carbon dioxide and water (in Input: Glucose & Oxygen
Output in the presence of sunlight & chlorophyll)
reaction
Output: Energy (ATP), Carbon dioxide and
Output: Glucose and Oxygen water

Takes place in Only plants, algae, and cyanobacteria Plants as well as animal cells undergo
can undergo photosynthesis respiration.

Time Happens only during the day Happens during the day & night

Cell organelle Plastids (Chloroplast) Cytoplasm and Mitochondria

involved

5.8 Lysosomes:
● Lysosomes are organelles that contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking
down all organic material. Therefore, Lysosomes perform multiple functions.
● These digestive enzymes can break down large molecules into small molecules. For
example, large proteins into amino acids, or large carbohydrates into simple sugars.
● Lysosomes may also be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria.
● Lysosomes are considered as a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. These help to
keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell organelles.
● Lastly, if any cell gets damaged beyond repair, lysosomes may burst and the released
enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’
of a cell.

5.9 Golgi apparatus (Golgi body)

● Golgi bodies appear as a series of stacked membranes parallel to each other.
● These membranes often have connections with the membranes of Endoplasmic reticulum.
● The material synthesized near the Endoplasmic reticulum is packaged and dispatched to
various targets inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
● The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes.

5.10 Vacuoles
● Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
● Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles. The
central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.
● Many substances of importance in the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles. These
include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins.

6. Plant cell v/s Animal cell:

Plant cell Animal cell

Shape Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape

Cell wall Cell wall is present outside the Cell wall is absent. Cell membrane
cell membrane is the outermost layer.

Plastids Present Absent

Vacuole Very large vacuole Vacuoles are usually small and
sometimes they are absent

Centriole Absent Present

7. DNA, RNA, and related concepts

7.1 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

● About: Deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecule that carries genetic information for the
development and functioning of an organism.

● Shape: DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a
twisted ladder — a shape known as a double helix.
● Where is DNA found inside a cell?
○ In eukaryotes (including humans), DNA is found inside the nucleus of the cell.
○ Other than the DNA located in the nucleus, humans and other complex organisms also
have a small amount of DNA in cell structures known as mitochondria.
○ DNA found in nucleus is known as nuclear DNA. Whereas, the small DNA found in
mitochondria is known as mitochondrial DNA.
● How does an individual get his/her DNA?
○ Organisms inherit half of their nuclear DNA from the male parent and half from the
female parent.
○ However, organisms inherit all of their mitochondrial DNA from the female parent.
● What is DNA made up of?
○ DNA is made of chemical building blocks called nucleotides. These building blocks are
made of three parts: (1) A phosphate group, (2) A sugar group (deoxyribose), and (3)
one of four types of nitrogen bases.
○ Nitrogenous Bases are of four types - adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and
guanine (G). These bases pair specifically: A with T, and C with G, forming the rungs of
the DNA ladder.
● Functions of DNA:
○ Stores Genetic Information: DNA carries instructions for the development, functioning,
growth, and reproduction of all living organisms.
○ Protein Synthesis: The sequence of the bases along DNA’s backbone encodes the
instructions for making a protein.
○ Inheritance: DNA passes genetic information from one generation to the next, ensuring
traits and characteristics are inherited.
● DNA sequencing: It refers to the general laboratory technique for determining the exact
sequence of nucleotides, or bases, in a DNA molecule. The sequence of the bases (A, T, C,
and G) encodes the biological information that cells use to develop and operate
● How does DNA sequence help in making protein?
○ Transcription: The DNA sequence of a gene is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) in
the cell nucleus.
○ mRNA Processing: The mRNA is modified and transported from the nucleus to the
ribosome in the cytoplasm.
○ Translation: It is the process through which information encoded in messenger RNA
(mRNA) directs the addition of amino acids during protein synthesis. Translation takes
place on ribosomes, where mRNA is read and translated into the string of amino acid
chains that make up the synthesized protein.
○ Amino Acid Assembly: Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings the corresponding amino acids to
the ribosome, where they are linked together in the order specified by the mRNA.
○ Protein Formation: The amino acid chain folds into a specific shape to form a functional
protein, ready to perform its role in the cell.
● DNA fingerprinting: It is a technique used to identify individuals based on their unique DNA
sequence patterns. It analyzes specific regions of DNA that vary highly among individuals.

7.2 Chromosomes:
Because the cell is very small, and because organisms have many DNA molecules per cell,
each DNA molecule must be tightly packaged. This packaged form of the DNA is called a
chromosome. The complete DNA instruction book, or genome, for a human contains about 3
billion bases and about 20,000 genes on 23 pairs of chromosomes.

7.3 Gene:
A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building and maintaining cells, as
well as for passing traits from one generation to the next. Genes are the basic units of heredity.

7.4: DNA vs RNA:

Feature DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

Structure Double-stranded (Double helix) Single-stranded

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Bases Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Adenine (A), Uracil (U),
Guanine (G) Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)
Stability More stable, stores long-term genetic Less stable, used for
information temporary information

Function Stores and transmits genetic Helps in protein synthesis

information (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA)

8. Cell division:

● Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. It
is essential for growth, reproduction, and repair in living organisms.
● Types of cell division:
● Mitosis: During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its contents, including its chromosomes, and
splits to form two identical daughter cells.
● Meiosis: Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is halved
(from diploid to haploid) in the daughter cells. It gives rise to the egg in female and sperm in
male.
● Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis:

Mitosis Meiosis

Outcome It gives rise to two identical It results in four daughter

daughter cells, with two complete cells with a single set of
sets of chromosomes (therefore chromosomes (therefore
called diploid cells) called haploid cells)

Chromosome Same as parent cell (46 each) Half of the parent cell (23
Number in daughter each)
cells

Takes place in It takes place in somatic cells (other It takes place in germ cells
than sperm and egg cells) (cells that give rise to sperm
and egg cells)

Purpose For growth and tissue repair For production of egg cell
in female and sperm cell in
male
Immunity and vaccination:

1. Basic concepts involved:

● Immunity: It is the body’s ability to resist or defend itself against disease-causing
organisms like bacteria, viruses, etc. Immunity is of two types: (i) Innate immunity and (ii)
Acquired immunity.
● Immune system: It is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to
defend the body against harmful disease-causing organisms.
● Pathogen: Microorganism that can cause diseases. E.g. bacteria, virus, fungus etc.

Major pathogens Structure of virus

Pathogen Prokaryotic / Unicellular or ● A virus is an infectious microbe

Eukaryotic Multicellular consisting of a segment of genetic
material (either DNA or RNA)
Bacteria Prokaryotic Unicellular surrounded by a protein coat.
● A virus cannot perform life
Protozoan Eukaryotic Unicellular
processes and replicate alone.
Fungi Eukaryotic Mostly multicellular, but can Instead, it must infect cells and
unicellular use components of the host cell to
make copies of itself
Virus Does not Does not have cell
have cell

2. Innate immunity:
● Since birth: Innate immunity is the immunity which is present since birth .
● Non-specific: It is a non-specific type of immunity because it does not target specific
pathogens. Instead, it acts as a broad line of defense against any harmful organism that
enters the body.
● First line of defence: It is the initial barrier and protective mechanisms that the body uses
to prevent pathogens from harming the body.
● No Memory: Unlike acquired immunity, innate immunity does not remember past infections,
so its response remains consistent each time the body is exposed to pathogens.
● Mechanism of innate immunity:
○ Physical barriers:
➢ Skin: It is the main barrier which prevents entry of the microorganisms
 ➢ Mucous Membranes: Line the respiratory, digestive, and urogenital tracts, trapping
pathogens with mucus.
○ Chemical Barriers:
➢ Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes–all prevent microbial
growth
○ Cellular barriers :
➢ Certain types of White blood cells (WBC) of our body like neutrophils, and
monocytes can phagocytose and destroy microbes. (Phagocytosis is the process by
which certain living cells can ingest or engulf other cells or particles)

3. Acquired immunity: (Specific immunity)

● Not present since birth: It is the immunity that is developed over time as the body is
exposed to specific pathogens.
● Slower but effective: It shows slower initial response but more effective.
● Pathogen specific: It is pathogen-specific, meaning it can distinguish between different
types of pathogens and present a unique immune response tailored to each specific
pathogen.
● Has memory: Acquired immune system can remember pathogens it has encountered
before. This allows for a faster and stronger response upon subsequent exposures to the
same pathogen, resulting in quicker and more effective protection against reinfection.

Important terms involved:

● Antigen: An antigen is any substance that is recognized by the immune system as foreign
or harmful, triggering an immune response. Antigens are usually proteins or sugars
(polysaccharides) found on the surface of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
But please note that antigens are also found on the normal cells of the body too.
● Antibody: An antibody is a protein that is part of the acquired immune system. It is
produced by the body's immune system when it detects harmful antigens.

● Mechanism involved:
○ The acquired immune system works through a special type of White blood cells in the
blood: Lymphocytes. There are two special types of lymphocytes present in our blood,
i.e., B-lymphocytes and T Lymphocytes.
○ B-lymphocytes:
➢ They produce an army of proteins called antibodies into our blood to fight with the
harmful pathogens / antigens.
➢ B-lymphocytes release antibodies in the blood when they detect a harmful antigen.
Antibodies attach to specific antigens on the surface of pathogens, blocking the
 pathogen from entering or infecting host cells. Moreover, once antibodies bind the
antigen, the other immune cells can also recognise the pathogen and destroy it.
○ T-lymphocytes:
➢ The two main types of T-cells are: Helper T-cells and Killer T-cells (Cytotoxic
T-cells)
➢ Helper T-cells: They themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells
produce them.
➢ Killer T-cells: They directly attack and destroy the cells infected with pathogens,
so that the infection doesn't spread.

4. Active vs Passive immunity:

● Active immunity occurs when the body’s immune system produces its own antibodies
after being exposed to a pathogen through infection (or artificially through vaccination)
● Passive immunity occurs when ready-made antibodies are directly given from outside
to protect the body against foreign agents. E.g. yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by the
mother during the initial days of lactation has abundant antibodies to protect the infant.

5. Principle of Vaccination:
● Principle of vaccination:
○ The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’
of the immune system. This means that when your immune system encounters a
pathogen for the first time, it learns to recognize and fight it. During this process, it
creates memory B-cells and T-cells that remember the specific features of the
pathogen.
○ Vaccine contains a harmless version of the pathogen, its components or its genetic
material. This does not cause the disease but prompts the immune system to react
as if the real pathogen has invaded. The immune system responds by producing
antibodies and memory cells specific to that pathogen.
○ If the body is later exposed to the actual pathogen, the memory B cells and memory
T cells remember it and can respond quickly and effectively. This rapid response
prevents the person from becoming ill or helps to significantly reduce the severity of
the illness.

6. Types of Vaccination
● Whole microbe vaccine:
○ Whole microbe vaccines use the entire pathogen (virus, bacteria etc), but in a
modified form that does not cause illness.
○ There are two major types of whole microbe vaccines: Inactivated vaccine and
Live-attenuated vaccine.
 ○ Inactivated vaccine: It uses the pathogens which have been killed or inactivated so
they cannot replicate. They are safer than Live-attenuated vaccines as pathogens
are inactivated. But it provides lesser immunity because of the same reason.
Example: COVAXIN, Injected polio vaccine etc.
○ Live-attenuated vaccines: It uses a living but weakened version of the pathogen. It
generally provides stronger and long-lasting immunity than Inactivated vaccines. But
it carries relatively more side effects too as the pathogen is alive.
● Subunit vaccine: A subunit vaccine is one that only uses the very specific parts (the
subunits) of pathogen that the immune system needs to recognize. It doesn't contain the
whole microbe. The subunits may be proteins or sugars. E.g. Novavax
● Viral vector vaccine: This type of vaccine uses a safe virus to deliver specific sub-parts
of the pathogen of interest so that it can trigger an immune response without causing
disease. The safe virus simply serves as a platform or vector to deliver the sub-unit of
pathogen into the body that will trigger the immune response. E.g. Covishield vaccine
● Genetic material vaccine (DNA / mRNA vaccine): They use a segment of the
pathogen's genetic code (DNA or RNA) to instruct the body's cells to produce a specific
antigen that triggers an immune response. As they do not use the whole pathogen or
even its subunit, they are safer and also quicker to develop. E.g. Moderna and Pfizer
vaccines against Covid.

Blood and its components:

1. Basics:
● Blood is a specialized body fluid that plays a crucial role in transporting oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and waste products. It also plays an important role in protecting the body against
infections.
● Components of Blood: Blood has four main components: plasma, red blood cells (RBC),
white blood cells (WBC), and platelets.
● Plasma constitutes about 55% of blood volume, while RBCs make up around 44%.
Together, WBCs and platelets account for the remaining 1% of blood volume.

2. Plasma:
● It is a yellowish liquid that makes up about 55% of blood's volume.
● Composition: Mostly water with some dissolved proteins, electrolytes etc.
● Function: It carries nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

3. Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

● Also known as erythrocytes, they are the most abundant cells in blood and are responsible
for its red color.
● A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 millions to 5.5 millions of RBCs mm–3 of blood.
● Composition: It contains the Hemoglobin, a red coloured iron containing protein that binds
oxygen and transports it to body tissues.
● Function: It carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and transport carbon dioxide from
tissues back to the lungs for exhalation.
● Not a true cell: RBCs are not considered true cells because they lack a nucleus and other
organelles, and they are unable to divide.
● Formation and death of RBCs:
○ RBCs are produced in the bone marrow, which is the spongy tissue found in the long
bones. They typically have a lifespan of 120 days.
○ RBCs primarily die in the spleen, which acts as the "graveyard" of RBCs. When RBCs
break down, they release bilirubin, a yellow pigment. Bilirubin travels through the
bloodstream to the liver, where it's broken down and removed. A buildup of bilirubin in
the body can cause jaundice, a condition where the skin and whites of the eyes appear
yellow. Jaundice can be a symptom of a liver problem.
● Anemia: Anemia is a medical condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells
(RBCs) or hemoglobin in the blood. Hemoglobin is the protein in RBCs that carries oxygen,
so a deficiency results in reduced oxygen delivery to the body’s tissues. Due to the reduced
oxygen levels, it results in Fatigue and weakness. Lack of iron, vitamin B12, or folic acid are
common reasons for Anemia.
● Sickle cell anemia:
○ It is a genetic blood disorder characterized by the production of abnormal hemoglobin.
○ Normally, red blood cells are disc-shaped and flexible so they can move easily through
the blood vessels. In sickle cell disease, red blood cells are misshaped, typically
crescent- or “sickle”-shaped due to a gene mutation on chromosome 11 that affects the
hemoglobin molecule.
○ When red blood cells sickle, they do not move easily and can block blood flow to the rest
of the body.
○ Sickled cells have a significantly shorter life span ( compared to normal RBCs , leading
to shortage of RBCs and chronic anemia. Sudden onset of strong episodes of pain can
also occur because of blocked blood flow.
● Blood group:
○ A blood group, also known as a blood type, is a classification of blood based on the
presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood
groups determine compatibility for blood transfusions and organ transplants.
○ ABO Blood group system:
➢ This classification is based on the presence or absence of A and B antigens on
RBCs.

Blood group Protein on the surface Antibody present Can donate blood to
of RBC (antigen) in plasma
 A A antigen Anti-B antibody A, AB

B B antigen Anti-A antibody B, AB

AB A and B antigens No antibodies AB

O No antigens Anti-A and Anti-B A, B, AB, O

antibodies

○ Rh factor (Rhesus System):

➢ It depends on the presence (+) or absence (−) of the Rh antigen (specifically the
RhD antigen) on RBCs.
➢ The positive or negative sign next to the blood groups is known as the Rhesus (Rh)
factor. The Rh factor is an inherited protein that can be found on the surface of the
red blood cell.
➢ If the blood type is positive, then the blood cells have the Rh antigen
➢ If the blood type is negative, then the blood cells lack the Rh protein.
➢ Accordingly, the most commonly recognized blood groups are A positive, A
negative, B positive, B negative, AB positive, AB negative, O positive, and O
negative.
○ Universal donor and Universal recipient:
➢ Blood group O− : It is called the universal donor because it lacks A, B, and Rh
antigens on the surface of its red blood cells. This means that it does not have any
antigens that would trigger an immune response in recipients of different blood types.
➢ Blood group AB+: It is the universal recipient because it has both A and B antigens
and the Rh antigen on the surface of its red blood cells. Individuals with AB+ blood
do not have antibodies against A, B, or Rh antigens in their plasma, so they can
receive blood from any other group (A, B, AB, or O) without an immune reaction.
○ Importance of Blood Grouping:
➢ Blood Transfusion Safety: Clumping of donor’s blood (Agglutination) may take
place upon transfusion if the blood group of donor does not match with that of the
recipient.
➢ Organ Transplants: Helps match donors and recipients to avoid immune rejection.
➢ Rh compatibility during pregnancy: If an Rh-negative mother is pregnant with an
Rh-positive baby (inherited from the father), her immune system may recognize the
baby’s Rh-positive cells as foreign and produce antibodies against them. These
antibodies can cross the placenta in later pregnancies, attacking the Rh-positive fetal
blood cells, leading to hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN).
 In the first pregnancy, the risk of Rh incompatibility issues is low. This is because the
mother’s immune system typically hasn’t encountered the baby’s Rh-positive blood, so
antibodies aren’t produced. Antibody formation usually occurs after exposure (e.g., during
delivery), raising risks in later pregnancies with Rh-positive babies.

4. White Blood Cells (WBCs)

● Also called leukocytes, they make up a small percentage of blood volume but are essential
for immune response. WBCs are also formed in bone marrow.
● WBCs are colorless due to the lack of hemoglobin. They are relatively fewer in number than
RBCs, averaging around 6,000–8,000 per mm³ of blood.
● Function: They defend the body against infections and foreign substances.
● The lifespan of a white blood cell (WBC) is much less than RBCs, typically 12–20 days.
● Types of White Blood Cells:
1. Lymphocytes:
○ They are essential for body’s acquired immune system
○ There are two special types of lymphocytes present in our blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes
and T Lymphocytes.
○ B-lymphocytes:
➢ They produce an army of proteins called antibodies into our blood to fight with the
harmful pathogens / antigens.
➢ B-lymphocytes release antibodies in the blood when they detect a harmful
antigen. Antibodies attach to specific antigens on the surface of pathogens,
blocking the pathogen from entering or infecting host cells. Moreover, once
antibodies bind the antigen, the other immune cells can also recognise the
pathogen and destroy it.
○ T-lymphocytes:
➢ The two main types of T-cells are: Helper T-cells and Killer T-cells (Cytotoxic
T-cells)
➢ Helper T-cells: They themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells
produce them.
➢ Killer T-cells: They directly attack and destroy the cells infected with pathogens,
so that the infection doesn't spread.
2. Neutrophils:
○ Most abundant type of WBC
○ First responders to infection
○ Part of Innate immune system
○ Perform phagocytosis ( engulf and destroy the pathogen cells)
3. Monocytes:
 ○ Largest type of WBC
○ Part of innate immune system
○ It travels through the blood to tissues in the body where it becomes a macrophage.
Macrophage performs phagocytosis ( engulf and destroy the pathogen cells)
4. Eosinophils:
○ They release toxic proteins and enzymes that can destroy parasites, especially large
ones like worms, which cannot be engulfed by other immune cells.
○ Participate in allergic reactions by releasing inflammatory substances like histamines,
contributing to symptoms such as itching and swelling.
○ High eosinophil counts can be seen in allergies, asthma, and certain parasitic
infections.
5. Basophils:
○ Primarily involved in inflammatory responses and allergic reactions.

5. Platelets:
● Also known as thrombocytes, Platelets are small, cell-fragment-like structures in the blood
that play a critical role in blood clotting and wound healing.
● Platelets are made in the bone marrow and broken down in the spleen.
● Blood normally contains 1,50,000 - 3,50,000 platelets mm–3
● Role of platelets in blood clotting: When a blood vessel is injured, platelets gather at the
site of injury, sticking together to form a temporary plug. Platelets then activate the blood
clotting factors (type of blood proteins) like fibrin. These clotting factors form a mesh to hold
the platelet plug in place. This is called a fibrin clot. This clot seals the wound, allowing the
vessel to heal.
● Thrombocytopenia: It refers to the condition of low platelet count, leading to easy bruising,
excessive bleeding, and slow clotting.
● Note: Vitamin K is the nutrient essential for blood clotting. It plays a key role in producing
proteins necessary for clot formation, helping to stop bleeding after injuries.
Food and its Nutrients:

1. Basic introduction:
● Nutrients are chemical compounds in food that are used by the body to function properly
and maintain health.
● Nutrients are grouped under two major categories: Macronutrients and Micronutrients.
● Macronutrients: These nutrients are needed in large amounts (measured in grams) and
provide energy. They include carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
● Micronutrients: These nutrients are needed in small amounts (measured in milligrams).
They include vitamins, and minerals. They don’t provide energy by themselves, but are still
essential for body functions. Their deficiency in the body can cause severe and even
life-threatening conditions.

2. Carbohydrate:
● Carbohydrates are one of the main macronutrients. They are biological molecules made of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
● The chemical formula of a carbohydrate is Cx(H2O)y, which denotes some carbons (C) with
some water molecules (H2O)
2.1 Function of carbohydrates:
○ Energy production: Carbohydrates are the main energy source of the human diet.
Carbohydrates are broken down by the body into glucose, which is used by cells for
energy.
○ Sparing Protein: By providing easier energy, carbohydrates allow proteins to focus on
growth and repair rather than being used for energy.

2.2 Types of Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrate chains come in different lengths, and biologically important carbohydrates belong
to three categories: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

2.3 Monosaccharides:
○ They are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules.
○ They are the basic building blocks for more complex carbohydrates like disaccharides
and polysaccharides.
○ 3 most important monosaccharides are Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose. All of them
have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), but they differ in the organization of their
atoms. Compounds which have the same chemical formula but differ in the arrangement
of atoms are called isomers. So, Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose are isomers of each
other.
 ○ Glucose: Glucose is a primary source of energy for cells in the human body. Digestive
system of the body breaks down all carbohydrates into glucose, which are then used by
cells to generate ATP. Glucose is also naturally found in honey, fruits and some
vegetables.
○ Fructose: Fructose is the sweetest naturally occurring carbohydrate. It is found naturally
in fruits, honey, and some vegetables too.
○ Galactose: . It is usually found in nature combined with other sugars. For example,
galactose combines with glucose to form lactose sugar (found in milk)

2.4 Disaccharide:
○ Disaccharides are carbohydrates made up of two monosaccharide molecules linked
together. They are also a type of simple carbohydrate but obviously more complex than
monosaccharides.
○ 3 most important disaccharides are: Sucrose, Lactose, and Maltose
○ Sucrose: It is composed of Glucose and Fructose. It is commonly known as table sugar.
It is naturally found in sugarcane, sugar beets, some fruits etc.
○ Lactose: It is composed of Glucose and Galactose. It is found primarily in milk and dairy
products. It must be broken down by the enzyme lactase in the digestive system for
absorption. Lactose intolerance is usually caused by a lack of lactase enzyme.
○ Maltose: It is composed of two glucose molecules joined together. It is found naturally in
germinating grains and some starchy foods. It is also used in a variety of manufactured
food products like alcoholic beverages, bread, breakfast cereals etc.

2.5 Polysaccharide:
○ Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide
units linked together. They serve as either energy storage or structural components.
○ 3 most important polysaccharides are: Starch, Glycogen, and Cellulose
○ Starch:
➢ It is the main storage form of carbohydrate in plants.
➢ Plants synthesize glucose through photosynthesis, and the excess glucose, beyond
the plant’s immediate energy needs, is stored as starch in different plant parts,
including roots and seeds.
➢ The starch that is consumed by humans is broken down by the human body in
simpler carbohydrates.
➢ It is found more in plants like potatoes, rice, wheat, and corn.
○ Glycogen:
➢ It is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates. Glycogen is the
animal equivalent of starch.
 ➢ It is usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever blood glucose levels
decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose in a process known as
glycogenolysis.

Our body has various methods for storing excess energy. When we consume
carbohydrates, some glucose is used immediately. Any additional glucose
replenishes glycogen reserves, and if there's still an excess, the body may
convert it into fat for storage.

○ Cellulose:
➢ The cell wall of plants is mostly made of cellulose; this provides structural support to
the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature.
➢ It is not digestible by humans but aids in digestion as dietary fiber.
➢ Herbivores such as cows, koalas, buffalos, and horses are able to digest cellulose
because of their specialized gut bacteria.

2.6 Glycemic index:

○ The glycemic index is a value assigned to foods that measures how quickly a
carbohydrate-containing food raises blood glucose levels.
○ Foods are scored on a scale from 0 to 100, with higher values indicating faster glucose
release into the bloodstream.
○ Glycemic index of food is dependent on the type of carbohydrates present, fiber content
of the food, protein content of the food etc.
○ Low-GI foods help maintain stable blood sugar, which is beneficial for people with
diabetes.

3. Protein:
● Proteins are macronutrients that are made up of amino acids. Other than being a source of
energy, they play crucial roles in growth, repair, and various bodily functions.
● Structure of Proteins:
○ Proteins are composed of chains of amino acids, of which 20 types are used by the
human body. These amino acids are categorized into Essential and Non-essential.
■ Essential Amino Acids: 9 amino acids that must be obtained from food as they can
not be synthesized by the body.
■ Non-Essential Amino Acids: The body can synthesize these amino acids.
○ Note: Proteins are described as chains of polypeptides. Polypeptide is nothing but a
chain of amino acids linked together.
● Complete vs incomplete protein sources:
○ A food is considered a complete protein when it contains all nine essential amino acids
that our body can't produce on its own. (e.g., meat, fish, eggs, dairy etc.)
 ○ Whereas incomplete proteins contain some, but not all, of the essential amino acids, and
in various amounts. (e.g., grains, legumes, nuts). Combining different plant-based
sources can provide all essential amino acids.
● Function of protein:
○ Growth and Tissue Repair: Proteins are essential for building, maintaining, and
repairing body tissues such as muscles, skin, hair, and nails. E.g. Collagen is a
structural protein that strengthens connective tissues like skin and cartilage. Keratin is a
protein that helps form the tissues of the hair, nails etc.
○ Enzyme Production: Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions in the body, speeding up
processes essential for life. Almost all enzymes are proteins, except for Ribozymes.
(Note: Ribozymes are RNA enzymes which help in linking amino acids during protein
synthesis within RIbosome.)
■ Examples of some common protein enzymes are as follows:

Enzyme Function

Amylase Breakdown of Carbohydrate (Starch) in the digestive system

Lactase Breakdown of Lactose sugar in the digestive system

Lipase Breakdown of fat in the digestive system

Pepsin Breakdown of protein in the digestive system

DNA Polymerase Helps duplication of DNA during cell division

○ Hormone Synthesis: Some proteins function as hormones, which regulate physiological

processes like metabolism, growth, and mood. E.g. Insulin is a hormone that regulates
blood sugar levels by facilitating glucose uptake into cells.
○ Antibodies: Proteins form antibodies, which are essential for identifying and neutralizing
pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.
○ Transport and Storage: Some proteins transport molecules throughout the body, while
others store essential substances. E.g. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that
transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues.

4. Fat:
● Fats are a type of macronutrient essential for energy storage, cellular structure, and various
bodily functions.
● They are made up of fatty acids, which are chain-like molecules made up of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Some fatty acids are Essential Fatty Acids, which must be
 taken from food as the body can not synthesize them. E.g. Omega-3 and Omega-6.
Non-essential fatty acids can be synthesized by the body.
● Functions of fats:
○ Energy Storage: Fats are a dense source of energy, providing 9 calories per gram,
stored in the body as an energy reserve.
○ Vitamin Absorption: Necessary for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, & K).
○ Protection and Insulation: Provide a cushioning layer to protect organs and help
regulate body temperature.
○ Hormone Production: Fats are involved in producing hormones, especially steroid
hormones like estrogen and testosterone.
● Types of fats: Saturated and Unsaturated

Saturated fat Unsaturated fat

Characteristics They are solid at room They are are liquid at room
temperature temperature

Carbon-carbon They do not have double bonds They have one or more double bonds
bond in the fatty acid chain. in their fatty acid chains.

Dietary sources They are found mainly in They are found in mainly plant
animal products (meat, butter, sources (like nuts, seeds, olive oil
cheese etc), but in some plant etc.), but in some animal products
oils too (coconut oil, palm oil). too (e.g. some fishes)

Impact on Excessive intake can raise LDL Can help reduce LDL cholesterol and
cardiac health (bad) cholesterol levels, increase HDL cholesterol (good),
potentially increasing the risk of lowering the risk of heart disease
heart disease.

● Trans fat:
○ Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat that has been chemically altered through a
process called hydrogenation, which makes liquid oils solid at room temperature
improving their texture, and also extending shelf life.
○ Trans fat is primarily produced industrially by the partial hydrogenation of any
unsaturated fat. But it also occurs naturally in some amounts in meat and dairy products
from ruminant animals.
○ It is highly stable with a long shelf life, making them popular in processed foods.
○ Trans fats raise low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad" cholesterol, contributing to plaque
buildup in arteries.
 ○ Many countries have restricted or banned artificial trans fats in food production due to
health risks. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has capped the
amount of trans fat in food products to 2% from 2022.
● HDL and LDL cholesterol:
○ Cholesterol is a waxy substance throughout the body. Body needs cholesterol for various
functions, but in the right amount.
○ Lipoproteins are small, round particles made of lipids (fats) and proteins. These particles
carry cholesterol in your blood and throughout your body. Two types of lipoproteins
include: Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and High-density lipoprotein (HDL)
○ Low-density lipoprotein (LDL):
➢ Sometimes known as “bad” cholesterol
➢ Transports cholesterol from the liver to cells and tissues throughout the body
➢ High levels can lead to cholesterol buildup in artery walls, forming plaques that
narrow arteries, which increases the risk of heart disease
➢ Diets high in saturated fats and trans fats can increase LDL levels
○ High-density lipoprotein (HDL):
➢ Also known as “Good” cholesterol
➢ Transports excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and artery walls back to the
liver, where it can be removed from the body.
➢ Higher levels of HDL are beneficial as they help reduce the risk of plaque buildup
and cardiovascular diseases.
➢ Unsaturated fats can raise the HDL cholesterol levels in the body.

5. Vitamins
● Vitamins are organic compounds essential for various bodily functions, including growth,
immunity etc.
● Since the body cannot produce most vitamins, they must be obtained from food. (Note: Body
can synthesize Vitamin D in the presence of sunlight)
● Types of vitamins: Vitamins are often categorized based on their solubility. Major vitamin
groups are categorized under Fat-Soluble Vitamins and Water-soluble vitamins.
○ Fat-Soluble Vitamins: They are stored in the body’s fat tissues and liver, and do not
need to be consumed daily. E.g. Vitamin A, D, E, and K.
○ Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamins that dissolve in water are called water-soluble
vitamins. Unlike the fat-soluble vitamins, water-soluble vitamins are generally not stored
in the body, and therefore must be taken regularly from diet. E.g. Vitamin C and Vitamin
B complex.
5.1 Vitamin A:
○ It is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for various bodily functions, including vision, immune
support, and cell growth.
 ○ Two main forms of Vitamin A and their sources:
➢ Preformed vitamin A (retinol): It is directly in a form that can be absorbed by the
body and digested. It is mainly found in animal products like fish, organ meats (such
as liver), dairy products, and eggs.
➢ Provitamin A carotenoids (Beta carotene): Beta carotene is a red-orange pigment
found in plants and fruits. It is called as provitamin A as the body converts it into
Vitamin A.
○ Function of Vitamin A:
➢ Healthy vision: Vitamin A is crucial for maintaining healthy vision, especially in
low-light conditions. It forms a component of rhodopsin, a protein in the retina that
helps the eyes detect light.
➢ Immunity: It supports immune function by supporting the growth of T cells, a type of
white blood cells that protect your body from infection.
➢ Skin health: It supports synthesis of collagen, a protein that keeps skin healthy.
➢ Anti-oxidant: As an antioxidant, Vitamin A protects skin cells from damage caused
by free radicals.

Free radicals and effect of antioxidant:

● Free radicals are unstable molecules that have an unpaired electron, making them
highly reactive. The body creates free radicals through the normal processes of
metabolism.
● Free radicals lead to cellular damage, as they try to stabilize themselves by taking
electrons from other cell molecules.
● Antioxidants are molecules that neutralize free radicals by donating an electron, without
becoming unstable themselves. This prevents free radicals from causing damage to
cells.

○ Deficiency symptoms of Vitamin A:

➢ Night Blindness: Difficulty seeing in low light, a common early symptom of
deficiency.
➢ Xerophthalmia: It is a disease that causes dry eyes due to vitamin A deficiency.

5.2 Vitamin B complex:

● Vitamin B complex consists of a group of 8 essential water-soluble vitamins. They function
as coenzymes that help the body obtain energy from food. B vitamins are widely distributed
in foods.
● Vitamin B1 (Thiamin):
 ○ Function: Thiamin, or vitamin B1, helps to release energy from carbohydrate ((it is
essential for the breakdown of pyruvate during cellular respiration). It also supports
nerve function and muscle contraction.
○ Source: Most commonly, thiamin is found in whole grains. Other sources include peas,
pork, liver, and legumes.
○ Deficiency: Its deficiency can lead to beriberi disease. There are two types of beriberi —
Wet and dry. Wet beriberi affects the cardiovascular system, and the dry beriberi affects
the nervous system.
● Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
○ Function: It helps to release energy from foods, promotes good vision, and healthy skin
○ Sources: Milk, eggs, green vegetables, legumes, whole grain products etc.
○ Other important point: Ultraviolet light is known to destroy riboflavin, which is why most
milk is packaged in opaque containers instead of clear
● Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
○ Function: It helps in releasing energy from foods. It is also helpful for skin health, and
the production of certain hormones.
○ Sources: Meat, fish, whole grains, legumes etc.
○ Deficiency: Can lead to pellagra disease, characterized by diarrhea, dermatitis, and
dementia.
● Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid):
○ Function: Important for hormone production, breaking down fat in the body and energy
release from food.
○ Sources: It is found in almost all plant and animal foods to some degree because it is
found in all living cells. But some important sources include Organ meats (liver, kidney),
Chicken breast, beef, potatoes, mushroom, avocados etc.
○ Deficiency: Rare, but can cause fatigue, headache, and digestive issues.
● Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine):
○ Function: Helps in making hemoglobin and RBCs, maintaining normal nerve function,
breaking down protein, carbohydrates and fats, and regulating mood.
○ Source: Legumes, bananas, fish, poultry etc.
○ Deficiency: May lead to anemia, skin rashes, depression etc.
● Vitamin B7 (Biotin):
○ Function: Vital role in assisting enzymes to break down fats, carbohydrates, and
proteins, and also important for healthy hair, skin, and nails.
○ Source: Eggs, nuts, seeds, sweet potatoes etc.
○ Deficiency: Thinning of hairs, Scaly skin rashes, brittle nails
● Vitamin B9 (Folate/Folic Acid):
○ Function: Crucial for DNA synthesis, healthy RBC formation, cell division, and essential
during pregnancy for fetal development.
 ○ Sources: Dark green leafy vegetables, legumes, citrus fruits, etc.
○ Deficiency: Can lead to anemia and neural defects in newborns if deficient during
pregnancy.
● Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin):
○ Function: Vital for red blood cell production, DNA synthesis, and nerve function
○ Sources: Meat, poultry, eggs, milk, other dairy foods and fortified cereals
○ Deficiency: Can cause anemia, nerve damage, and cognitive decline.
○ Other important points: Cobalt is a major part of the structure of vitamin B12. Body
generally can not store most Vitamin B, but excess Vitamin B12 can be stored in the
liver.

5.3 Vitamin C
● Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin.
● Vitamin C can be destroyed by heat and light. High-heat cooking temperatures or prolonged
cook times can break down the vitamin c.
● Vitamin C is generally absent or very low in milk.
● Function:
○ Antioxidant: Neutralizes free radicals, protecting cells from damage
○ Immune system support: Strengthens the immune system by enhancing white blood
cell function and increasing the production of antibodies to help fight infections.
○ Collagen Production: Essential for the synthesis of collagen, a protein that maintains
skin elasticity and strength
○ Wound healing: Promotes faster healing by supporting collagen formation and tissue
repair.
○ Iron absorption: It improves the absorption of non-heme iron, the type of iron found in
plant foods such as leafy greens
● Sources: Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons), strawberries, kiwi, guava, Cruciferous vegetables
(broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower) etc.
● Deficiency: Severe Vitamin C deficiency can lead to Scurvy, which has symptoms like
bleeding gums, joint pain, fatigue, and delayed wound healing.

5.4 Vitamin D
● Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin.
● Unlike most vitamins, it can be synthesized by the skin upon exposure to sunlight.
● Sources of Vitamin D:
○ Synthesis inside body: The skin produces Vitamin D when exposed to sunlight. Sun’s
UV-B light breaks down a form of cholesterol (7-dehydrocholesterol) in the body to form
Vitamin D.
 ○ Food sources: Very few foods naturally contain vitamin D. However some of the food
sources that contain vitamin D are Cod liver oil, Fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines),
milks fortified with vitamin D, egg yolk etc.
● Functions:
○ Calcium Absorption and bone / teeth health: It facilitates the absorption of calcium
and phosphorus from the intestines, essential for building and maintaining strong bones
and teeth.
○ Immune System Support: Enhances immune response by supporting white blood cells,
reducing the risk of infections
○ Cell Growth: Plays a crucial role in cell growth and differentiation
● Deficiency:
○ Rickets: Symptoms of vitamin D deficiency in growing children include rickets (long, soft
bowed legs) and flattening of the back of the skull.
○ Osteoporosis: Vitamin D deficiency in adults may result in osteomalacia (muscle and
bone weakness), and osteoporosis (loss of bone mass)
● Note: People with darker skin tend to have lower blood levels of vitamin D because the
pigment (melanin) acts like a shade, reducing production of vitamin D (and also reducing
damaging effects of sunlight on skin, including skin cancer).

5.5 Vitamin E
● It is a fat-soluble vitamin with several forms, but alpha-tocopherol is the only one used by the
human body.
● Functions of vitamin E:
○ Antioxidant: It protects cells from free radicals by neutralizing them
○ Skin Health: Being antioxidant, it also promotes skin health (Therefore, sometimes
referred to as beauty vitamin)
○ Heart Health: It prevents clots from forming in heart arteries and supports overall
cardiovascular health.
● Sources: Wheat germ oil, Sunflower, safflower, and soybean oil, Sunflower seeds,
Almonds, Pumpkin etc.
● Deficiency: Rare, but symptoms include muscle weakness, vision problems, and impaired
immune response.

5.6 Vitamin K
● It is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for blood clotting and bone health.
● It exists in two main forms: Vitamin K1 , primarily found in leafy greens, and Vitamin K2
which is synthesized by certain intestinal bacteria.
● Functions:
 ○ Blood Clotting: Vitamin K is crucial for synthesizing proteins involved in blood clotting,
preventing excessive bleeding when injuries occur. It activates clotting factors (e.g.,
prothrombin) that enable blood clotting.
○ Bone health: Vitamin K is involved with the production of proteins in bone, including
osteocalcin, which is needed to prevent the weakening of bones.
○ Heart Health: Some studies suggest that Vitamin K2 may help reduce calcium buildup in
arteries, supporting cardiovascular health
● Sources:
○ Vitamin K1: Green leafy vegetables, Soybean and canola oil, Salad dressings
○ Vitamin K2: Found in animal-based foods like meat, eggs, and dairy
● Deficiency: Longer time for blood to clot, Bleeding, Hemorrhaging, osteoporosis (loss of
bone mass)

6. Minerals:
● Minerals are inorganic elements present in soil and water, which are absorbed by plants or
consumed by animals.
● They do not supply energy to our body but are essential for protection against diseases and
also have a role in body functions.
● Macro mineral vs trace mineral:
○ Macro minerals: They are required in larger amounts. E.g. Calcium, Phosphorus,
Sodium, Potassium, Sulphur, Chloride, Magnesium.
○ Trace Minerals (Microminerals): Required in smaller amounts but are equally vital. E.g.
Iron, Iodine, Zinc, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Fluoride, Manganese, Molybdenum,
Selenium, and Boron

Mineral Function Deficiency

Calcium ● Calcium and phosphorous deposit in Rickets, Oesteomalacia, loss

bones and teeth to give them strength of teeth
● Helps in blood clotting
● Necessary for normal muscle and nerve
function

Iron ● Vital for the formation of hemoglobin in red Anemia

blood cells, which carries oxygen
throughout the body.

Phosphorus ● Calcium and phosphorous deposit in

bones and teeth to give them strength
 ● It is a component of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the body's main
energy source and DNA/RNA

Sodium and ● Sodium is the main mineral cation in the

Potassium fluid outside the cell and Potassium is the
main mineral cation inside the cell fluid
(i.e. cytoplasm).
● Both help in maintaining fluid balance

Fluorine ● It maintains normal dental enamel and Tooth decay and weak bones
prevents dental cavities .
● However too much fluoride intake leads to
fluorosis that leads to mottled teeth, tooth
discoloration and enlarged bones.

Zinc ● Supports immune health, DNA synthesis,

digestion of protein in alimentary canal

Iodine ● Important for formation of thyroxine Goitre

hormone which is produced by Thyroid
gland

Copper ● It helps in utilization of iron by the body Anemia

Sulphur ● It is a component of some hormones like

insulin

Endocrine gland system:

1. Basics:
● Glands: They are specialized organs in the body that produce and release substances such
as hormones, enzymes, or fluids.
● Exocrine gland v/s endocrine gland:

Endocrine gland Exocrine gland

Presence of duct Duct is absent Duct is present

 Substance secreted Hormone Enzymes, sweat, oils,
other fluids

Secretion method Directly into the Through ducts to target

bloodstream surfaces

Example Thyroid, adrenal, pituitary Salivary, sweat etc.

● Hormone:
○ Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and released
directly into the bloodstream. They travel to target organs and tissues, regulating a
variety of physiological processes.
○ They are non-nutrient chemicals with their main function as a chemical messenger in the
body.
○ Each hormone affects specific organs or tissues with receptors sensitive to that
hormone.
● The neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate and regulate the
physiological functions in the body. The neural system uses electrical signals to provide
quick, short-term responses, essential for rapid actions like muscle movement and sensory
responses. In contrast, the endocrine system uses chemical messengers (hormones) for
slower, long-lasting effects that regulate processes like growth, metabolism, and
reproduction.

2. Key Endocrine Glands and Their Functions

2.1 Pituitary Gland:

● Location: At the base of the brain
● Master gland: Often referred to as the "master gland," as it plays a crucial role in
regulating other endocrine glands.
● Hormones Secreted by the Pituitary Gland:
○ Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and repair, especially in
bones and muscles.
○ Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones, which regulate metabolism.
○ Prolactin: Responsible for milk production in breastfeeding women, certain breast tissue
development
○ Oxytocin: It stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during
breastfeeding. It enhances bonding between individuals, particularly in mother-infant
relationships (therefore sometimes referred to as love hormone)
 ○ Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone): Key hormone involved in water conservation and
regulation of water balance. It acts at the kidney and stimulates reabsorption of water
and thereby reduces water loss through urine.
● Hypothalamus gland:
○ Located in the base of the brain, just above the pituitary gland.
○ It plays a central role in linking the nervous system to the endocrine system
○ It produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that regulate the function of the pituitary
gland. Releasing hormones stimulate the pituitary gland to release specific hormones.
Inhibiting Hormones signal the pituitary gland to reduce or stop the release of certain
hormones.
○ Hypothalamus gland also maintains body temperature through thermoregulation
processes like sweating and shivering.
○ Oxytocin hormone is produced by hypothalamus, but released by the pituitary gland.
● Pineal gland:
○ Location: Located near the center of the brain
○ Hormone produced: The primary function of the pineal gland is the production of
melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles. Melatonin levels rise in the
evening as it gets dark, promoting sleep, and decrease in the morning with light
exposure, helping us wake up. Thus it regulated circadian rhythms of the body.
● Thyroid gland:
○ Location: It is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the neck, just below the
Adam’s apple.
○ It produces hormones that regulate metabolism, energy levels, and overall growth and
development.
○ Hormones produced by Thyroid gland:
■ Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4): Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) control
metabolism by regulating the rate at which cells convert nutrients into energy. High
levels of T3 and T4 increase the metabolic rate, causing the body to use energy
more quickly. Decrease in T3 and T4 slows down the metabolic rate, causing the
body to use energy more slowly. The release of T3 and T4 is controlled by the
pituitary gland through Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
■ Calcitonin: It helps regulate blood calcium levels. Its primary function is to lower
blood calcium when it’s too high by inhibiting bone breakdown (resorption) and
promoting calcium storage in bones.
○ Thyroid disorders:
■ Hypothyroidism: It is a condition where the thyroid gland produces insufficient
amounts of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). This leads to a slowed metabolism,
causing symptoms like fatigue, weight gain.
 ■ Hyperthyroidism: It is a condition in which the thyroid gland produces excess
thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), leading to an increased metabolism. Symptoms
include weight loss, rapid heartbeat.
■ Goiter: It is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland, often due to iodine
deficiency or hormonal imbalances. Iodine is essential to help the thyroid gland
produce thyroid hormones. When the body doesn't have enough iodine, the thyroid
works extra hard to make thyroid hormone, causing the gland to grow larger.
● Parathyroid gland:
○ Parathyroid Glands are four small glands located behind the thyroid gland.
○ Their main function is to regulate calcium levels in the blood and bones.
○ They produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood calcium by
stimulating calcium release from bones and increasing calcium absorption in the
intestines.
● Pancreas glands:
○ Dual nature: The pancreas is a dual-function gland located in the abdomen, behind the
stomach. It acts as both an endocrine gland (releasing hormones into the bloodstream)
and an exocrine gland (releasing digestive enzymes into the digestive tract).
○ Hormones released by pancreas gland:
■ Insulin: It reduces blood sugar by helping cells in the body absorb glucose (sugar)
from the bloodstream, thus lowering blood glucose levels. When blood sugar rises
(like after eating), the pancreas releases insulin into the blood. Insulin binds to
receptors on the surface of cells, signaling them to take in glucose from the
bloodstream. It is produced by the Beta cells of pancreas.
■ Glucagon: It raises blood sugar by signaling the liver to break down stored
glycogen into glucose, which is then released into the bloodstream.

Type 1 and Types 2 diabetes:

● Diabetes is a chronic condition characterized by high blood sugar levels.
● Symptoms: Frequent urination, excessive thirst, fatigue, weight loss, and blurred vision.
● Type 1 Diabetes:
○ Cause: An autoimmune condition where the immune system attacks and destroys
insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to little or no insulin production.
○ Onset: Often occurs in childhood or adolescence but can develop in adults.
○ Management: Requires regular insulin injections or an insulin pump to manage blood
glucose levels.
● Type 2 Diabetes:
○ Cause: The body becomes resistant to insulin. Often associated with lifestyle factors
like obesity, inactivity, and poor diet.
○ Onset: More common in adults, but increasingly seen in younger individuals.
 ○ Management: Lifestyle changes (diet, exercise), oral medications, and sometimes
insulin therapy.

● Adrenal gland:
○ Location: Located above each kidney, with two distinct parts: the adrenal cortex (outer
layer) and the adrenal medulla (inner layer).
○ Hormones released by the adrenal gland:
■ Adrenaline and Noradrenaline: These hormones that prepare the body for a "fight or
flight" response when faced with stress or danger. They increase heart rate, blood
pressure, and blood flow to muscles, and increase energy production.
■ Cortisol: Often referred to as the "stress hormone," cortisol helps the body respond to
stress by increasing blood sugar, suppressing the immune system, and aiding in
metabolism.
● Testes:
○ Located in the scrotum, the testes (or testicles) are male reproductive glands that
produce sperm and release hormones, primarily testosterone, essential for male sexual
development and reproductive function.
○ They release a group of hormones known as Androgens, mainly testosterone.
(Note than Androgen is primarily released by Testes, but also in some amount by
Adrenal gland)
○ The primary hormone produced by the testes is testosterone. Testosterone plays a
crucial role in developing male secondary sexual characteristics, such as: Increased
muscle and bone mass, Growth of body and facial hair etc. Testosterone also influences
libido (sex drive), sperm production, and overall reproductive health.
● Ovary:
○ The ovaries are female reproductive glands that produce eggs (ova) and secrete
hormones essential for reproductive function and the development of female secondary
sexual characteristics.
○ The ovaries produce two main hormones: estrogen and progesterone.
○ Estrogen: It promotes the development of female secondary sexual characteristics,
such as breast development. It regulates the menstrual cycle by promoting the growth
and thickening of the uterine lining (endometrium) during the first half of the cycle,
preparing it for possible implantation of a fertilized egg.
○ Progesterone: It maintains the uterine lining for implantation of a fertilized egg. If no
fertilization occurs, progesterone levels drop, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining
(menstruation).
Human digestive system:
1. Basics:
● The human digestive system is responsible for breaking down food into nutrients, which
the body uses for energy, growth, and repair.
● Basic Functions of the Digestive System:
○ Ingestion: Taking in food through the mouth.
○ Digestion: Breaking down food into simpler molecules (mechanical and chemical
processes).
○ Absorption: Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream.
○ Elimination: Removal of indigestible substances and waste.

2. Organs of the Digestive System

● Mouth:
○ Function: Starts digestion by mechanically breaking down food through chewing.
○ Enzymes: Salivary amylase begins breaking down starch into simpler sugars.
○ Process: Food is chewed and mixed with saliva, forming a soft mass called bolus.
● Esophagus:
○ Function: Transports food from the pharynx to the stomach through a wave-like muscle
motion called peristalsis.
○ The epiglottis is a small, leaf-shaped flap of cartilage located at the base of the tongue.
During swallowing, the epiglottis folds down to cover the trachea (windpipe), directing
food and liquid into the esophagus.
● Stomach:
○ Function: Food is mixed with gastric juices, forming a semi-liquid substance called
chyme. It then continues the chemical digestion.
○ Enzymes and Chemicals:
➢ Pepsin: Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides.
➢ Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): Provides an acidic environment for pepsin to work and
helps kill bacteria.
● Liver:
○ Function: It secretes bile juice into the small intestine, detoxifies substances, and
stores glycogen.
○ It is the largest gland of the body, and performs both endocrine and exocrine functions.
○ Function of bile juice:
■ Emulsification of Fats: Bile breaks down large fat globules into smaller droplets, a
process called emulsification.
■ Neutralizes Stomach Acid: Bile is alkaline and helps neutralize the acidic chyme
(partially digested food) coming from the stomach, creating a favorable environment
for digestive enzymes in the small intestine
● Gallbladder:
○ Function: Stores and releases bile into the small intestine as needed.
● Pancreas:
○ Both an exocrine as well as endocrine gland.
○ As an exocrine gland, it secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine.
○ Enzymes secreted into the small intestine:
■ Pancreatic Amylase: Breaks down carbohydrates
■ Lipase: Breaks down fats
■ Proteases (Trypsin): Break down proteins
● Small Intestine (has 3 parts — Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum):
○ . It is about 6.7 to 7.6 meters (22 to 25 feet) long and highly convoluted.
○ Function: It is the region where most digestion and absorption of food takes place.
○ Enzymes and Digestive Juices:
 ■ Receives pancreatic Enzymes: Pancreatic amylase (for breakdown of carbs),
lipase (for breakdown of fats), and trypsin (for breakdown of proteins).
■ Receives Bile from liver: Emulsifies fats for easier digestion.
■ Intestinal Enzymes: Lactase, maltase, sucrase (digest the respective sugars, i.e.
Lactose, sucrose, and maltose)
● Large intestine:
○ Smaller in length than small intestine, but called so due to larger diameter
○ Function: Absorbs water, electrolytes, and some vitamins; forms and stores feces.

3. Summary of enzymes and digestive processes:

Human respiratory system:

● The respiratory system enables gas exchange, bringing oxygen into the body and removing
carbon dioxide.
● Main components and functions:
○ Nose/Nasal Cavity: In human beings , air is taken into the body through the nostrils.
The air passing through the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line the passage. The
passage is also lined with mucus which helps in this process. From here, the air passes
through the throat and into the lungs.
○ Pharynx (Throat): Passageway for air to move from the nose to the larynx.
○ Larynx (Voice Box): Contains vocal cords and routes air to the trachea.
 ○ Trachea (Windpipe): A tube that directs air to the bronchi and is lined with cilia to trap
particles.
○ Bronchi and Bronchioles: Branch from the trachea into each lung, directing air into
smaller passages (bronchioles) within the lungs.
○ Lungs: Main organ where gas exchange occurs. Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in
tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are surrounded by a network of capillaries. This
process involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the
alveoli and the blood in the capillaries (through diffusion).
● Process of Breathing:
○ Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, expanding the lungs and drawing in oxygen-rich air.
○ Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, expelling carbon dioxide-rich air from the lungs.

Waves and Electromagnetic spectrum:

1. Basics of wave:
● Waves are disturbances that transfer energy from one place to another without transferring
matter. They are broadly categorized under two heads: Mechanical waves and
Electromagnetic waves.
● Mechanical waves:
○ They require a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to travel.
○ They are of two types: Transverse waves and longitudinal waves
○ Transverse waves: Particles move perpendicular to wave direction (e.g., surface water
waves)
○ Longitudinal waves: Particles move parallel to wave direction (e.g., sound waves).
● Electromagnetic waves:
 ○ They do not require a medium; can travel through a vacuum. Example: Light
○ Electromagnetic (EM) waves are formed when electric and magnetic fields oscillate
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the wave's travel. This occurs
when charged particles, such as electrons, accelerate or oscillate.
● Wavelength and frequency:
○ Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive points in phase on a wave, such as
crest to crest or trough to trough. It is measured in meters (m).
○ Frequency: The number of waves that pass a given point per second. It is measured in
hertz (Hz).
○ Inverse Relationship: Wavelength and frequency are inversely related in a wave
traveling at a constant speed. As frequency increases, wavelength decreases, and vice
versa.

2. Electromagnetic spectrum:
● The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation, classified by
wavelength and frequency. It includes different kinds of waves, from long-wavelength radio
waves to short-wavelength gamma rays.

2.1 Order of the Electromagnetic Spectrum (from longest to shortest wavelength)

● Radio waves:
○ Radio waves are the longest-wavelength and lowest-frequency electromagnetic waves in
the spectrum.
○ They are widely used for long distance wireless communication because of their ability to
travel long distances and penetrate various materials.
○ Uses:
■ Communication: Radio and TV broadcasting, Cell phones, WiFi and Bluetooth
■ Navigation: Navigation satellites system like GPS also use radio waves
■ Radio Telescopes: Detect natural radio waves from stars, galaxies, and other
cosmic sources to study the universe.
○ Limitation: Lower frequency waves like radio waves can carry less data compared to
higher-frequency waves (like microwaves and light).
● Microwave:
○ Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than radio waves but
longer than infrared radiation.
○ Microwaves cause water molecules in substances to vibrate, producing heat. This
property is used in microwave ovens for cooking food quickly and evenly.
○ Microwaves can penetrate fog, rain, and clouds, making them suitable for satellite and
radar communication.
 ○ Being higher frequency than radio waves, they can carry more data than radio waves.
○ Uses:
■ Also used in some cellular and satellite communication
■ Microwave ovens
■ Microwaves are also used in radar systems to detect objects, measure speed, and
analyze weather patterns.
○ Limitation: Require direct line-of-sight for long-distance transmission, as they cannot
bend around large obstacles easily.

● Infrared waves:
○ Infrared (IR) waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than
microwaves, but longer visible light.
○ They are primarily associated with heat.
○ All objects with temperature above 0 K (i.e. −273 °C) emit infrared waves.
○ Warmer objects emit more IR radiation, making IR waves useful for thermal imaging and
heat sensing.
○ Infrared waves are not visible to humans but can be detected by special cameras and
sensors.
○ IR waves can transmit data faster than microwave and radio waves.
○ Uses:
■ Thermal Imaging: Detects heat patterns for applications like night vision, security,
wildlife observation, and medical diagnostics
■ Night Vision: Infrared allows vision in low-light conditions by detecting heat.
■ Used in remote control of devices like TV etc.
■ Short-range data transmission: In devices like smartphones and computers
■ Infrared telescopes study distant celestial bodies by detecting heat emissions.
○ Limitation: Infrared waves can penetrate haze, dust, and smoke, but not solid objects.
Therefore, they require direct line-of-sight.

● Visible light:
○ Visible light is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be detected by the
human eye. It is responsible for the colors we see and enables vision by reflecting off
objects.
○ Wavelength Range: Approximately 400 to 700 nanometers (nm).
○ Color Spectrum: Includes all colors from violet (shortest wavelength) to red (longest
wavelength).

● Ultra violet:
 ○ Ultraviolet (UV) waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than visible
light but longer than X-rays.
○ Types of UV Radiation:

Type Wavelength Energy level Impact of Impact Other important

ozone layer point

UV A Highest Lowest Not absorbed Skin aging, can 95% of UV rays

significantly by penetrate reaching earth’s
Ozone layer deeper skin surface
layers

UV B Medium Medium Partially Sunburn and Helpful in Vitamin D

absorbed skin damage, production
but can
penetrate only
outer layer of
skin

UV C Lowest Highest Completely Most Used in sterilization,

absorbed and damaging, can disinfection, water
does not reach cause severe purification
earth’s surface skin and eye
burns

● X rays:
○ X-rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet
light but longer than gamma rays.
○ Ionizing Radiation: X-rays carry enough energy to ionize atoms, meaning they can
remove electrons from atoms, which can have biological effects.
○ It can pass through soft body tissues while being absorbed by denser materials like
bones, making them invaluable for medical imaging.
○ Uses of X rays:
■ Medical Imaging: X-ray Imaging and CT Scans
■ Radiation therapy in cancer treatment: X-rays and other types of high-energy
radiation can be used to destroy cancerous tumors and cells by damaging their DNA
■ Security inspection: X-ray machines scan luggage and cargo to detect concealed
items.
■ X-ray Telescopes: Allow astronomers to study high-energy cosmic events and
celestial bodies, like black holes, neutron stars, and supernovae.
○ Prolonged or excessive exposure to X-rays can damage cells and DNA, increasing the
risk of cancer.
● Gamma rays:
○ Gamma rays are the highest-energy electromagnetic waves with the shortest
wavelengths and highest frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum. They are
produced by radioactive decay, nuclear reactions, and certain cosmic events.
○ Ionizing Radiation: Capable of ionizing atoms, leading to cellular and DNA damage.
○ Uses:
■ Radiation Therapy: High-energy gamma rays are used to target and kill cancer
cells, often in cases where tumors are deep within the body.
■ Sterilization: Used to sterilize medical equipment and supplies as gamma rays can
kill bacteria and viruses.
■ PET Scans: In positron emission tomography (PET), gamma rays are detected to
create detailed images of organs and tissues, aiding in diagnosis.
■ Food irradiation: Used to kill bacteria, parasites, and pathogens in food, extending
shelf life without cooking the food.