NOTES

ON

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
 UNIT -1

INTRODUCTION

The only planet that has been shown to support life is earth. Despite the size of the planet, only a
relatively small area known as the biosphere is home to live in. The sole energy source that permits
ongoing interaction between various life forms is the sun. Being the first unit in the course, this one
emphasizes the word & quot; environment & quot; as a whole. In a broad sense, the term
environment refers to anything that an organism encounters outside of itself and has an impact on it.
An ecosystem is a system of interdependent interactions that are created by the activity and
interaction of physical and living components. The idea of sustainable development was created to
describe how people and the environment may coexist in harmony. Humans have thought of the
world and its ecosystem as practically limitless resources for ages, but small, slow changes have
drastically changed our environment. The human population with in the changing environment has
received special attention over time, especially since the industrial revolution. This lesson should
help you comprehend the ecosystem and all of its different parts better. With the help of this unit,
you will be able to manage our environment and preserve its health for future generations. Concept
of Environment Every single living thing has a particular environment or medium with which it
constantly

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environment’ which means to
‘encircle or surround’.

Definition:-Environment literally means the surrounding in which we are living.

Environment includes all those things on which we are directly or indirectly dependent for our
survival, whether it is a living components like animals, plants or non-living component like soil,
air water.
Environmental Protection Act (1986) defined “Environment as the sum total of water, air and
land, their interrelationship among themselves and with the human beings, other living beings
and property.”
Segments of environment
1. Atmosphere- The Atmosphere is the Protective blanket of gases surrounding the earth. It
sustains life on the earth and saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
2. Hydrosphere- The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes,
rivers, streams, reservoir, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water
3. Lithosphere- Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It Contains various types of
soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Biosphere composed of all living organisms and their interactions with
the environment.
2
 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of areas and aspects, which may be
summarized as follows:

1.Natural resources- their conservation and management

2.Ecology and Biodiversity
3.Environmental pollution and control
4.Human population and environment
5. social issues in relation to development and environment

These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance to every section of
society. Several career options have emerged in these fields that are broadly categorized as:

(i) Research and development in environment: Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in
examining various environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for developing cleaner
technologies and promoting sustainable development.

(ii) Green advocacy: With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws related to environment, need for
environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to plead the cases related to water, air, forest, wildlife, pollution
and control etc.

(iii) Green marketing: While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing emphasis on
marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have ecomark or ISO 14000 certification. Environmental
auditors and environmental managers would be in great demand in the coming years.

(iv) Green media: Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like television, radio,
newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which environmentally educated persons are required.

(v) Environmental consultancy: Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are engaging
environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling environment related problems.

Resource Awareness
Environmental studies foster awareness about both renewable and nonrenewable resources in a
particular region. This involves assessing the available resources, their utilisation patterns and the
need to maintain a balance for future generations. Protection of the atmosphere protection of land
resources conservation of biological diversity prevention of illegal traffic in toxic products and wastes.

Ecological Understanding
It imparts knowledge about ecological systems and the cause-and-effect relationships within them.

Biodiversity Awareness
Environmental studies provide essential information about the richness of biodiversity and the
potential threats to plant, animal and microbial species in the environment.

Disaster Preparedness
This field helps individuals understand the causes and consequences of natural and human-induced
disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, landslides, cyclones and various types of pollution. It also
explores measures to minimise their effects.

Decision-Making
Environmental studies equip individuals with the ability to evaluate alternative responses to
environmental issues before deciding on a course of action.
3
 Environmental Literacy
It enables individuals to become environmentally literate citizens by providing knowledge of
environmental laws, rights, rules and regulations. This knowledge empowers them to make informed
judgments and decisions for the protection and improvement of the Earth.

Social Issues
Environmental studies shed light on societal problems like overpopulation, public health and hygiene.
It also emphasises the role of arts, science and technology in addressing these challenges.

Eco-Friendly Technologies
The field identifies and promotes the development of appropriate, indigenous and eco-friendly skills
and technologies to address various environmental issues.

Sustainable Resource Use

It educates citizens about the importance of sustainable resource utilisation, emphasising that these
resources are inherited from our ancestors and must be passed on to future generations without
compromising their quality.

Practical Application
Environmental studies bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application,
demonstrating the multiple uses and benefits of a well-managed environment.

Importance of environmental studies

Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities.
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation
of our natural resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment etc.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:

1. Environment Issues are being global: It has been well recognized that environment
issues like global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and loss of
biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence require
international efforts to solve them.

2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development: Development, in its wake gave birth
to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing
etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed world.

3. Explosively Increase in Pollution: World census reflects that one in every seven
persons in this plant lives in India. Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population
and only
2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including
land.

4. Need for An Alternative Solution: It is essential, specially for developing countries to

find alternative paths to an alternative goal. (1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal
of development an environmentally sound and sustainable development. (2) A goal
common to all citizens of our earth.

4
 5. Need For Wise Planning of Development: Our survival and sustenance depend.
Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product have all to be synchronized with
the ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our actions should be planned
ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.

Need for public awareness

Need for Public Awareness – Concept, Structure

Concept
• Human activities are degrading the environment, so action must be taken to protect it. We often believe that the
government should act appropriately. However, it is our collective responsibility to protect the environment.

• Structure
• The resources of the environment have come under stress as a result of population growth, urbanization, and
poverty.
• Laws cannot stop environmental pollution on their own. Public involvement in environmental protection is
equally important.
• Ecosystems in forests, rural, urban, and marine settings are seriously threatened by climate change, biodiversity
loss, declining fisheries, ozone layer destruction.

5
 ECO SYSTEMS
Ecosystems
In 1935, the British ecologist A.G.Tansley coined the term “eco system”.
 The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological sphere(or)
place of living while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner.
 A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem. (OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is called as
“ecosystem”. Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. etc are some of the
examples of the ecosystems.
Classification of ecosystem:
The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem 2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM: A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.

These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major interference
by man. The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.

1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem. Forest ecosystem, and Desert ecosystem etc.

2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types based on salt
content.

i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:

a. Running Water Ecosystems Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>

2. Man made (or) artificial ecosystem:

An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs. Examples: Reservoirs,
Artificial lakes and gardens, etc

Structure (or) components of an ecosystem:

The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an ecosystem
explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living)
components.
Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components. 2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.
Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic component”.
Examples: Plants (Producers), Animals (Consumers) and Micro Organisms (Decomposers)
The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how they get
their food.

6
 A. Producers (or) Autotrophs: The sun which is the primary source of energy, gives energy to
the plants to produce food through photosynthesis. Plants use the light, carbon dioxide, water
and the green pigment chlorophyll in their leaves to produce sugars and oxygen. These plants
that produce food through photosynthesis are called producers. They are autotrophic organisms
because they manufacture their own food. Producers are called energy transducers.

B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own
food and depend directly (or) indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc. Animals Eating
Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

Herbivores:
Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores. They directly depend on the plants for their
food. So, they are called Plant eaters. Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.

Carnivores:
Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores. They directly depend on the herbivores
for their food. Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.

Omnivores:
Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores. They depend on both
herbivores and carnivores for their food. Examples: humans, Bears, pigs, crows…etc

Detritivores:
Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores. Examples: beetles,
termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.

C.Decomposers (or) Saprotrophs:

Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them into simple
compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
The organisms which break down complex compounds into simple products are called
decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.

Abiotic Components:
The non-living component of an ecosystem is called the “abiotic component”.
These non-living components enter the body of a living organisms, take part in metabolic
activities and then return to the environment. The abiotic component of the ecosystems divided
into three portions.
1. Climate factors: Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current, rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

7
 Function of an ecosystem:
The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of energy.
Typesof functions:
Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system. Examples: All green plants
and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own food. They
are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called secondary function of eco
system.

3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and producers and
decompose them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are
released. Examples: Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi, etc
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms:
A.Food chains B. Food webs C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids D. Energy and
material flow.

What is Energy Flow of Ecosystem?

Energy flow in an ecosystem is defined as the movement or transfer of energy from one trophic level to
another in an ecosystem. The energy that is passed is in the form of chemical energy.
Significance of Energy Flow in Ecosystem
Following are some of the significance of Energy Flow in an Ecosystem;
1. It is vital for all living thing sin ecosystem to survive and function properly.
2. It helps us to understand who eats whom in nature.
3. More the diversity of organisms more stable the ecosystem is.
4. It shows how all creatures in an ecosystem depend on each other and how changes can affect each
other.
5. It helps us to see how human action are affecting the ecosystem.
6. Understanding the flow of energy in an ecosystem helps us to devise proper conservation
techniques to save the ecosystem.

Food Chain: Energy Flow of Ecosystem Diagram

• Anything which we eat to live is called food.
• Food contains energy.
• Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
• The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of organisms is
called as “food chain”.

8
 A
food chain is a picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from autotrophs (producers)
to series of organisms in an environment, as shown in the following figure.
Infect, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for plants. The
producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of the sunlight, chlorophyll,
water and air. The consumers, including animals and humans, cannot make their own food.
They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. Decomposers are the micro-
organisms that break down the dead animals and plants and release nutrients that become
partof the soil, which are re-used by new plants, back to the starting point of the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are: 1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains. 3. Parasitic food chains.

1. Grazing food chains:

Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to decomposer food chain
(or) detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores. It has two types : a. Terrestrial
food chain and b. Aquatic food chain
a.Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain. Example:
Grassland food chain , Forest land food chain , Desert land food chain

Grass land food chain

Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles
Forest food chain
Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion
aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial food chain. It is seen
in aquatic(water) eco system. Food chain in water is called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish large fish Man Marine Food
chain:
Sea Weeds Small fish large fish Sharks and other animals
1. Detritus’ food chain:
Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter (plants and animals) and goes to
decomposer through consumers. Detritus food chains, independent of solar energy,
but they depend on influx of dead organic matter.
Example: Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish Large fish
2. Parasitic food chain:
Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this food In this food chain
either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to smaller
9
 organisms.A parasitic food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’ links.
Example : Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi
Food Web
• Web means “network” . So, food web is a network of food chains.
• In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of organisms
are connected at different tropic levels.
• So, food web is the natural interconnection of food chains and a
graphical representation of what-eats-what in an ecological
community.
• Another name for food web is consumer-resource system.
This food web shows many linear food chains . These linear food chains are inter

connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a food web.
The grazing food chains are as follows:

10
 Ecological Pyramids
• The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles
Elton in1927.
• An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between the
different living organisms at different trophic levels.
• An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

•
On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow inorganist
population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers. 2. Pyramid of biomass 3. Pyramid of energy.
1. Pyramid of numbers
• It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
• It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
• Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramids of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.

The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic level to highertropic level is
called “upright pyramid of numbers”.
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid ofnumbers . The producers
in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and large in numbers.So, producers occupy lower tropic
level (1s t tropic level). The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic level. Since
the numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses, the size of which is lower. The secondary
consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupythe III tropic level. Since the numbers of snakes are lower
when compared to the rats, the size of which is lower. The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which
occupy the IV tropic level. The number and size of the last tropic level is lowest .

11
 b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.

A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.

In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number. So, these producers occupy
the lower tropic level which is narrow base. The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects,
which occupy the II tropic level. Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher when
compared to the trees, the size of which is broader. The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox,
snakes, lizards, which occupy the third tropic level. Since the number of foxes, snakes are lower
when compared to the birds, insects the size of which is lower. The tertiary consumers (omnivores)
are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV tropic level. Since the number of lions, tiger is lower when
compared to the fox and snakes the size of which is very (or) narrow lower. So, the pyramid is
narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and hence it is called partially upright of number as

shown in figure.

c. Inverted pyramid of numbers

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher tropic
level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”. Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted
pyramid of number as shown in the following figure.

12
 2. Pyramid of Biomass:
It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological material (or)
organism)present in each tropic level. · It is expressed in gram per unit area.
Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramids of biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass
• A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
• In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer levels (as
shown in figure)

ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass

The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer level are called as Inverted
pyramid of biomass. Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.

13
 3. Pyramid of Energy:
It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level. It is expressed in calories per
unit area per year.
 In an eco-system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level.
 At each successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the
form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the
energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and every
producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is
always upright as shown in figure.

What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with each other
and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions between organisms
and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Forest ecosystem
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals.
Characteristic features of forest ecosystems:

14
 1. Seasonality: In countries that have seasonal climates, forest ecosystems will change with the
seasons.
2. Deciduous or evergreen: A forest may be deciduous (i.e., it sheds its leaves in winter) or
evergreen(i.e., its leaves stay green and intact all the time), or it may be a mix of both deciduous and
evergreen trees.
3. Different levels: Some forest ecosystems such as rain forests, feature several distinct levels –
such as the forest floor, the lower canopy, the upper canopy and the tree tops.
4. Attractive to birds: Many bird species nest in tree tops and this makes forest ecosystems
attractive to birds.
5. Attractive to insects: Many insects live in tree bark, leaf mulch or flowers and as such they find
forest ecosystems very attractive places to make their homes.

Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc .

Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals

Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc. Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary –lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria
Types of forest ecosystem:
• The forest type depends upon the abiotic factors such as climate and soil characteristics
of region.
• Forests in India can be broadly divided into 2 types.1.Coniferous forests
2.Broadleaved forests
1. Coniferous Forests
• Grow in the Himalayan Mountain region
• Temperature is low.
• Have tall trees with needle-like leaves and downward sloping branches so that the snow
can slip off the branches.
• Have cones instead of seeds and are called gymnosperms.
2. Broadleaved forests.
• Broadleaved forests have several types, such as :evergreen forests, deciduous forests,
thorn forests, and mangrove forests. Broadleaved forests have large leaves of various
shapes.Evergreen Forests
• grow in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, North Eastern and the Andaman
and Nicobar islands.
• monsoon lasts for several months.
• Shed a few of their leaves throughout the year.
• No leafless phase.
• Only shade loving trees can grow in the ground layers as canopy overlap.
• Forest is rich in orchids and ferns abounds in animal life and is most rich in insect life.
Deciduous Forests
• are found in regions with a balanced amount of seasonal rainfall.
• lasts for only few months.
• most of the forests in which Teak grow are of this type.
• trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot summer months and regain their fresh
leaves just before the monsoon.
• Light can penetrate easily onto the forests floor.
Thorn Forests
• are found in the semi- arid regions.
• Trees are scattered and are surrounded by open grassy areas.
• can conserve water.
• Have long and fibrous roots to reach water at great depths.
• reduce loss of water
• some species have small leaves and some have thick waxy leaves. Have thorns –
15
protectplants from herbivores

16
 Mangrove Forests
• grow along the coast especially in the river deltas.
• are able to grow in a mix and saline and fresh water, in muddy areas.
• have breathing roots. Prevents soil erosion.
What is the Aquatic Ecosystem?
• In contrast to terrestrial ecosystems, which are established on land, an aquatic
environment is one that forms around a body of water.
• Aquatic ecosystems feature populations of creatures that are mutually and environmentally
reliant.
• Marine and freshwater ecosystems are the two primary types of aquatic ecosystems.
• Freshwater environments can be lentic (including pools, ponds, and lakes), lotic
(including streams and rivers), or wetland (areas where the soil is saturated or inundated
for at least part of the time).
Pond ecosystem
• Pond Ecosystem refers to fresh water ecosystem on which different organisms depend for
their survival and to fulfill their nutritional needs as well.
• The ponds are the water bodies which are usually of 12-15 feet deep in which the sun rays
can reach which results into growing of plants down there.
• pond ecosystem falls under the Lentic ecosystem for the reason that the water
remains stagnant in ponds for a relatively longer period time.
Structure:
There are two main components:
(A) Abiotic component:
Abiotic component of pond consists of water, dissolved minerals, oxygen and carbon
dioxide. Solar radiations are the main source of energy.
(B) Biotic component:
It includes the following:
Producers-Phytoplankton.

These are small, usually single-celled, photosynthetic organisms, also known as algae.
Primary Consumers-Zooplankton
These are other small organisms that live in pond , these are members of the animal kingdom that
are suspended in the water column. Examples - water fleas, tadpoles. They consume phytoplankton
Secondary Consumers-Larger invertebrates
Snails, worms, leeches insects consume these smaller animals.
Tertiary Consumers-Vertebrates
Vertebrates are animals with backbones. In a pond these might include fish, frogs,salamanders,
and turtles.
Characteristics
1. Still waters: pond ecosystems are lentic ecosystems – i.e., they involve stagnant or standing water.
2. Surrounded by banks: pond ecosystems are surrounded by either artificial or natural banks.
3. Wet: these ecosystems are wet and humid ones.
4. Different levels: distinct communities of creatures will live at different levels of a pond.
Crustaceans and deep-water fish may live at the lower level, for example, whilst birds and blooming
plants may live towards the surface.
5. Variable in size: some pond ecosystems can be very small (such as a rockpool) while others
can be almost as large as a lake.
Types of pond ecosystem
Ponds can come in many different forms, and they all have their own
differentiating characteristics.
1. Salt ponds.
Salt ponds contain brackish (i.e., salty) water and can occur close to the sea side where

17
 waterlogged ground creates natural pools. Salt ponds can also occur in rocky areas on
the beach, though here they are called rock pools
2. Garden ponds.
These artificially created ponds can contain ornamental plant and animal species that
come from all over the world .
3. Freshwater pools.
Freshwater pools can form anywhere inland, either from rainfall or from the presence of
water saturating the soil. They can also be created by rivers flowing in to a depression
in theground.
4. Vernal pools.
Vernal pools are seasonal ponds. They form in depressions in the ground, but only during
certain types of the year when the rainfall is heaviest. As a result, they will attract certain
types of animals and birds that are in need of a drink whenever they appear and at other
timesof the year will be relatively deserted – one example for instance is a seasonal oasis in
the desert.
5. Underground ponds.
Ponds can also form underground, in the rocky environment of caves. Here, a surprising
amount of life can be found, including fish, different bacteria, lichens and so on.

Lake ecosystem:
These are big fresh water ecosystem.
zones
• Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone
• Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone
• Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone
• Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lakein Nainital
structure
Abiotic factors
Abiotic factors in a lake environment include: sunlight, temperature, water flow, rocks and
oxygen content.
Biotic factors:-
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swim in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached to sediments eg. Snails

18
 Types of lakes :
1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer contamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.
Stream Ecosystem
• A stream is a general term as a small channel of freshwater that contains flowing water.
• Oxygen and nutrient content are uniform.
• They carry sediments, nutrients and other materials into rivers and lakes and on to the ocean.
• they do not suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and lake organisms.
• This is because large surface area of running water provides more oxygen supply.
Structure
Abiotic Factors
• Temperature
• Sunlight levels
• pH level of the water
• Vitamins and minerals in the water
• Water clarity
Biotic Factors
Biotic factors are all of the living things and factors within an ecosystem.
According to the U.S. Geological Survey, there are three key and dominant biotic factors that make
up a stream ecosystem: fish, invertebrate species and algae.
• Biotic Factor: Algae
• Algae is perhaps the most important biotic factor .
• Invertebrate species that are important to freshwater ecosystems like streams
generally include earthworm leeches, water beetles, mayflies, dragonflies, mussels and
more
• Fish Species
• Fish species are another critical biotic factor that make up stream communities. These
fish will eat both the algae and the invertebrate species in the water.
• Other animal species common in streams include crayfish, spiders, frogs, water snakes
and bird species (ducks, kingfishers, etc
Types
1. Perennial streams flow all year long .
2. seasonal streams are only seen at certain times of year, usually in wet season or as a result
of snow or ice melting.
3. Continuous streams flow without stopping until they reach an endpoint or another body of
water. 4.Interrupted steams, may have breaks or different reaches depending on seasonality,
barriers another factors.
River ecosystem
Large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers. Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of dissolved oxygen –
plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants and fishes
that require less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought – deposited in plains and
delta
– very rich in biodiversity
Ocean Ecosystem
 Gigantic reservoirs of water covering.
 The oceans cover about 70 percent of the earth’s surface and have an average depth of

19
2.4 miles. The planet has five oceans: Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific, Indian , Antarctic.

20
  huge variety of sea products, drugs etc.
 provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, sand etc
Zones:
Divided in to 3 zones.
 Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
 Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
 Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit
Organisms in ocean: Ocean Plant Life
• Marine plants live in the euphotic zone of the ocean, because they need sunlight to
create food through photosynthesis. These plants include seaweeds, marine algae and sea
grasses.
• Kelp provides food and shelter to ocean animals and is even used by humans in things like
ice-cream and toothpaste.
• Phytoplankton is another important plant found in the ocean. This is the food for
many ocean creatures, from the largest whales to the smallest fish.
Ocean Animals
• The ocean contains a large variety of animal life, including fish, mollusks, dolphins,
seals, walruses, whales, crustaceans, bacteria, sea anemones and many others. Most
marine animals live in the top two ocean zones, where they have access to plants and
other ocean animals to eat.
Estuary Ecosystem
 An estuary is a body of water that forms when freshwater from the land meets and
mixes with saltwater from the ocean.
 Estuaries come in a variety of sizes and are also known as bays, lagoons, harbors, inlets,
sounds, wetlands, and swamps.
 Estuaries are special environments to which plants and animals have evolved.
 Estuaries serve as a transition zone (ecotone) between river and maritime environments.
 Reefs, barrier islands, headlands, and deltas protect estuaries from ocean forces.
 Estuaries transport and trap nutrients and sediment by combining the actions of
freshwater flow, wind, waves, and tidal action.
 Example: Tapi estuaries in Gujarat and Narmada in Maharashtra.
Types
There are four different kinds of estuaries, each created a different way.
1. Coastal plain estuaries:- are created when sea levels rise and fill in an existing river valley.
The Chesapeake Bay, on the East Coast of the United States, is a coastal plain estuary.
2. Tectonic estuaries:-the mixture of seawater and fresh water creates a tectonic estuary. San
Francisco Bay, on the West Coast of the United States, is an excellent example of a tectonic
estuary.
3. Bar-built estuaries:- When a lagoon or bay is protected from the ocean by a sandbar or
barrier island, it is called a bar-built estuary . The Outer Banks, a series of narrow barrier
islands in North Carolina and Virginia, create sandy, bar-built estuaries.
4. Fjord estuaries :- are a type of estuary created by glaciers. Glacier
Bay in Alaska and the Georgia Basin region of Puget Sound in Washington State are good
examples of fjords
Ecological succession
• “Ecological succession is a series of changes that occur in an ecological community over
time.”
• It is the steady and gradual change in a species of a given area with respect to the changing
environment.

21
1. Primary Succession
• Primary succession is the succession When plants and animals settle for the first time in an
area where there was previously no life. Usually occurs where there was previously no soil
• When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only made up of
rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form soil. The soil
then becomes the foundation of plant life. These plants help in the survival of different
animals and progress from primary succession to the climax community.
• If this primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place.

2. Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed.
For e.g., a climax community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the destruction.
This is known as secondary ecological succession. Small plants emerge first, followed by
larger plants. The tall trees block the sunlight and change the structure of the organisms
below the canopy. Finally, the climax community arrives

22
 BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for ―biological diversity (bio-life or living organisms ,
diversity- variety). Thus, biodiversity is the total variety of life on our planet, the total
number of races, varieties and species. The sum of total of various types of microbes, plants
and animals (producers, consumers and decomposers) in a system. It is the most complex and
important feature of our planet. Without biodiversity, life would not sustain.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are

1. Ecosystem diversity 2. Species diversity 3. Genetic diversity

Ecosystem diversity
 A set of biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) and abiotic components
(soil, air, water, etc) interacting with each other is known as an ecosystem.
 Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species
living together and connected by food chains and food webs.
 It is the diversity observed among the different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in
different ecosystems like deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., include ecological diversity.
Species diversity:
 A discrete group of organisms of the same kind is known as species.
 Species diversity is the diversity between different species.
 Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular
area. It is the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from
plants to different microorganism.
 No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar. For example, humans show a
lot of diversity among themselves.
Genetic diversity:
 A species with different genetic characteristics is known as a sub-species or "genera".
 Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene within individual
species.
 Within individual species, there are varieties, that are slightly different from one other.
These differences are due to differences in the combination of genes.
 Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to the
other.
Ex: (i) Rice varieties - All rice varieties belong to the species "oryzasativa". However,
there are thousands of rice varieties that show variation at the genetic level in the form
of different size, shape, colour and nutrient content. (ii) Teak wood varieties: The
various teak wood varieties available are - Indian teak, Burma teak, Malaysian teak
etc.
Bio-geographical classification of India
India has different climate and topography in different parts and hence is termed as a
mega diversity country. India occupies 10th place among plant rich countries of the
world.
It is essential to acquire knowledge about the distribution and environmental
interaction of flora and fauna of India. Bio- geographers have classified India into ten
bio-geographic zones with each zone
having characteristic climate, soil and biodiversity.

These zones are described below:

1. The cold mountainous snow covered Trans Himalayan region of Ladakh.

2
3
 2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam and
otherNorth Eastern States.
3. The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan rivers flow into the plains.
4. The Gangetic and Bhramaputra plains.
5. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan.
6. The semi arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
7. The Northeast States of India,
8. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
10. The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests and mangroves.
Functions of biodiversity: Two main functions of biodiversity are 1. It is the source on which the
entire human species depends on for food, fibre, shelter, fuel and medicine. 2. It depends on
biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, air and overall health of biosphere.
Value of biodiversity
Consumptive use value:
 The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature's products that are consumed
directly, without passing through a market. Some of them are firewood, food, and game
meat.
 High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems:
 Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries
 Loss of traditional controls on hunting and Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.
 Consumptive use value benefits the communities closest to the resource if harvested
sustainably and managed efficiently.
Productive use value:
 Productive use value refers to products that are commercially harvested (sold in a market).
 Its value is estimated at the production end rather than retail end by adding an inflated cost
to the finished product.
 Productive use value is often the only value of biological resource reflected in national
income accounts and may have a major impact on the national economy.
 Timber, fish, honey, construction materials, mushrooms, fruits, medicinal plants and game
meat sold in a market have productive use value.
Social value:
The loss of biodiversity directly influences the social life of the country possibly through
influencing ecosystem functions (energy flow and biogeochemical cycle). This be easily
understood by observing detrimental effects of global warming and acid rain which cause an
unfavorable alteration in logical processes.
Aesthetic Values:
Beautiful plants and animals inspire us to protect biodiversity. The most important aesthetic
value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.
Ex: 1. People from distant places spend time and money to visit areas where they can enjoyaesthetic
value of biodiversity. This is called eco-tourism.
2. Thepleasant music of wild birds, beautifully colored butterflies, color of peacocks
and colour of flowers are very important for their aesthetic value.

2
4
Optional value:
 This refers to the potential of biodiversity that is currently known and needs to be
explored.
 This refers to the idea that there may be several existing species that may prove to be
important in future and their usefulness needs to be studied with reference to a
specific problem currently plaguing the society.
 Ex: 1. The growing biotechnology field is searching for the cure for diseases like
cancer and AIDS.
 Medicinal plants and herbs play a very important role in the economic growth of our
country. peacocks and colour of flowers are very important for their aesthetic value.
Threats to biodiversity
Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem tends to reduce its biodiversity. Waste
generated due to increase in human population and industrialization spoils the
environment and leads to decreased diversity in biological species.
Causes for loss of biodiversity are: 1. Habitat loss 2. Poaching of wildlife and 3.
Man-wildlife conflicts
1. Habitat loss:
The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat loss.
Factors influencing habitat loss are:
a.Deforestation: Loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities.
Forests and grasslands are cleared for conversion into agriculture lands or
settlement areas or b. developmental projects. Forests and grasslands are natural
home to thousands of species which disintegrate due to the loss of their natural
habitat.
Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are destroyed due
to farming, filling and pollution that cause loss of biodiversity
c. Habitat fragmentation: When the habitat is divided into small and scattered patches
the phenomenon is called habitat fragmentation. This leads to the disappearance of
most wildlife
d. Raw material: To produce hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as raw materials leading
to extinction of many wild plant species.
e. Production of drugs: Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for the
production of drugs leading to extinction of several medicinal plant species.
f. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity leading to habitat loss
g. Developmental activities: Construction of dams in forest areas coupled with the
discharge of industrial effluents kills birds and other aquatic life.
2. Poaching of wildlife:
Poaching refers to killing animals or commercial hunting. It contributes to loss
of biodiversity. Poaching can be of two types listed below:
a.Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for survival.

b.commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell their

products. Factors influencing poaching:
Human population: Increased human population in India has led to pressure on forest
resources, leading to degradation of wildlife habitats.
Commercial activities: Although a ban has been imposed internationally on the trade of
products of endangered species, there is a continued smuggling of wildlife products. Since
trading of such products is highly profitable, poachers continue to hunt endangered
animals

2
5
 and smuggle their fur, skin and tusks to other countries. Wildlife products include furs,
horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal products.
3.Man-Wildlife Conflicts:
Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to
man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the forest department officials to convince
the affected villagers to gain the villagers support for wildlife conservation.
Ex: 1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, several people were killed by elephants. In retaliation, the
villagers killed and injured several elephants.
Villagers sometimes hide explosives in their fields to ward-off animals which explode when
the elephants enter the fields.
Several people were killed when leopards attacked them in Sanjay Gandhi National Park,
Mumbai. Factors influencing man-animal conflicts
1. Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest
2. Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict
3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man
4. Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food 5. Villagers set-up electric
wiring around their fields. This injures animals (Elephants) who suffer pain and get
violent.
India as a mega – diversity nation:
Nearly 170 countries in this world and 12 of them contain 70% of the earth’s biodiversity
India is one among the 12 mega biodiversity countries The Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India record 47,000 species of plants, 81,000 species of animals,
Which is about the 7% and 6.5% of global flora and fauna respectively.

Biodiversity at global, national and local levels:

Global Level: Conservative estimates of the existing biodiversity is ten million species, but if
estimates for insects are correct then it could be around 30 million species, we have till now
enlisted about 1.4 million species. It includes among others about 98% birds, 95% reptiles and
amphibians, 90% fish and about 85% higher plants known to exist on this Earth. Most of the
world’s bio-rich nations are in the South, which are the developing nations. In contrast, the
majority of the countries capable of exploiting biodiversity are Northern nations, in the
economically developed world. These nations however have low levels of biodiversity. Thus,
the developed world has come to support the concept that biodiversity must be considered to be
a ‘global resource’.

National and Local Level: Geological events in the landmass of India have provided
conditions for high levels of biological diversity. India has over 108,276 species of bacteria,
fungi, plants and animals already identified and described (Table 4.2). Out of these, 84 percent
species constitute fungi (21.2 percent), flowering plants (13.9 percent), and insect (49.3
percent). In terms of the number of species, the insect alone constitute nearly half of the
biodiversity in India. These species occur on land, fresh and marine waters, or occur as
symbionts in mutualistic or parasitic state with other organisms. In the world as a whole, 16,
04,000 species of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia have been described so far.
However, it is estimated that at least 179, 80,000 species exist in the world, but as a working
figure 122, 50,000 species are considered to be near reality. It is estimated that 18% of Indian
plants are endemic to the country and found nowhere else in the world. Among the plant species
the flowering plants have a much higher degree of endemism, a third of these are not found
elsewhere in the world. Apart from the high biodiversity of Indian wild plants and animals there
2
6
is also a great diversity of cultivated crops and breeds of domestic livestock. This is a result of
several thousand years

2
7
 during which civilizations have grown and flourished in the Indian subcontinent. The
traditional cultivars included 30,000 to 50,000 varieties ofrice and a number of cereals,
vegetables and fruit. The highest diversity of cultivars is concentrated in the high rainfall
areas of the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern
Himalayas and the North- Eastern hills.

Endangered species of India:

When the number of species has been reduced to a critical level Unless it is protected and
conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction. In India the following species are endangered
450 plant species, 100 mammal’s species, 150 bird’s species. India’s biodiversity is threatened
due to habitat destruction, degradation and over exploitation of resources.
Important endangered species:
Reptiles – tortoise, green sea turtle, python, etc. Birds – peacock, Siberian white crane, etc.
Mammals – Indian wolf, tiger, Indian lion, etc. Primates – capped monkey, golden monkey,
etc. Plants – medicinal plants, sandal wood tree, etc.
Factors affecting endangered species: Pollution , Over – exploitation, Climatic changes.

Endemic species:
Species found only in particular region.
In India 47,000 species and 7000 plants are endemic.
62% of our endemic species are found in Himalayas and Western Ghats.
1. Fauna – Animals present in a particular region
i. 81,000 species of animals ii. Western Ghats is rich in 62% amphibians and 50% reptiles
2. Flora – Plants present in a particular region
FACTOR AFFECTING ENDEMIC SPECIES: Habitat loss and fragmentation , Pollution.

Hot spots of biodiversity in India:

1. Eastern Himalayas – Indo Burma region:
 Geographically comprises of Nepal, Bhutan and neighboring state of Northern India
 35,000 plant species of which 30% are endemic
 63% mammals
 60% of the Indian Birds

2. Western Ghats – Sri Lanka:
 Geographically comprises of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
 1500 endemic, dicotyledonous plant species
 62% amphibians and 50% lizards

Conservation of biodiversity:
The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity.
1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped immediately
2. People-at-large should boycott purchasing coats, purse or bags made of animal skin
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.
Types of conservation:
1. In-situ conservation and
2. Ex-situ conservation

2
8
 In-situ conservation:
In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat. Thenatural
habitats or ecosystems under in-situ conservation are called "protected areas". a.Biosphere
reserves b. National parks c. Wildlife sanctuaries d. Gene sanctuaries
Biosphere reserves
They cover large areas (>5000 sq.km.) They are normally used to protect species for a long time.
National parks
It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. It covers an
area ranging from 100 to 500 sq.km. One or more national parks may exist within a biosphere
reserve. A national park is used for enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the
environment.
Wildlife sanctuaries
is an area that is reserved for the conservation of animals only. i. It protects animals only ii. It
allows operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest products, private ownership
rights and forestry operations, provided it does not affect animals adversely.
Gene sanctuaries
It is an area where plants are conserved.
Advantages of in-situ conservation
It is cheap and convenient.
Species get adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.
Disadvantages of in-situ conservation
A large surface area of earth is required to preserve biodiversity Maintenance is not proper due
to shortage of staff and pollution
ex-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats. This
type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild relatives of
crops. Important centers of ex-situ conservation:1.Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens
Advantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention
2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter and security thereby have
a longer life span
Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. It is an expensive method
2. Freedom of wildlife is lost

2
9
Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies
 The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various
branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture,
public health, sanitary engineering etc.
 It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the sources,
reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in the air, water,
soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.
 As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments
like natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is inter
disciplinary in nature including the study of biology, geology, politics, policy studies,
law, religion engineering, chemistry and economics to understand the humanity’s effects
on the natural world.
 This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental issues
and citizens and experts in many fields.
 By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the
interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that
enables them to facilitate the definition and solution of environmental problems.

3
0