PH3151 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT-I

MECHANICS

Multi particle dynamics: Center of mass (CM) – CM of continuous bodies – motion of

the CM – kinetic energy of system of particles. Rotation of rigid bodies: Rotational
kinematics – rotational kinetic energy and moment of inertia – theorems of M.I –
moment of inertia of continuous bodies – M.I of a diatomic molecule – torque –
rotational dynamics of rigid bodies – conservation of angular momentum – rotational
energy state of a rigid diatomic molecule – gyroscope – torsion pendulum – double
pendulum – Introduction to nonlinear oscillations.

1.1 Introduction:
BASIC DEFINITIONS:

1.Angular Displacement:

The change in position of the particle moving in a circular path with respect to an angle (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
is called angular displacement.

Angle between ‘A’ and ‘B’ is 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜃𝜃2 − 𝜃𝜃1

Angular displacement, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜃𝜃2 − 𝜃𝜃1
Unit for angular displacement = Radian
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑙𝑙

Relation between angular displacement (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)and the linear

displacement (𝑙𝑙)is given by 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑙𝑙

Relation between angular displacement (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)and the linear displacement (𝑙𝑙)

is given by 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

2. Angular Velocity (ω):

The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣, 𝜔𝜔 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Unit for angular velocity = Radian s −1
Relation between angular velocity (𝜔𝜔)and the linear velocity (𝑣𝑣)is given by 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

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3. Angular Acceleration (α):

The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝜃𝜃
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝛼𝛼 = (𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Unit for angular acceleration = Radian s −2

4. Inertia (I):

Tendency of an object to maintain its state of rest or uniform motion along the same
direction is called inertia.

5. Angular Momentum (L):

The product of moment of inertia and angular velocity of the particle is called angular
momentum.

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

Where, ‘I’ is the moment of inertia of the particle and ‘ω’ is the angular velocity

Unit for angular momentum = Kg m2 s −1

1.2. MULTI PARTICLE DYNAMICS

Dynamics is the study of motion of the bodies under the action of forces.

Example: Moon affecting the ocean waves.

Multi particle dynamics is the study of motion of group of particles in which the
separation between the particles will be very small which is negligible.

The study of rotational and translational motion with respect to the system of particles
is called multi particle dynamics.

1.3. CENTRE OF MASS

Let us consider a system of particle with different masses and different position from
the reference point. The mass of the system is equal to the sum of the mass of each particle in
the system.

If the mass of the entire system of particles is concentrated at a particular point, that
point is called centre of mass of the system.

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1.5. CENTRE OF MASS OF CONTINUOUS BODIES

When a system contains ‘n’ number of particle where the mass and position of the
particle is represented by 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 and 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 then

∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟⃗𝑖𝑖

Centre of mass, 𝑟𝑟⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = − − − − − − (1)
∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖

This equation will not hold good for continuous bodies because a continuous body
have infinitesimal small regions.

So, instead of summation, we have to integrate the above equation.

Consider the mass of one small region ‘dm’ and its position ‘r’. If the elemental mass
‘mi’ is very small in the region i.e., if ‘mi’ tends to zero, then

∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟⃗𝑖𝑖 ∫ 𝑟𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑟𝑟⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = lim =
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 →0 ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑀𝑀

∫ 𝑟𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑟𝑟⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = − − − − − (2)
𝑀𝑀

Equation (2) represents the centre of mass of continuous bodies.

1.6. MOTION OF THE CENTRE OF MASS

The motion of the centre of mass is the force required to accelerate the system of
particles with respect to the centre of mass

Consider an external force ‘F’ acting on the system of particles along the ‘x’ axis is
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖

𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

We know, � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 = 𝑀𝑀
𝑖𝑖

∴ 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑚𝑚3 𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ − − − − − (1)

Differentiating with respect to ‘time’ we get,

𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3

𝑀𝑀 = 𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑚𝑚3 +⋯
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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Differentiating once again with respect to time

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥3

𝑀𝑀 = 𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑚𝑚3 +⋯ − − − − − (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

Equation (2) can be written as

𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑚𝑚3 𝑎𝑎3 + ⋯ − − − − − (3)

Accxording to Newton′ ssecond law, we know F = ma

Equation (3) can be written as

𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐹𝐹1 + 𝐹𝐹2 + 𝐹𝐹3 + ⋯

𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = � 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 − − − − − (4)

𝑖𝑖

From (4) the force acting on the centre of mss is equal to the sum of forces acting on
the system of particles. This is required to move the particles with respect to the centre of
mass, so called motion of the centre of mass

1.7. KINETIC ENERGY OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

Let us consider multi particle system with ‘n’ number of particles in which each
particle moving with some velocity

mi → Mass of the particle

ri → Displacement of the particle

vi → Velocity of the particle at any instant

1
∴ 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = � mi vi 2 − − − − − (1)
2
𝑖𝑖

Let ‘vcm ’ be the velocity of centre of mass with respect to the origin ‘O’ and ‘vim ’ is
the velocity of the particle with respect to centre of mass. Thus velocity of ith particle can be
written as

vi = vcm + vim − − − − − (2)

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Substitute (2) in (1), we get

1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = � mi (vcm + vim )2 − − − − − (3)
2
𝑖𝑖

1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = � mi (vcm 2 + vim 2 + 2 vcm vim )
2
𝑖𝑖

1 1 1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = � mi vcm 2 + � mi vim 2 + 2 � mi vcm vim
2 2 2
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

1 1 1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = vcm 2 � mi + � mi vim 2 + 2 × vcm � mi vim
2 2 2
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

1 1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = vcm 2 � mi + � mi vim 2 + vcm � mi vim − − − − − (4)
2 2
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

We know, � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 = 𝑀𝑀 − − − − − (5)

𝑖𝑖

Total momentum with respect to centre of mass of the system,

� mi vim = 0 − − − − − (6)
𝑖𝑖

Substitute (5) and (6) in (4), we get

1 1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑀𝑀vcm 2 + � mi vim 2 + 0
2 2
𝑖𝑖

1 1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑀𝑀vcm 2 + � mi vim 2 − − − − − (7)
2 2
𝑖𝑖

Equation (7) represents the kinetic energy of system of particles.

There are two kinetic energy terms

1
Term 1: 𝑀𝑀vcm 2 → Kinetic enrgy of centre of mass of the system
2

1
Term 2: ∑𝑖𝑖 mi vim 2 → Sum of kinetic enrgy of centre of all particles
2

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1.8. TYPES OF MOTION

There are two types of motion.

1. Translational motion 2. Rotational motion

1. Translational motion:

A body moves in straight line in which all the constituent particles move along
parallel straight lines and will undergo equal displacement in equal interval of time.

All particles will have same velocity and acceleration

Example: 1. Movement of car or bus

2. Apple falling from a tree

2. Rotational motion:

A body moves about a fixed axis and each particle describes concentric circles about
that axis. Though different particles at different points will have different linear velocity, but
they have same angular velocity.

Example: 1. Motion of Door

2. Rotation of blades in a fan

1.9. ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES

Rigid body: A rigid body is an object which has definite size and shape and does not change
due to external force.

Rotational motion: Rotational motion in a rigid body is considered as the stationary motion
in which the rotation is caused by a couple acting on the body.

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Explanation: Consider a rigid body revolving about an axis ‘OY’ through ‘O’. Consider two
particles P1 and P2 which revolves in a circular path about A and B respectively. The center
of each circle lies on OY. The radius of the circles AP1 and AP2 is the perpendicular distance
from the axis OY.

In the case of rotational motion, the particles will have same angular velocity.

⸫ the angular velocity

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜔𝜔 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the angle through which the particle gets rotated in a time 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

⸫ the angular acceleration

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛼𝛼 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1.10. ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS

Rotational kinematics describes the relationship between angular displacement,

angular velocity and angular acceleration w.r.t time.

Linear motion Rotational motion

𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 = 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜔𝜔𝑓𝑓 = 𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖 + 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
1 1
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡 2
2 2
𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 2 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜔𝜔𝑓𝑓2 = 𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖 2 + 2𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
where

𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 = 0

𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 = 0

𝜔𝜔𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝛼𝛼 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

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𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝜃𝜃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1.11. ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY

Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis XX1 with angular velocity ′𝜔𝜔′.

All particles have same angular velocity 𝜔𝜔 but different linear velocity ‘v’. Linear velocity
‘v’ varies with the distance from the axis XX1.

Let 𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , 𝑣𝑣3 … … … … … . 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 be the linear velocities of the particles of masses
𝑚𝑚1 , 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝑚𝑚3 … … … … … . 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 rotating about XX1at distances 𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 , 𝑟𝑟3 … … … … … . 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖
respectively.

1
The kinetic energy of the particle with mass 𝑚𝑚1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑣𝑣1 2
2

1
The kinetic energy of the particle with mass 𝑚𝑚2 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑣𝑣2 2
2

1
The kinetic energy of the particle with mass 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 2
2

1 1 1
So kinetic energy of the system is = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑣𝑣1 2 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑣𝑣2 2 + ⋯ … … . 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 2 − − − − − (1)
2 2 2

But we know 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝜔𝜔, 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑟𝑟2 𝜔𝜔, 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 = 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝜔𝜔

So equation (1) becomes

kinetic energy of the system is

1 1 1
= 𝑚𝑚1 𝑟𝑟1 2 𝜔𝜔2 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟2 2 𝜔𝜔2 + ⋯ … … 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 𝜔𝜔2
2 2 2

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1 2
= 𝜔𝜔 ( 𝑚𝑚1 𝑟𝑟1 2 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟2 2 + ⋯ … … 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 )
2

1
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜔𝜔2
2 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

The moment of inertia of the body about XX1is given by

𝐼𝐼 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2
𝑖𝑖

1 2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − − − − − (2)
2

The above equation represents the kinetic energy of the body.

1.12. MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of inertia of a body about an axis is defined as the summation of the product
of the mass and the square of the perpendicular distance of different particles from the axis
of rotation.

Unit of moment of inertia is Kgm2

Proof:

Consider a rigid body ‘B’ which consists of ‘n’ number of particles located at
different distances from the axis of rotation XX1.

Moment of inertia of the particle 1 is = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑟𝑟1 2

Moment of inertia of the particle 2 is = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟2 2

Moment of inertia of the entire particle is = 𝐼𝐼 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2

1.13. THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA

Based on the orientation of the body and w.r.t rotating axis, moment of inertia is
calculated for various bodies by using the theorems.

• Parallel axis theorem

• Perpendicular axis theorem

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1.14. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM

It states moment of inertia is equal to the sum of moment of inertia w.r.t a parallel
axis passing through the center of mass and the product of mass and square of the
perpendicular distance between the parallel axis.

Proof:

Consider a body of mass ‘M’. ‘G’ is the center of mass. Let XX1is an axis parallel to
‘G’.

‘x’ is the perpendicular distance between AA1 and XX1.

The body consists of ‘n’ number of particles with different masses and different
distances from XX1. Let m1 be the mass of one particle at a distance r1 from XX1.

Moment of inertia of this particle w.r.t XX1 is 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑟𝑟1 2

∴ Moment of inertia of the entire body w.r.t XX1 is 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋1 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2

Similarly, moment of inertia of this particle w.r.t AA1 is 𝑑𝑑𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑚𝑚1 (𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑥𝑥)2

∴ Moment of inertia of the entire body w.r.t AA1 is 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 (𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 + 𝑥𝑥)2

Expanding we get, 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 ( 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥)

𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 + � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 2 + � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 2𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥

But ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1

𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 + � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 2 + � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 2𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥

Also ∑ 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 = 𝑀𝑀 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)

So we get, 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 + 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 2 + ∑ 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 2𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥

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According to the Centre of mass for a rigid body, ∑ 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 = 0 since 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 can have both
positive and negative values.

Hence the above equation becomes 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 + 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 2

This is the equation for parallel axis theorem.

1.15. PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM

Perpendicular axis theorem states that the moment of inertia of a thin plane body w.r.t
the perpendicular axis is equal to the sum of moment of inertia of a thin plane w.r.t two
perpendicular axes lying in the surface of the plane and these three perpendicular axes meet
at a common point.

Proof:

Consider a thin plane body of mass ‘M’.

Let the three perpendicular axes XX1, YY1, and ZZ1 passes through the point ‘O’.

Let YY1 and ZZ1 lies in the surface of the thin plane and XX1 is perpendicular to the
plane surface.

Let 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 be the mass of one particle located at a distance 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 from the point ‘O’.

Moment of inertia of the thin plane w.r.t XX1 axis is 𝑑𝑑𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 − − − − − (1)

Moment of inertia of the entire body w.r.t XX1 is 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 − − − − − (2)

From figure, we can write 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 = 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 2 + 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 2 − − − − − (3)

Substituting (3) in (2), we get

𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 (𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 2 + 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 2 )

𝑖𝑖

𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 2 + � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 2 − − − − − (4)

𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

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Similarly we know Moment of inertia of the thin plane w.r.t YY1 is 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦1 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 2

And Moment of inertia of the thin plane w.r.t ZZ1 is 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 1 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖 2

⸫ equation (4) becomes 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 1 = 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 1

The above equation represents the equation for perpendicular axis theorem.

1.16. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF CONTINUOUS BODIES

Consider a body containing ‘n’ number of particles. Let 𝑚𝑚1 , 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝑚𝑚3 … … … … … . 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
be the mass of the particles and the position is 𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 , 𝑟𝑟3 … … … … … . 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 w.r.t the rotation axis,
then moment of inertia of the body

𝐼𝐼 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 − − − − − (1)

𝑖𝑖

The above equation does not hold good for continuous body because a continuous
body has infinite number of small regions.

Therefore, we need to integrate eqn (1)

Let us consider the mass of one such small region as ‘dm’ and its position as ‘r’.

If the elemental mass 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 is very small then eqn (1) will become

𝐼𝐼 = lim � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 2 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟 2

𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 →0
𝑖𝑖

𝐼𝐼 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟 2 − − − − − (2)

The above equation represents the moment of inertia of continuous body.

1.17. MOMENT OF FORCE : Moment of the force is defined as the product of the force
and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force.

M = F ×d

1.18. COUPLE: Two equal and opposite forces acting on the body such that the line of
action of the forces are not in the same straight line.

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1.19. TORQUE: Torque is defined as the moment of the force acting on the body moving in
a rotational motion.

𝜏𝜏 = 𝐹𝐹 × 𝑟𝑟

Where ‘F’ is the force and ‘r’ is the radius of the circular path.

1.20. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A DIATOMIC MOLECULE

Consider a rigid diatomic molecule containing two atoms of masses 𝑚𝑚1 and
𝑚𝑚2 separated by a distance ‘x’.

Let the two atoms be connected by a weightless rod.

‘O’ is the Centre of mass of the system lying between two atoms. Let 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 be the
distances of the two atoms from ‘O’.

We can write, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 − − − − − (1)

Since the system is balanced, we can write, 𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥2 − − − − − (2)

From (1) 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 − − − − − (3)

Substituting (3) in (2) we get

𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑚𝑚2 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥1

(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥

𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥1 = − − − − − (4)
(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )

From (1) 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥2 − − − − − (5)

Substituting (5) in (2) we get

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𝑚𝑚1 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥2 ) = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥2

𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥2

(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥

𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥2 = − − − − − (6)
(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )

Moment of inertia of the diatomic molecule w.r.t the axis passing through the center of mass

𝐼𝐼 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥1 2 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥2 2 − − − − − (7)

Substituting (4) and (6) in (7) we get

𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥 2
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑚𝑚1 � � + 𝑚𝑚2 � �
(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 ) (𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )

𝑥𝑥 2
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 (𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑚2 )
(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )2 1 2 1

𝑥𝑥 2
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 ) 1 2

𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑥𝑥 2
(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )

𝐼𝐼 = 𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2

𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝜇 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.
(𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 )
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼 = 𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.

1.21. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

The dynamics of rigid body is the study of effect of external force and couples and its
variation with respect to the rigid bodies.

If the object has no resistivity and force is acting through the centre of gravity the
object continues its translational motion.

If the object is fixed at a one point (pivot) and force is not passing through the pivot,
then the movement is rotational.
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Consider a circular object with radius ‘r’ and two equal and opposite forces acting
tangentially with respect to pivot. If forms a couple.

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇, = 𝜏𝜏 𝜃𝜃

If ‘L’ is the angular momentum then Torque can be written as

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜏𝜏 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1.22. CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We know, Torque 𝜏𝜏 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

If net Torque, 𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 0 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Where, L = Iω it is a constant

The above equation is known as law of conservation of angular momentum. It shows

that the angular momentum of the rigid body is constant at any time ‘t’.

1.23. ROTATIONAL ENERGY STATE OF A RIGID DIATOMIC MOLECULE

Consider a rigid diatomic molecule having two atoms of masses 𝑚𝑚1 and 𝑚𝑚2
connected by a weightless rod.

This molecule rotates with angular velocity ‘ω’ with respect to an axis through centre of
mass ‘O’.

We know Kinetic energy of rotating diatomic molecule

1 2
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼𝜔𝜔 − − − − − (1)
2

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

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𝐿𝐿
𝜔𝜔 = − − − − − (2)
𝐼𝐼

Substituting (2) in (1) we get

1 𝐿𝐿 2
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼 � �
2 𝐼𝐼

1 𝐿𝐿2
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼
2 𝐼𝐼 2

1 𝐿𝐿2
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 =
2 𝐼𝐼

𝐿𝐿2
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 = − − − − − (3)
2𝐼𝐼

We know moment of inertia of rotating diatomic molecule

𝐼𝐼 = 𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2 − − − − − (4)

Substituting (4) in (3) we get

𝐿𝐿2
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 = − − − − − (5)
2𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2

Equation (5) represents the classical equation for kinetic energy of a rigid diatomic
molecule.

But according to quantum mechanics, energy values are discrete.

Based on quantum theory, angular momentum, L = �J(J + 1) ħ − − − − − (6)

Where, J is the total angular momentum quantum number, J = 0,1,2,3, …

Substituting (6) in (5) we get

2
��J(J + 1) ħ�
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 (𝐸𝐸𝐽𝐽 ) =
2𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2

J(J + 1) ħ2
𝐸𝐸𝐽𝐽 = − − − − − (7)
2𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2

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Equation (7) represents the rotational kinetic energy of rigid diatomic molecule.

Special Cases

(𝑖𝑖) 𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐽𝐽 = 0; 𝐸𝐸0 = 0

2ħ2
(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐽𝐽 = 1; 𝐸𝐸1 =
2𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2

ħ2
𝐸𝐸1 = 2
𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥

2 × 3 ħ2
(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐽𝐽 = 2; 𝐸𝐸2 =
2𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2

3ħ2
𝐸𝐸2 =
𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2

𝐸𝐸2 = 3𝐸𝐸1

3 × 4 ħ2
(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐽𝐽 = 3; 𝐸𝐸3 =
2𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2

6ħ2
𝐸𝐸3 = 2
𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥

𝐸𝐸3 = 6𝐸𝐸1

J(J + 1)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝐸𝐸𝐽𝐽 = 𝐸𝐸1
2

From the above results, we can confirm that rotational kinetic energy of rigid diatomic
molecule is quantized and discrete.

1.24. GYROSCOPE

Gyroscope is a device consisting of a wheel or disc that spins rapidly about an axis
that is also free to change direction.

Principle

The working principle of a gyroscope is based on conservation of angular momentum.

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Properties

Gyroscope has two properties:

1. Rigidity: The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro wheel tends remain in a fixed
direction in space if no force is applied to it.

2. Precession: The axis of rotation has a tendency to turn at a right angle to the direction of
an applied force.

Design:

1. Gyroscope consists of a massive rotor that is fixed on the supporting rings known as
gimbals.

2. Central rotor is isolated from external torques with the help of frictionless bearings present
in the gimbals

3. The spin axis is defined by the axle of the spinning wheel.

4. The rotor has exceptional stability at high speeds as it maintains the high-speed rotation
axis at the central rotor. The rotor has three degrees of freedom.

Working:

1. The gyroscope is normally mounted so that the gimbals support the weight of the
gyroscope, but cause no torques about its centre of mass.

2. If the axle is initially pointing in a fixed direction, the angular momentum of the
gyroscope points along the axle.

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3. Because of gyroscope experiences no external torque, its angular momentum is conserved

and the axle maintains its initial orientation.

4. When a gyroscope is subjected to a torque that tends to alter the direction of its axis, the
gyroscope turns about an axis at right angles both to the axis about which the torque was
applied and to its main axis of spin. This is a consequence of the need to conserve angular
momentum.

5. In this situation, the gyroscope undergoes a characteristic type of motion called

precession, in which the axis of rotation swings around as if on the surface of a cone.

Applications:

1. They are used as compasses in boats, aero planes, aircrafts etc.,

2. Gyroscope is used in spacecraft in order to navigate the spacecraft to the desired target.

3. It is used to stabilize the ships, satellites, ballistic missiles, etc.,

4. Gyroscope are used in gyrotheodolites for maintaining the direction in tunnel mining.

5. In recent days, gyroscopes along with accelerometers are used in smart phones for
providing excellent motion sensing.

1.25. TORSION PENDULUM

When a body is fixed at one end and twisted at the other end by a torque, the body is
under torsion. The torsion involves shearing strain and the modulus involved is called rigidity
modulus.

Principle: When a disc is rotated in a horizontal plane, the disc executes simple harmonic
oscillation due to restoring couple produced in the wire.

A torsion pendulum consists of a wire with one end fixed to a split chuck and the
other end fixed to the center of a circular disc of radius ‘R’.

Let ‘L’→ distance between the chuck and the disc

‘r’ → radius of the wire

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Working:

The disc is rotated in the horizontal plane. Now the wire is twisted through an angle
‘θ’. If the disc is released, the disc will produce torsional oscillations.

The couple acting on the disc produces angular acceleration which is proportional to
the angular displacement.

From the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of the system is conserved.

Total energy = potential energy + kinetic energy = constant …………….(1)

𝜃𝜃
Potential energy = ∫0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝜃𝜃

= � 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0

𝐶𝐶𝜃𝜃 2
𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝐸 =
2
Where ‘C’ is the couple.
𝐼𝐼𝜔𝜔2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
2
𝐶𝐶𝜃𝜃 2 𝐼𝐼𝜔𝜔2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = + − − − − − (2)
2 2
Differentiate the above equation w.r.t time

𝐶𝐶2𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐼𝐼2𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

+ =0
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =0 − − − − − (3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We know

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝜔𝜔 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
So equation (3) becomes
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𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝜃𝜃

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐼 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝜃𝜃
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 �𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐼 2 � = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
≠0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝜃𝜃
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐼 �=0
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2

𝑑𝑑2 𝜃𝜃
𝐼𝐼 = −𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃 −𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
= − − − − − (4)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 𝐼𝐼
The negative sign indicates that the couple tends to decrease the twist.

Period of oscillation:

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
Time period of oscillation T = 2𝜋𝜋�
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Substituting the values of displacement and acceleration, we get

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋�
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝐼𝐼
𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋� − − − − − (5)
𝐶𝐶

Frequency of oscillation

1
𝑓𝑓 =
𝑇𝑇
Substituting the value of T we get,

1 𝐶𝐶
𝑓𝑓 = � − − − − − (6)
2𝜋𝜋 𝐼𝐼

The rigidity modulus of the wire:

If ‘r’ is the radius of the wire and ‘L’ is the length of the wire, then
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Torque per unit twist

𝑛𝑛𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 4
𝐶𝐶 = − − − − − (7)
2𝐿𝐿
Taking the time period of oscillation

𝐼𝐼
𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋�
𝐶𝐶

Squaring the above equation, we get

𝐼𝐼
𝑇𝑇 2 = 4𝜋𝜋 2
𝐶𝐶
Substituting the value of ‘C’ from (7) we get,

𝐼𝐼2𝐿𝐿
𝑇𝑇 2 = 4𝜋𝜋 2
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟 4
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇 2 =
𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟 4
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
𝑇𝑇 2 𝑟𝑟 4
The above equation gives the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire.

1.26. DOUBLE PENDULUM

Double pendulum consists of two pendulums. One pendulum is attached to the end of
second pendulum.

Let us consider a double pendulum suspended at the

point ‘O’ which consists of P1 of mass m1 and P2

of mass m2.

Let l1 be the length of the first pendulum P1

and l2 be the length of the second pendulum P2

When the double pendulum is made to oscillate, both P1and P2will oscillate at an angle θ1 and
θ2 respectively.
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To find the displacement:

Let x1(OA) and x2 (OB) be the displacements of P1and P2respectively along the X-
axis.

Let y1(OC) and y2 (OD) be the displacements of P1and P2respectively along the
negative Y-axis.

From fig we can write,

x1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 =
𝑙𝑙1

x1 = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 − − − − − (1)

y1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 = −
𝑙𝑙1

y1 = −𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 − − − − − (2)

From fig, we can write

x2 = x1 + x1 − − − − − (3)

x1
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2 =
𝑙𝑙2

x1 = 𝑙𝑙2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2 − − − − − (4)

Substituting (8) and (11) in (10) we get

x2 = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2 − − − − − (5)

From fig, we can also write

y2 = y1 + y1 − − − − − (6)

y1
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 = −
𝑙𝑙2

y1 = −𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 − − − − − (7)

Substituting (9) and (14) in (13) we get

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y2 = −𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 − 𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 − − − − − (8)

Expressions (1), (2), (5) and (8) represents the displacements of the double pendulum at
various positions.

To find the velocity:

Differentiate (1) w.r.t. time, we get

𝑑𝑑x1 𝑑𝑑θ1
v𝑥𝑥1 = = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

v𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ − − − − − (9)

Differentiate (2) w.r.t. time, we get

𝑑𝑑y1 𝑑𝑑θ1
v𝑦𝑦1 = = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

v𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ − − − − − (10)

Differentiate (5) w.r.t. time, we get

𝑑𝑑x2 𝑑𝑑θ1 𝑑𝑑θ2

v𝑥𝑥2 = = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

v𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃2̇ − − − − − (11)

Differentiate (8) w.r.t. time, we get

𝑑𝑑y2 𝑑𝑑θ1 𝑑𝑑θ2

v𝑦𝑦2 = = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

v𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃2̇ − − − − − (12)

Expressions (9), (10), (11) and (12) represents the velocity of the double pendulum at various
positions.

To find the Kinetic energy:

Kinetic energy of the system is given as

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2
1 2 2
𝑇𝑇 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 �𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 �
2
𝑖𝑖=1

1 2 2
1 2 2
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑚𝑚1 �𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦1 � + 𝑚𝑚2 �𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦2 �
2 2

Substituting the values ofv𝑥𝑥1 , v𝑦𝑦1 , v𝑥𝑥2 and v𝑦𝑦2 we get,

1 2
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑚𝑚1 ��𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ � + (𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ )2 �
2
1
+ 𝑚𝑚2 �(𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃2̇ )2
2
+ (𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃2̇ )2 � − − − − − (13)

The above equation represents the kinetic energy of the system.

To find the Potential energy:

Potential energy of the system is given as

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔1 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔2 𝑦𝑦2

Substituting the values if 𝑦𝑦1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦2 , we get

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔1 (−𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔2 (−𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 − 𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 )

𝑉𝑉 = −𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔1 𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔2 𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔2 𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 − − − − − (14)

The above equation represents the potential energy of the system

Lagrangian equation:

Lagrangian equation is given as L = T- V

Substituting the values of T and V from (13) and (14) we get

1 2
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚1 ��𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ � + (𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ )2 �
2
1
+ 𝑚𝑚2 �(𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃2̇ )2 + (𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1̇ + 𝑙𝑙2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃2̇ )2 �
2
+ 𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔1 𝑙𝑙1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔2 𝑙𝑙1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔2 𝑙𝑙2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2

UNIT – 1 MECHANICS Page 25

 PH3151 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

The above expression represents the Lagrangian equation of the double pendulum.

1.27. INTRODUCTION TO NON-LINEAR OSCILLATIONS

Linear Oscillations:

A linear oscillator will oscillate with single frequency in ‘to’ and ‘fro’ motion. Its
motion will be sinusoidal and periodic.

Example: Oscillation of pendulum in a watch or clock.

Non Linear Oscillations:

A non linear oscillator will oscillate with different frequencies in the same time
interval.

Examples:

1. Torsion pendulum
2. Double pendulum
3. Damped oscillator

Characteristics of Non Linear Oscillations:

1. Period of oscillations depend on amplitude.

2. Frequency will change with amplitude.

3. Non linear oscillations have multiple steady state.

4. Non linear oscillator will have jumping phenomena.

5. They have irregular motion.

6. Different part of the system will oscillate at different frequencies.

UNIT – 1 MECHANICS Page 26