PHYTOGE

A
(viii) s
3.

chapte EasternT
(i)
PHYTOGEOGRAPHY T
24 (ii)

(iii)

(iv)
relationships and distribution
oE

is the study of origin, environmental

Phytogeography which is further classified into
is a branch of Biogeography
plantsboth in time and space. It of phytogeography:
(v)
There are two aspects for study
phytogeography and z00geography- which deals with the description
It is static phytogeography
(a) Descriptive phytogeography.
of different botanical areas.
of flora and vegetation
or interpretations of
phytogeography. It deals with reasons
(b) Interpretive or dynamic geography.
causes of plants distribution. This branch is allied to ecology and annua
and ecological aspect.
phytogeography i.e. historical aspect Congo
There are two different aspects of of plants in past and
their
is concerned with distribution
aspect of phytogeography S1
Historical flora. Ecological aspect deals
with
distribution of past and present day
evolution and explains the
and other related ecological processes.
the distribution of plants with its relation to environment
Major plant communities of the world on their
communities which have been mainly
classified
There are two major types of plant
habitat and environmental conditions
:
(a) Terrestrial

(b) Aquatic.
TERRESTRIAL COMMUNITIES
(a)
the timber line. It extends across Asia, Europe
1. Tundra. The word Tundra means north of
The characteristics of Tundra land are:
and North America generallyabove 60°N latitude.
(i) Plains are characterised by snow; ice and frozen soil most of the year,
(ii) Light is verypoor and temperature is very low.
(iii) Annual precipitation is below 25 cm and snowfall is scanty,
arctic desert,
(iv) Vegetation in the North Tundra is so sparse that it is also called
(v) The biome is virtually without trees. It consists mainly of lichens, mosses, sedges, grasses
and dwarf willow trees. The plants are mostly shallow rooted.
2.Northern Coniferous Forest(Taiga).These forests are also known as the
north wOods. They
to name them. Taiga extend
are very common in Siberia. Hence, the Russian word "taiga" is used
asan east-west band across North America, Europe and Asia just south of the Tundra. The main
characteristics of this biome are listed below:
(i) The temperature is cold in winter (average 6°C).Winters are long and snowy. Summers are

very brief (average temp. 20°C).

(ii) The duration growing period of plants is 60-150 days,
of
fau

(iii) Rainfall ranges from 10-35 cm.

(iv) Many lakes and bogs are associated with these forests.

(v) The soils are thin, acidic and poorly drained.

(vi)The vegetation consists of needle leaved evergreen trees; the dominant species a

spruce, pine, fir, cedar,birch, poplar, etc.

(vii) Forest is stratified into four layers;an evergreen tree stratum (40-70 ft shortshrub
high); a

low herbaceous low moss and lichen

stratum (2-4 ft high); a layer of plants, and finally a very

layer.

352
 353

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY and many

1ynx,pumas
Animals of this biome include elks, deer, grouse,
rabbits, squirrels,
(viii)
species of insects. Central
Europe,
of North
below ;
regions
3. Deciduous These forests are foundin temperate
Forests.
are listed
Asia and the Eastern United States. Main characteristics and is evenly
Eastern 75 cm to 150 cm,
(i) The annual precipitation is abundant which ranges from
distributed throughout the year.

(i) Temperature remains moderate

and shows distinct seasonal patterns,
leaves,
iii) With the onset of autumn most of the trees shed their elms, maples, oak,
deciduous trees such as
Asshet (iv)
The dominant vegetation consists of broad-1-leaved
birch and hickory. is represented
and invertebrates, Vertebrate fauna
The tauna (animals) is rich in vertebrates
(v) deer, bears, foxes and son3
snakes. lizards. rabbits,
by salanmanders, frogs, toads, turtles. insects etC
by earthworms, snails, millipedes,
Ducs. vertebrate fauna is represented regions where
is located in
the equatorial
This biome
4. Tropical Rain (Evergreen) Forests.
of Mexico, South America,
annual rainfall exceeds 140 cm.
These are found on theeastern coast
Congo river basin of Africa, South-East Asia etc.

dealsvi
STRATA

Europe
grasses
Ther

extend

main
emerged trees II. Dense canopy of tall trees
in a tropical rain forest. L. Tall
Fig. 1. Stratification

III.Shorter trees. IV.Shrubs V. Herbs and a carpet of rotting vegetation.

but have over half of the world's flora and
These cover about 1/12th of the earth's surface
fauna. These and characterised by:

(i) The temperature is relatively high and uniform throughout the year,

(ii) Rainfall is abundant, more than 140cm.

(iii) Climate is warm and humid which supports broad-leaved evergreen plants,

(iv) The plants show distinct stratification int0 an upper storey and two or three understoreys

(Fig. 1).

(v) The vegetation is comprised of broad-leaved evergreen tallfrees (about 200 feet high), below
which are present shade tolerant plants such as bamboos, ferns,shrubs etc. Epiphytes and
also abundant.
woody vines (Lianas) are
 PHYTO
354
MODERN'S BOTANY B.Sc.-lI, SEMESTER-V (KU/MDU/CDLU) Th
The faunainclude monkevs. snakes, ant-eaters, tropical birds, bats, large carnivorous ani Aq
mals etc, pits. sh0
Chapparal. This biome is known as Mediterraneanscrub forest. It extends alongthe
also sea
eterranean, Pacific coast of North America,Chile, South Africa and South Australia. Main
ecosystT
characteristics are : as
()Rainfall is limited and occurs in winter, Sumnmersare long, hot and dry. Such ir
moderate under the influence of cool, moist air of the oceans.
lenmperature is both
)
Vegetation consists of hard, thick, broad-leaved evergreen plants which are fire resistant,
marins

(iv) The fauna consists of drought

resistant animals.
6.TropicalSavannah. They are located primarily in South America, Africa and Australia.
ndia does not have typical Savannah vegetation. Main characteristics of this biome are :
() They are warm climate plains having coarse grass with scattered trees on the margins of
tropics.
(ii) Average total rainfall is 100-150
cm.
(ii) Wet seasons alternatewith prolonged dry seasons.
(iv) Plants and animals are drought-tolerant and do not show much diversity,

Hoofed herbivore species including zebra, giraffe, elephant, several kinds of antelope etc.
(v)
are common in this biome. Kangaroos are found in the Savannah of Australia,
7.Grassland. The principal grasslandsof world includeSteppes of Europe and Asia, Prairies
of Canada and USA, the Pampas of South America and the Veldts of Africa. The largest continuous
grassland is the Steppe of Russia and Siberia. Main characteristic features of grassland are :
(i) Annual rainfall is between 25 to 75 cm.

(ii) Winter blizzards and summer drought can be severe with periodic fire devastations,

(iii) The dominant plant speciescomprise short and tall grasses (Andropogon,Panicum etc.)

Animalspeciesinclude the burrowing owl, antelopes, Jackrabbit, bison, larks etc.

(iv)
8. Desert. Deserts occupy approximately 1/5th of earth's surf ace. The great deserts of the
world occur on all the continents except Europe and Antarctica. The deserts of the world are

primarily located in the South-Western USA, Mexico, Chile, Peru, North Africa (Sahara),Asia
(Tibet, Gobi, Thar) and Central-Western Australia. Deserts are characterised by following main
features :
(i) Rainfall is extremely low, varying from 5-25 cm a year,
(ii) Days are extremely hot and nights are cold,
(iii Dust storms are of common occurrence,
(iv) Deserts have very scanty flora and fauna,
(v) The organisms in deserts have specialised structural, physiological and behavioural adap
tations to withstand extremes of temperature,

(vi) Desertplantsinclude different types of acacias, cacti, euphorbias, hardy grasses and several

types of succulents.Aninmals include ants,locusts, wasps, scorpions, spiders,lizards, snalkes,

insecteating birds, doves, rats, rabbits, foxes,jackalsand desert cats.

9. Altitudinal Biomes. The climate varies not only latitudinally but also with altitude. The
series of biomes mentioned above can be noted along the slopes of high mountains like
Himalayas.
In the mountain ranges, the change in the type of biome is due to change in the altitude. On the

mountainslopes, the horizontal sequence of biomes extending over thousands of kilometres

latitudinally is compacted altitudinally into a few thousand metres. Temperature and precipitation
rate are the most important factorswhich determine the type of altitudinal biome. In the tropical
mountains, the sequence of biomes from the base of the mountain to the snow line is : Tropicalor
Terai forest, Deciduous forest, Coniferous forest and Tundra (Fig. 2).
 355
PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

AQUATIC COMMUNITIEs
Therearemany kinds of open ocean to small tenporary
ecosystems. They range from
aquatic e
pits. Aquaue ecosystemsareclassified into twobroad categories ie. marine ecosysterns (open seas,

sea shores, estuaries and fresh-water ecosystems(rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, marshes). These
ecosystems have different conditions of salinity, depth and fluctuation of ternperature.
The adaptations of organisms to aguatic environmentvary in degree and diversify. Arimals
such as hshes live exclusively in water, but rogs,crocodiles, hippopotamus,aquatic birds. can live
both in Water and on land. Some animalslive in saline water, otherscan live both in fresh ana
marine waters.
straia
SNOW AND ICE
SNOW LINE
TUNDRA
TREE LINE

CONIFEROUS FOREST

NORTH
DECIDUOUS FOREST

raine

TROPICAL FOREST
DIVERSITY
S,

tc

-POLE
of the FOREST
FOREST FOREST ICE
,Asa
AND
TROPICAL TUNDRA
DECIDUOUS CONIFEROUS SNOW

LINE
LINE
TREE
SNOW
DIVERSITY

Fig.2. Correlation of altitudinal biomes with latitudinal biomass.

MARINE COMMUNITIES
The marine environment is characterised by its high concentrationof salt and mineral ions.
Most donminant ions are sodium and chloride followed by sulphur, magnesium and calcium. The
Sea is not a singleenvironment. It is sub-divided into distinct
ecosystems in both abiotic and biotic
are depth of water distance from
composition.Most important determinants of marine ecosystems
factors forthe organisms in the ocean
the shore and drainage of glacier and river. The major limiting
salts, pressure, light etc.
are temperature, salinity, mineral
From
The ocean basins are roughly of the shape of an inverted hat or a wash basin (Fig. 3).
the a gradually sloping
region extends for about 160 intothe sea. This zone is called km
coastline,
coninental shelf andhas adepth of &-200 metres. The angle of the slopes then abruptly steepens
 GEOGRAPH
sea has
PHYTOG
open
The zooplanktor
lN preby
BOTANY B.Sc.-IlII, SEMESTER-V (KUMDU/CDI and
356 MODERN'S
less horizontal ocean floor.
The producing
inhabited
eventually levels of into a more or benth
to formn the continental
slope light The
thousand metres.
depth of ocean floor is in the range of several zones : 2.Coasta]
ocean is divided into three
vertical

On the basis of penetration of sunlight,

(i) Photic or Euphotic zone. It is the upper lighted

zone upto a depth
of about200 metres.

It zonesfrom
: littoral
way
insufficient for photosynthesis. The
zone. This zone gets less light which is free
(i1) Aphotic etc.
extends upto the depth of 200-2000 metres. whales subje
are incl
they
EXPOSURETO NERITIC
and bet
lines
BREAKING WAVES VARIABLE CONDITIONS tion
altera
3.Estua
FAIRLY UNIFORM CONDITIONS 60M

SUBLITTORAL becaus
CONTINENTAL
IRREGULAR AND EPIPELAGIC EUPHOTIC fertile the
SHELF
SOMETIMES ROCKY ABUNDANT LIGHT FOR ifethan
BOTTOM PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PELAGIC 200M
There
LIMITED GROWTH
OFATTACHED APHOTIC 1. Star
PLANT MESOPELAGIC a
RAPID DCREASE
CONTINENTAL
IN TEMPERATURE
Thepondspe
ones are
-2000M Thc
SALINITY
CONSTANT metres.
-BENTHIC ABYŠSAL
penetrates
BATHYPELAGIC Lake
MUDDYBOTTOM ABYSSAL
LOW QUANTITIES OF FOOD 6000M of physica
DARK (i) A
COLD
ABYSSOPELAGIC
(ii)
HIGH PRESSURE
are poor
OCEAN
FLOOR The
biome. F
Fig. 3. Marine communities. water.
perpetual darkness;
2,000 metres and is characterised by In
Abyssal zone.It is presernt below
(iii)
These are :
be distinguished in ocean basin.
Three mnajor environments can (phytop
floor from the shore to the
edge of the continental shelf;
i) Littoral zone, comprising the sea (Ceratop
slope and abyssal plain; fauna
formed of sea floor along the continental
is

(ii) Benthonic zone,

are cili
of water of the ocean basin.
(ii) Pelagic zone, consisting
into three categories : aquatic
ecologically
The organisms of ocean are classified 2
are drifted passively in surface waters
(1)) Plankton: These
are small organisms that float and of wat
phytoplanktons
The plankton includesmicroscopic plants called c
by waves, currents and winds. larva etc.).
and
zooplanktons (protozoans,tiny crustaceans,
(diatoms) and minute animals termed They Source
in the surfaceor deep waters.
(ii) Nekton :These
are actively swimming animals found
or smallernektons.They
locomotory organs. They feed mainly on planktons Swim
have well developed etc.
turtles, snakes,whales
include jelly fishes, cuttle fishes; bony fishes, wate

(iii) Benthos :
These are the bottom dwelling
animals that crawl over, burrow into
creep about the bottom.
or are
Worms get w
fishes, brittle stars, sea urchins
attached to the bottom. Crabs, star activ
soft floor. Sponges, corals, sea
pens etc. are attached.
and sea cucumbers burrow into the mud
of marine communities river
:
There are three types from the shore.
They include the waters beyond the depth of about 200 metres
1. Open Seas.
 PHYTOGEOGRAPHY
loor. 357
The open sea has photic,
he
0 and zooplanktons.
inhabited by
licht producing
aphoticand abyssal
Nektons are found
predators, most of
in both
which have
regions. The photic region contains phytoplanktons
photic and aphotic zones. The abyssal regions are

metes (luminescent)organs to attack enormous jaws and sharp teeth. Some animals have
The other
hesis. bernthonic fauna is organisnms.
2. Coastal comprised mainly of
Region.The part of consumers, scavengersand decomposers.
zones :) littoral continental shelf adjoining the coast can be divided into three
(substratum),neritic
free from wave (water) and intertidal zones. The neritic zone is comparatively
action. It
whales etc. The harbours large variety of
organismsliving in planktons, crustaceans, bony fishes, turtles,
they are subjected littoral zone tend to adhere strongly to the substratum, because
to strong wave action, The
lines and includes intertidal zone lies between the low and high tide
water upto 50
metres deep.
alteration between The organisms of this zone have to face rhythmic
HOTIC aquaticand terrestrial
3- Estuaries. Mouths of conditions.
rivers or coastal bays are known as estuaries. Estuary waters are very
fertile because l
minerals,
life than the OXygen, carbon dioxide andlight are available in
plenty. They have more
adjacent sea or fresh
200M water of the river.
TIC 2. FRESHWATER COMMUNITIES
There are two main
types of freshwater
1. Standing communities :
Water Bodies (Lakes
and Ponds): Ponds and lakes are stagnant inland waters.
The ponds aresmall but very common.
2000M They vary greatly in size. Small ponds are
ones are perennial (atleast in their seasonalbut large
GAL central region). Depth ranges
from a few centimetres to a rew
metres.Though notflowing,the pond water is
not motionless. Itis slowly circulated by winds.
penetrates almost to the Light
bottom of ponds.
Lakes are often largeand deep. They have
S000M permanent water. Lakes are classified on the basis
of physical factorsand productivity.
Based on productivity, lakes are of two
types
()Atrophic lakes.They are relatively shallowbuthave rich

:
accumulation of organicproducts.
SSURE (i) Oligotrophic lakes. They are generallydeep and
often have steep and rocky sides. They
are poor in circulating nutrients such as
phosphates.
The physical factors of lakes are dependent on location, latitude, altitude and
surrounding
biome. For examnple, somne of the lakes like Samber lake of
Rajasthan contain saline or brackish
water.
ness

In freshwater ponds, the flora (autotrophicplants) is

constituted by microscopic plants
(phytoplanktons), free floating surface plants (Azolla, Pistia, Lemna etc.), suspended
plants
elt;
(Ceratophyllum,Utricularia, Hydrilla etc.) and rooted plants (Vallisneria, Nelumbo, Typha etc) The
fauna is constitutedby many types ofzooplanktons,nektorns and benthos. The main type of
animals
are ciliates, flagellates, rotifers, crustaceans (Daphnia, Cyclops etc.), eggs and larvae of various
aquatic animals, such as frogs,snakes, salamanders, turtles etc.

2.Moving Water Bodies (Streams and River). Moving water bodies differ widely in volume
of water, speed of flow of water, oxygen content of water, temperature and many other physical
and chemical conditions. The nature of flora and fauna in the rivers and streamsdepends on the
source and land environment through which they pass.

Plants living in streams and rivers areusually attached to surfaces. Animals are mostly strong
swimmers. Floating populations of plankton are generally absent in surface water due to rapid
water currents. In themiddle reaches,the water currentbecomes slower and river or stream bodies
The surface gets more of sunlight due to which rates of photosynthesis and biological
get widened.
activity are high. In the lower raches, the water current further diminishes, but water becomes
muddy. This reduces light penetration at the river bed.The nature and composition of fauna in
rivers and streams almost resembles
with that of lakes.
 SEMESTER-V (KUMDU/CDLIUn Th
358 MODERN'S BOTANY B.Sc.-ll,
Ca

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF INDIA rones(a

of climate types. Geographicaly,India
The Indiansub-continent is characterized by a variety It
differs from other tropical parts
is tropical with a strong monsoonicclimate and in this respect it
vegetation is mainly based on criteria like
:structure, function.
of the world. The classification of aboves
ocO
composition, dynamics and habitat. not a
(1938) made serious attenptsto
demarcate botanical
Clarke (1898), Hooker (1907) and Calder there
regions of India,
India. India can plants
a separate botanical region of Central
Puri (1960) has further distinguished
be divided into nine floristic regions (Fig. 4):
at ah
roylear

1. Westerm Himalayas 2. Eastern Himalayas Termi

3. West Indian Deserts 4. Gangetic Plain
5. Assam 6. Central India
7. Malabar 8. The Deccan hum
9. Andamans. pleas
NHTS
SVAIAH
DESERTS)

PLAIN
INDIAN
INDUS
'-EASTERN HIMALAYAS
GANGETIC
(WEST ASSAM
PLAIN
CENTRAL
INDIA

DECCAN

ANDAMANs
ETC.

200 400

KM

Fig. 4. Map of India showing different floristic regions of India.

 PHYTOGEOGRAPHY
1.Western
Himalayas
This region
comprises Himalaya tracts of Kashnír, Three
can be recognised from Kumaon to north West region
zones in this area,
ie. subnontane,ternperate and alpine (Fig

5)
(a) altitudinally
Submontane or lower region.
It is
constituted of tropical
and sub-tropical parts with foothills upto height of 1200- 5000 ft
above sea level. Here the rainfall is
80-200 cm. Summer season (April to June) is dry. Snowfall does
not ocCur. Winter is cold.
In riverine
areas trees of Dalbergia sissoo (shisham) is found; Here and
there on isolated areas plants like
Acacia catechu and Butea monosperma grov.In moist soil dominating
are Cedrela toona
plants and Eugenia jambolana (Jamun)In rocky dry areas plants like Euphorbia
royleana, argpnarum,Zizyphus, Olea cuspidata, Acacia modesta arepresent.Pine forests are found
at a heghto b00-1500 metres. Along with Pinus, other plants in this area are Syzygium cumini,
Terminalia chebula, Ficus roxburghii,
Emblica, Bombax and Aegle.
(b) Temperate or
montane zone
The area lies between 500to 11 675 ft. Rainfallranges between 100-200crn per year. Sufficient
humidity15 due toshade and available water from melting of snow. Wintersare cold andsummer
pleasant.

WESTERNHIMALAYAS EASTERN HIMALAYAS

SNOW LNE RHODODENDRONS

5000 M AND JUNIPERS
BETULA, JUNIPERS,
SILVER FIRANDSHRUBBY
RHODODENDRONS
ALPINE
() CONIFERS (ABIES, SPECTABILIS.
ALPINE
4000 M PICEA SPINULOSA LARIX
GRIFFITHIANA, TSUGA, DUMOSA
(UD) JUNIPERS, RHODODENDRONS
WILLOWS
(II) BAMBOO
CONIFERS (ARUNDINARIA, RACEMOSA)
(ABIES. PINDROW, PINUS
3000 M
WALLICHIANA, CEDRUS
DEODARA, ROXBURGHI, BROAD LEAVES. OAKS, CHESTNUTS.
P.
TAXUS, CUPRESSUS,OAK, MAPLES, MAGNOLIAS, LAURELS, ALDERS
WALL NUTS, ELMS, POPLARS, u BIRCHES
TEMPERATE
TEMPERATE
MAPLES, HORSE,CHESTNUT,
RHODODENDRON. ARBOREUM MIXED FORESTS. OFTEN EVERGREEN
2000 M WITH MOIST BAMBOOS

MIXED DECIDUOUS,SAL,
DRY BAMBOO,RIVERIN,
SAVANNAH,DRY THORN
AND SCRUB 1000 M
SAL, MIXED DECIDUOUS. TROPICAL
TROPICAL
EVERGREEN,RIVERINE, MOIST,
TROPICAL
BTROPICAL
AND ANID
SAVANNAH(TERA)
SUBTROPICAL
Fig. 5. Differences in the vegetation and climatic zones at various altitudes in
western and eastern Himalayas.
 SEMESTER-V (KU/MDU/CDLU)
360 MODERN'S BOTANY B.Sc.-IlI,

is replaced by Other dominating plants are Quercus

P. excelsa.
Above 5,500 ft. Pinus longifolia
plants like Betula,
deodara. In innerHimalayas in Kashmir,
incana (whiteoak), P. wallichiana, Cedrus
other conifers make their appearance e.g. Ma
Salix (cane), Populus (poplar) grow. At higher
altitudes,
Jasminun make their
Abies pindrow, Picea, Rhododendron. Climberslike Hedera nepalensis, Smilax, Vitis,
de
Other common plants grown in Kashmir are apple, peach,
presence. Pinus gerardiana is also found.
almond. Crocus etc.
Alpine zone
(c) ple
rainfall is little. Throughout
The alpine zone extends up to 1200 ft or timber line,In this zone,
Availability of water to plants is through melting
the year, the area remains covered with snow.
growth is almost nil. Apine meadows are present in
of snow and also due to seepage. Plant
utilis, Berberis, Rubus, Juniperus are present.
sheltered places. In sub-alpineareas, plants like Setula
Aster appear. Alpine meadows
Above the sub-alpinezone,plants like Primula, Potentilla, Polygonum,
show plants like Potentilla, Primula, Sedum etc.
2. Eastern
Himalayas
Himalayas consist of mountain ranges from Sikkim in the east upto
NEFA. As
Eastern
elements with higher
compared to Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas have more tropical
rainfall, scanty snowfall and higher temperature. Vegetational zones are same as in Western
Himalayas. The tree and snow lines are higher by about 1000 ft. Vegetation is more varied and
abundant (Fig. 5).
(a) Sub-montane zone. Rainfall is monsoonal but heavy. Winters are less cold. Due to warm
and humid conditions in tropical dense forests, Shores robusta (Sal) is found which extends from
foothills to 6000 ft. In mixed deciduous forests, along with sal plants, Dalbergiasissoo, Lagersiroemia,

Toona ciliata, Bauhinia, Anthocephaluscadamba,Salmalia, Polyalthia and Bamboos are common.Towards

easternparts in evergreen forests, plants, like Michelia champaca,Mangifera,Turpinia,Terminaliaare
also common.
(b)Temperate zone. In this zone, which extends from 6000to 12000 ft. above sea level, lower
broad leaved forests and upper mixed coniferousforests arepresent.The lower regions bear forests
with canopy closed. The important plants, include Quercus,Acer,Pyrus,Prunus, Cinnamonum, Taxus
baccata, Mahonia, Picea, Tasuga etc. Upper mixed coniferous forests include plant like Betula utilis,
Magnolia, Acer, Cryptomeria and Pinus wallichiana along with others.
Alpinezone.This zone extends from 12000 ft, and above. Upper regions aredevoid of trees
(c)

and bear alpine scrubs,alpine meadows and stony deserts. In sub-alpine regions, plants found are
Abies densa, Juniperus, Potentilla, Primula, Berberis. Alpine meadows bear plants like
Polygonum,
Geranium,Euphorbia,Anemone, Primula etc.
3. West Indian Deserts

This region is constituted by areas like Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and part of Gujarat.Rainfall
is less (up to 70cm). Summer is dry and hot. Winter is cold.Xerophytic plants
dominate this region.
Plants like Salvadora, Acacia arabica, Capparisaphylla, Tamarix, Zizyphus nummularia,
Prosopis,
Calotropis,
Tribulus terrestris, Argemone mexicana dominate the vegetation of this
area.
4. Gangetic plain
The
Gangeticplain rangesfrom U.P. to Bengal and includes Bihar and parts of
Orissa. Rainfall
islow (up to 70cm) in West U.P. and more than 150 cm in Bengal. Real
forestshave been destroyed
by overgrazing and excessive cultivation.The region is prone to
floods also. In lower gangetic
plains, plants like Polyalthia, Lagerstroemia, Bombax,
Madhuca, Aegle marmelos, Artocarpus, Areca,
Borassusarefound.Inupper Gangeticplains,vegetation
includes plants like Jatropha, Butea monosperma,
Prosopis, Tamarix,Acacia nilotica, Balanites, Vitis trifolia and Tinosporacordifolia. Mangrove forests of
Sunderban bear extreme swampy and halophytic vegetation of plants like Rhizophora muCronata,
R conjugata, Sonnemtia, Typha angustata and Cocos nucifera.
 361

m PHYTOGEOGRAPHY
5. Assam
earae
tnake The region receives the
heaviest of Brahmaputra
Surma of north rainfall,even upto 1000cm,andincludes valleys
and east states Assam,
(except Arunachal). States like Nagaland, Meghalaya,
Tripura fall in
Marnipur, this zone. Due to tropical evergreern forests
The vegetation high ttemperature and humidity
develop. include plants like Magnolia, Rhodo-
Quercus, Acer, Pyrus, Alnus nepalensis,
Dipterocarpus macropus,
dendron,
the height of 22 Sterculia alata, Saccharum auradinaceum, Calamus etc. Tree canopy
may touch metres in wet Pinus insularis,
like Quecus, temperate forests. In pine forests along with
plants Lithocarpus, Inula, Myrica, Bambusa, Dendrocalamus also grow. In swamp forests
re
Qresent of Assam
plants like Scirpus,
Cephanthus, Dracaena spicata are found,
6. Central India
presse
emeao In iorisic regions, central India includes states like M.P., Gujarat and parts of Orissa. The
low mountain chains with Tropical deciduous
Vindhyas are rainfall ranging from 150to 250 cm.
of vegetation is found in this
ype area. The vegetation comprises plants like Butea monosperma,
Terminalia tomentosa, Dalbergia latifolia, Carissa spinarum, Acacia catechu, Madhuca indica, Emblica,
Themeda, Vitiveria etc.
7. Malabar

This tloristic region comprisesthe area of west coast of India from Kanyakumari to Satpura
ranges in Gujarat, Rainfall heavy and vegetation comprises tropical moist evergreen torests
is

mixed deciduousforests, temperate evergreen forests (sholas) and mangrove forests. Sholas include
plants like Gordonia obtusa, Rhododendron nilgiricum, Mahonia, Clematis, Toddalia asiatica. n Nilgin
area with temperate evergreen forests, plants like Michelia nilgirica, Gordonia obtusa, Eurya japortca
are found.Sub-tropicaldeciduous forests consists of plants like Pterocarpus, Dalbergia pariculata,
Lantana, Curcuma and Desmodium.
8. The Deccan
and includes
Deccan area comprises whole of peninsular India except the Western Ghats
states like A.P., Tamil Nadu, Karnataka. Rainfall is about 100cm. Topography is uneven. It has

pinnata. Teak forests

central hily plateau with forests of Tectona grandis, Boswellia serrata,Hardzvickia
arjuna, Emblica and Acacia catechu. Santalum album
are accompanied by plants like Terminalia
Cocos nucifera (coconut). Red sanders
Sandal)grows in various types of forests. Sandy beaches bear
forest in Cuddapah area bear Pterocarpus santalinus
along with Chloroxylon and Terminalia.
9. Andamans
the equator on the east
The area comprises a group of small and large islands situated near
side of themainland. It has wide range of spreading coastal
vegetationlike mangroves, beach forests
vegetationis the mixture of ndo-Malayan floras. Beach forests
and the interior evergreen trees. The
plants found are Calophyllum, Rhizophora,
bear mainly theCocos nucifera (coconut).Other important
Erythrina indica.
Dipterocarpus, Lagerstoremia, Terminalia,
upto height of 35 metres. These plants grow on
intall
Large trees in coral reef forests may reach
Plants like Artocarpus pomiformis, Ficus indica,
gion permeable calcareoussubstratum behind the beaches.
the hill plateaus of northern
Eugenia, Olax imbricategrow
in such forests. Grass heath is found on
Dimeria, Chrysopoçon grow in such areas.
Nicobar islands.Grasses like Imperata,Eragrastis,
VEGETATION TYPES OF INDIA
urbanization, industrialisation,
Due to overgrazing, dense population,hydroelectricprojects,
and natural vegetation of
operations, vegetation of India has been greatlyaffected. Forests
mining soil, climate and man.
The natural
India has considerably
degenerated due to effects of animals,
role in determining
forests have persisted only in few
areas.Important factors which play important
and various life forms. In India, two
temperature, biotic influences
the vegetation are rainfall,
are :
Common types of vegetations
(b) Grassland.
(a)Forest
 PHYTOPlan
362 MODERN'S BOTANY B.Sc.-Ill, SEMESTER-V (KUMDU/CDLU)
a
most
(a) FORESTS
India which can be broad
n Ste
Champion and Seth (1968))have identified 16 forest types in found.AL
Aster,(b)
classified into 6 major types :
Montane temperate 5. Sub-alpine
1. Moist tropical 2. Dry tropical
3. Montane sub-tropical 4. Dis
Grassland here is being discussed as a type of vegetation.
6. Grassland. :
be further classified into three categories
They can responsil
1. Moist tropical forests.
(mean annual)is about 27°C.Rainfall is
mo durngg
Tropical wetevergreenforests. Temperature
) are srnall trees, shrubs,epiphytes appeared
than 250 cm.Dry spell is short. Forests are multistoreyed. Steps
by Dipterocarpus. Short trees of second'storey are formatic
lians and ground vegetation. Canopy is formed
Cordia etc. Climbersarè quite common.
Ground flora is made of shade tolerans grasslan
Na
Emblica, Murrava,
herbs like Arisaemna, Selaginella and ferns.
(ii) Tropical moist semi-evergreen
forests. found in patches in south as well as north
They are present
forms between evergreen savarna
Here the trees shed their leaves for brief period. They are
intermediate
(a
26°C. Some
and deciduous trees. Rainfall is about 200-250cm. with average annual tenmperature of coI
Artocarpus and Mangifera. ike
plants of such forests are Terminalia, Tarameles, Shorea,
The annual rainfall ranges from 150 to 200 cm. with
(ii) Tropical moist deciduous forests. Conditi

dry spell of abouttwo months. Some trees remain evergreen and some shed their leaves fora brief Prosopi

period. Such forests are found in moist areas of Khasi hills, Western Ghats, Kerala and Karmataka
Teak, sandal and sal forests come to share such types of forests. Shorea robusta is dominant in
represe
Gorakhpur and Tarai region of U.P. Teak forests arefound in southern and central India. Sal forests Charac

aremainly confined to North. Few other interesting plants are Dalbergia latifolia, Emblica officinalis,

Eugenia, Terminalia tomentosa and Dendrocalamus. found

2. Dry tropical forests. Usually trees in such forests are of deciduous nature and remain and A
leafless for many months. Canopy is not sharp and size goes up to 2.5 metres. Dry season here Prade
extendsupto 6 months. Shrubs are abundant.Thorny scrubs, grassesetc. dominate the ground flora. amnule
Such forests have been foand in Punjab and West U.P. Some plarnts of such forests are Dalbergia, Hima
Emblica officinalis, Morinda, Zizyphus, Bambusa, Phoenixacaulis, Acacia catechu, Terminalia tomentosa. Ghate
They are further differentiated into teak type and non-teak type. Teak type forests bear teak plant
(Tectona grandis). Forests of Shorea robusta are found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, MP. and
Karnataka.
S.N
3.Montane sub-tropicalforests. Such forests represent the intermediate form between
tropical and temperate forests and thus exhibit vegetation both thetypes.Such forests are present
of

on hills of South India at places like Nilgiri, Mahabalswar and Panchmarhi. Such forests may

be
of broad leaved,pine or dry evergreen types. Broad leaved hill forests show plarnts like Syzygiam,
Emblica oficinalis, Vernonia, Phoenix humilis. In pine forests along with Pinus insularis and P.

roxburghi, other plants are Quercus, Acer, llex, Cinnamonum. In dry evergreen forests of Shiwalik
hills in Haryana, Punjab, HP., plants found are :Adhatoda vesica, Olea cuspidata. Acacia modesta.

4. Montane temperate forests. They are found above 5000 ft. altitude at mountains of
Himalayas and Nilgiri. In southern wet temperate forests (sholas), trees form a close canopy.
reaching a height of 15-20 metres. Dominating trees are Rhododendron nilgiricum,
Syzygium, Ilex sp,
Mahonia and Gordonia obtusa. In northern wet temperate forests in areas of
Eastern Himalayas
vegetation is mainly of Quercus, Lithocarpus sp. Cinnamomum and Tsuga. In Himalayan moist
temperate forests, trees like Quercus, Pinus wallichiana, Cedrus deodara, Picea
smithiana are present.
In Himalayan dry temperate forests, vegetation of Pinus gerardiana,Acer sp.,
Quercus, Xanthoxylum,
Olea cuspidata is present.
5. Sub-alpine forests.Such forests are found above timber line up to snow line in Himalayas.
Alpine vegetationcan be furtherclassified intosub-alpine forests, alpine
scrubs,moist alpinescrubs
and dry alpine scrubs. Heavy snowfall occurs during winter
seasons. Rainfall is almost absent.
Temperature remains low throughout theyear. Plantsbecomne less and less
with increasing altitude.
i PHYTOGEOGRAPHY
363

Plants usually remain small.Few plants found in such forests areSedum, Saxifraga and
most alpine scrubs, plants like Rhododendron Berberis, Fritillaria, Anemone have been
In anthopogon,
Above scrubzone,in alpine meadows Thalictrum, Saxifraga, Polygonum,
found. plants like Ranunculus,
sker, Stellaria are present. They all are herbaceous.
(b) GRASSLANDS
Disturbancedone by man
in natural forest vegetation leads toformation of grassland.Factors
for development of climax rainfall, warmths and moisture
responsible grassland requires frequent
during growing season. Grasslands cannot be said to representing climax formation as they have
due to destruction of forests. edaphic and biotic are responsiblefor
appeared Characteristics

of
formation of grasslands over a large area. Invasion of trees in grasslands lead to spoilage of
grasslands.
are maintained in their
Natutat ana true grasslandsare almost absent in India. Most of themn
present seral stagesand they are not climax formations. AIl the tropical grasslands of India are
savannahs.Three major types of grasslands can be classified:

(a) eroPhilous.Such grasslandoccurs in drv areas

of north-west India and formm sermi-desert
Hke conditions. Xerophilous grasslands extend to Northwest India formed under semi desert
brie conditions. Plant species found are Eragrostis, Aristida, Andropogon and Choris. Shrubs found are
taka
Prosopis specigera, Capparis and Balanites.

(b)Mesophilous. They represent the areaswith sufficient rain spread for many months and
Tests
represent the savannahs. Such grasslands are represented by moist deciduous forests of UP.
Characteristic species-found here are Saccharum munja, S. narenga and Vetiverie zizanoids.

()Hydrophilous. Found in wet areas and known as wet savannahs. plants Characteristics
found are: Erianthus elephantinus, Saccharum arundinaceum.On water sides species like Phragmtes
nain

and Arundo are present.Grasslands in India aremainly confined to state like

Maharashtra, Madhya
nere

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Dominant speciesareSchima sulcatum,S. nervosum, Dicanthium
Ora.

annulatum,Chrysopogon montanus. Regions of Assam, Bengal, U.P., Haryana, Punjab, HP.,upper

Himalayas show the presence of Arundinella, Deyecixia and Deschampsia.The areas like Western
Ghats, Satpura, Vindhyas show the plant species like Cymbopogon, Aristida.
ant

nd Table 1. Types of grasslands in India based on environment.

S.No. Grassland types Environment

er
1.
Phragmites/Saccharum Marhy areas
nt
2. Dicanthicum Sandy loams
3. Bothriochloa Paddy tracts and light rainfall belt

4.
Low hills
Cymbopogon
5. Arundinella High mountains

6. Deschampsia Temperate alpine climate

7 Arundinella Mixed temperate climate

E(TEST ÇQUESTIONSE
1. What do you mean by botanical of floristic region ? Name the botanical regions of India.
Himalayas.
2. Describethe vegetation of Western and Eastern
3. Explain the terms :
line (d) Cold deserts.
(a) Sholas (b) Rain forest (c) Timber
4. Name thedifferent vegetation types found India. Describe the one found in your
in area.
of India.
5. Give an account of major plant communities
regións of India.
6. Describe the phytogeographical