PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol.

I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -

Thomas D. McGee

TEMPERATURE: TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTATION

Thomas D. McGee
Iowa State University, Ames, USA

Keywords: temperature, temperature measurement, thermometer, resistance

temperature measurement, gas thermometry, thermistors, temperature diodes,
International Temperature Scale, ITS-90, radiant temperature, infrared temperature,
thermocouples, liquid-in-glass thermometry, emissivity, Planck’s law, Wien’s law,
Stefan–Boltzmann law

Contents

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1. Introduction

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1.1. The Importance of Temperature Measurements
1.2. Fundamental Relationships

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1.3. General Philosophy of Temperature Measurement
1.4. Precision and Accuracy
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2. The International Temperature Scale
2.1. History
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2.2. The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
2.2.1. Relationship to Previous Scales
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3. Electrical-Resistance Methods
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Metallic Resistance Thermometry
3.2.1. Introduction
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3.2.2. Resistor Construction

3.2.3. Thick-Film Sensing Elements
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3.2.4. The Measuring Instrument

3.3. Thermistor and Semiconductor Thermometers
3.3.1. Junction Semiconductors
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4. Radiant Methods of Temperature Measurement

4.1. Introduction to Radiation Theory
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4.1.1. Radiant Energy Emission

4.1.2. Spectral Emission
4.1.3. Displacement
4.1.4. Total Radiant Energy Emission
4.1.5. Radiant-Intensity Reduction Factors
4.1.6. Black Body
4.1.7. Emissivity and Emittance
4.1.8. Absorbability and Absorptance
4.1.9. Reflectivity and Reflectance
4.2. Infrared Thermometers
4.3. Visible Wavelength Radiation Thermometers
5. Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement

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PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol. I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -
Thomas D. McGee

5.1. Introduction to Thermocouple Theory

5.1.1. Thermocouples
5.1.2. Thermoelectric Voltage
5.2. Connecting Wires
5.3. The Measuring Instrument
5.3.1. Precision Voltmeters
5.3.2. Analog Millivoltmeters Calibrated to Read Temperature Directly
5.4. Thermocouple Deterioration
6. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometry
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Terminology
6.3. Types of Immersion
6.4. Thermometer Corrections

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7. Calibration Methods
8. Common Errors

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9. Conclusion

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Glossary

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Bibliography
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Biographical Sketch
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Summary
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Accurate measurement of temperature is critical to all measurements in science and

technology. Temperature is based on thermodynamic concepts. Fundamental equations
are used to define temperature. The current International Temperature Scale (ITS-90) is
based on thermodynamic invariant points, instruments for interpolating between fixed
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points, and interpolating equations. Standards laboratories around the world calibrate
many kinds of practical thermometers for use traceable to the ITS-90. These include
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electrical resistance methods, radiant energy methods, thermocouples, and liquid-in-

glass thermometers. The principles of measurement and use are presented here. Brief
discussions of calibration methods and common errors are included.
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1. Introduction
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All of us are already familiar with the concept of temperature based on our own bodies.
The nerve endings below our skin serve as the temperature sensor and identify if we are
hot or cold. The nerves relay the sensing message to our brains, and our brains serve as
the measuring instrument to convert that sensing to temperature. This is the way more
sophisticated instruments work, with a sensor, a relaying method, and an instrument to
convert the sensor signal to a temperature measurement.

All of us have also used a thermometer to tell us how hot, or how cold, something is.
We measure temperature in degrees, referring to the scale in common use in our society.
For most of the world this is in degrees Celsius (formerly centigrade) or in Kelvins. In
the United States the common scale is degrees Fahrenheit. The concept of temperature,
its measurement, and the scales we use, have changed dramatically in the last century
and are still changing. Although quite sophisticated now, improvements in concepts,
devices to measure temperature (thermometers), calibration systems, and the accuracy

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PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol. I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -
Thomas D. McGee

and precision of measurement are still being improved and refined. All aspects of
temperature measurement are subject to changes by international agreement through the
International Committee on Weights and Measures. Because scientists around the world
must agree on the definition and interpretation of temperature there is a political
element to those agreements. However, the science of temperature measurement has
reached a high degree of accuracy and precision.

1.1. The Importance of Temperature Measurements

The ability to measure temperature accurately is a critical requirement for earth energy
balances and to the understanding of macrosystems, for an understanding of global
warming, and for successful scientific analysis. Accurate temperature measurement is
critical to all chemical and physical scientific research. The latter includes life systems

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of all kinds, global heating and cooling processes, weather, and oceanography. Any
analysis that includes energy exchange must have precise and accurate temperature

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measurement to be successful. In many cases an error in temperature measurement is so

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important that all other measurements need not be known as well. It is often the most

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critical of the parameters being measured because the thermodynamics of equilibria and
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the kinetics of processes usually depend exponentially on temperature.
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1.1.1. What is Temperature?
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Temperature is the level of thermal energy. Thermal energy transfer only occurs
spontaneously from a high temperature to a low temperature, never the reverse. So
temperature is the driving force for heat transfer. The concept of temperature is
theoretical, and based on fundamental physical relationships. The basis of temperature
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scales is, historically, the perfect gas interpretation of the thermodynamic temperature
scale.
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If we have a scale representing temperature from a low temperature to a high

temperature, and use the spacing of the steps of the scale based on equal units of energy,
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then we have a temperature scale. To go from some step on the scale to the next lower
step we must remove one increment of energy. The amount of energy to go from one
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step to the next will depend on the size of the step and the material containing the
thermal energy. In principle it is possible to define temperature as the level of thermal
energy, if we specify what medium we use to contain the thermal energy. And for a
linear scale, we must specify a medium we can accept that has a direct proportionality
constant between energy and temperature. Historically, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907)
proposed the medium for the thermodynamic temperature scale to be a perfect gas, one
that obeys the relationship, per mole:

PV = RT (1)

The pressure–volume product ( PV ) equals the internal energy in a mole of perfect gas,
and R is the proportionality constant—the universal gas constant. T is absolute
temperature. Reducing the temperature one step on the scale changes the energy of the
gas and removes the energy corresponding to that step on the scale. Kelvin used the
Carnot cycle as the mechanism of adding or removing energy, without wasting any

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PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol. I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -
Thomas D. McGee

energy through turbulence or other friction. Units for energy and temperature are
arbitrary. The proportionality constant ( R ) is accepted as a fundamental physical
constant; but its value depends on the units in use, accepted over a long time, as
fundamental scientific units. The basis for all temperature measurement, then, is
thermodynamic temperature, based on fundamental physical relationships. Temperature,
then, is a fundamental physical quality. It is the most difficult of the fundamental
physical quantities to define and measure.

1.2. Fundamental Relationships

Because of the limitations inherent in gas thermometry measurements, other

fundamental relationships are essential to establish a scale that approaches
thermodynamic temperatures. For example, both acoustic thermometry and noise

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thermometry were useful at low temperatures to supplement gas thermometry. The

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upper limit of gas thermometry would have been the upper limit to ITS-90, if Planck’s
law of spectral radiation, another fundamental relationship, had not been used above the

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gold point.
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All of the fundamental relationships depend on fundamental physical constants, such as
Avogadro’s number, Planck’s constant, and the Boltzmann constant. The accuracy of
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these fundamental constants is a limitation on the accuracy of temperatures based on
them. However, the basis for all temperature measurements is the thermodynamic
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temperature scale, which is implemented through these fundamental relationships.

According to Eq. (1) the energy contained in the gas will be zero if the temperature goes
to zero. Mathematically, we have the concept of an absolute zero of temperature,
conforming to zero thermal energy in a perfect gas. This is the basis for the
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thermodynamic temperature scale proposed by Kelvin. In honor of Lord Kelvin the

steps on the scale are designated as K. In principle, temperatures can be measured,
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counting the units of K from absolute zero to the highest possible temperature. For
practical reasons we also use the Celsius scale because it is more comfortable to the
public. It has its zero at 273.15 K.
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1.3. General Philosophy of Temperature Measurement

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As explained above the definition of the thermodynamic temperature scale is a

theoretical one, using equal increments of energy to define the scale. The perfect gas
law was the original basis for the scale, based on experimental data for real, monatomic
gases at low pressure. The concept of absolute zero and the absolute temperature scale
came from that early research. The perfect gas law is a fundamental law. That is, it is
one that relates energy of a perfect gas—through a fundamental physical constant—to
temperature. Thermal energy is related to temperature in a fundamental way. However,
gas thermometry requires a complex series of measurements because perfect gas
behavior is achieved as the concentration of real gases approaches zero. A gas
thermometer is large, and must be held in a large isothermal environment while a series
of measurements are made. The only practical way to achieve an isothermal
environment for a long time is to select temperatures corresponding to phase changes—
such as the ice point—that remain at constant temperature as long as the phase mixture
is maintained (thermodynamic invariant points). Choosing two such fixed points, a

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PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol. I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -
Thomas D. McGee

series of measurements with, for example, a constant volume gas thermometer, can be
made at a series of decreasing gas concentrations at each fixed point to obtain the
limiting value of the PV product at each fixed point. Then the same procedure can be
used at intermediate temperatures between the two fixed points. This is so difficult and
time-consuming that it is not practical for routine use. Precise measurements of this
nature can be used to calibrate more practical instruments, to serve as the representation
of thermodynamic temperatures, achieved by gas thermometry.

Kelvin originally recommended using the ice point to steam point interval, divided into
100 parts to establish the size of the degree, now identified as the Kelvin. He
recommended that those two points be the basis for the scale because they were the
most precisely known fixed points at that time; but he preferred a single, accurate point
of highest precision to define the scale. Any adjustment of the defining point would then
affect all other points and facilitate easy conversion to the new, better-defined scale.

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The original 1927 International Temperature Scale was based on steam point/ice point

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interval, although the steam point was recognized as more uncertain than the ice point.

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In 1948 the triple point of water was adopted as the defining point and defined as 0.01

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°C, relating it to the ice point, but recognizing it as being more precise than the ice point.
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When the Kelvin scale was adopted as the fundamental scale the triple point of water
was fixed at 273.16 K. All subsequent scales must pass through this point. In practice,
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other invariant points are also needed.
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The International Temperature Scale, presented below, is based on primary fixed points,
to define the scale, and utilizing secondary fixed points, with the instrument for
interpolation between fixed points specified, so that the scale can be realized by all
scientists. The primary points are known more accurately than the secondary points.
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Using a single point to define a scale actually requires two points, zero and 273.16 K.
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Since zero K has never been achieved the scale can be established in theory, but not in
practice. Over the last seven or eight decades the International Temperature Scale has
been adjusted to more nearly approximate the theoretical thermodynamic temperature
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scale. This has been an evolutionary process conducted primarily in standards

laboratories of various countries around the world. The research has been extremely
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difficult, requiring sophisticated measurements and superior physics.

By defining fixed points by gas thermometry, and by interpolating the intermediate

temperatures using gas thermometry to calibrate working instruments for interpolating
between fixed points, a sophisticated national standards laboratory can estimate true
thermodynamic temperatures with great precision. However, the process is so difficult
that comparisons between laboratories have aided in establishing working standards that
come most closely to the true thermodynamic scale. The process of achieving that scale
with precision is called realization of the scale.

No single instrument can be used to measure the full range of temperatures. The 1927
scale was based on three instruments: the platinum-resistance thermometer, the type S
thermocouple, and the optical pyrometer. The interpolating equations were selected to
pass through the defining points; but two different equations were needed for the low
and moderate temperature ranges of the resistance thermometer. The ITS-90 has 17

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PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol. I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -
Thomas D. McGee

defining points, one of which is the triple point of water, which is taken as exact at
273.16 K. The scale is subdivided into 14 ranges or subranges, with defining equations
for each and with alternative measurement instruments in some ranges. Ranges overlap,
and the first derivatives of the interpolating equations are as continuous as possible.
Slightly different values can be obtained for a temperature in overlapping ranges using
the same instrument but with different interpolating equations (because of selection of
different equations and fixed points for calibration). However, the deviation of the
equations from true thermodynamic temperature is believed to be of millikelvin (mK)
magnitude. The net result is a scale that can be achieved in standards laboratories,
calibrating each instrument to pass through the fixed points. The latest version of the
International Temperature Scale was adopted in 1990 (ITS-90). This, too, is impractical
for most applications, so secondary instruments are used in practice, with their
calibration traceable to the thermodynamic scale.

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1.4. Precision and Accuracy

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Any variable that depends on temperature in a nonredundant way can be used to

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measure temperature. Such measurements are useful only if both the precision and the
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accuracy of the measurement are known. Precision is represented by the statistical
measurement of the variable. With many replications a statistical representation of the
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measurement will give the mean and the standard deviation, to set limits on the
confidence with which the variable has been measured. A measurement may be very
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precise, but inaccurate.

Accuracy is the confidence that the variable measured represents the thermodynamic
temperature as represented by ITS-90, the latest version of that approximation. This can
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only be estimated by understanding the deviations of ITS-90 from thermodynamic

temperature (believed to be negligible), plus all the other deviations in the correlation of
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the variable to ITS-90. The latter are very important and can be enormous. Sources of
those deviations include:
• errors in the function relating the variable to temperature (errors in secondary
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calibration of the working instrument);

• errors in the function used in the measuring instrumentation to represent the
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measuring function (e.g., the instrument may use piece-wire linear equations to
represent a polynomial that represents the measuring variable relationship to
temperature);
• errors in the absolute value of the variable, producing an offset from the true
value of the variable and an effect in temperature;
• errors in installation of the sensing device or the measuring instrument; and
• deterioration of the measuring instrument or the sensing device.

Commercial instruments usually are calibrated to represent precision, not accuracy. It is

not unusual for a commercial instrument to indicate temperature to 0.01 °C, but to be
accurate to poorer than ± 10°C. Improper installation often occurs. It is very important
for a user to understand the entire measuring device, including the sensor, the data
processing system, the instrument used to measure the variable, the calibration of that
instrument, the accuracy of the variable/temperature relationship, the requirements for

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Thomas D. McGee

sensor installation, and the mechanisms of failure. Failure to do so will result in

erroneous data and erroneous conclusions.

2. The International Temperature Scale

2.1. History

Cooperation between national laboratories before and after the First World War through
the International Committee on Weights and Measurements culminated in the first
version of the international temperature scale in 1927. This established the method of
describing the scale that continues to be used, although important revisions have
occurred since. The method is based on the following three requirements:
1. Fixed points. These are reproducible temperatures based on thermodynamic
invariant points, such as boiling points, freezing points, and triple points. With

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pure materials these fixed points can be produced in any laboratory and are

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assigned temperatures based on the thermodynamic temperature scale. Certain

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highly accurate fixed points are selected as defining points. Less accurate,

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secondary points are given to lesser significant figures for convenience in
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applications.
2. Instruments that are to be used to interpolate temperatures in the intervals
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between fixed points.
3. The equations to be used with the appropriate instrument to interpolate between
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the fixed points. These equations pass through the defining points.

The first international temperature scale (in 1927) specified four temperature ranges:
• Range I. Oxygen point to the ice point; using the platinum-resistance
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thermometer.
• Range II. Ice point to the aluminum point; using the platinum-resistance
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thermometer.
• Range III. Aluminum point to the gold point; using the platinum 10% rhodium
thermocouple.
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• Range IV. Above the gold point; using the optical pyrometer.
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Different equations relating platinum resistance to temperature were used to interpolate

in ranges I and II.

Major revisions were made in 1948, 1968, and 1990. The original scale was based on
the ice point, 0 °C, and the boiling point, 100 °C, for water; establishing the centigrade
scale as the primary scale.

The size of degree was 1/100 of the ice point/boiling point interval.

In 1954 the triple point of water and absolute zero were used to define thermodynamic
temperature, replacing the ice point and the steam point. In 1968 the scale was extended
upward and downward, and was called the International Practical Temperature Scale
(IPTS). The word “Practical” served to recognize the difference between the IPTS of
1968 and ideal thermodynamic temperatures.

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PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol. I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -
Thomas D. McGee

The relationship between centigrade temperatures (t) and thermodynamic temperatures

(T) was clarified:
The unit of fundamental physical quality known as the thermodynamic
temperature, symbol T, is the Kelvin, symbol K, defined as 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
For historic reasons, connected with the way temperature scales were originally
defined, it is common practice to express temperature in terms of a thermal
state 0.01 Kelvin lower than the triple point of water. A thermodynamic
temperature expressed in this way is known as Celsius temperature, symbol t,
defined by
t = T – 273.15K.
The IPTS uses both International Practical Kelvin Temperatures, symbol T68,
and International Practical Celsius Temperatures, symbol t68. The relationship
between T68 and t68 is the same as between T and t; in other words,

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t68 = T68 – 273.15K.(H. Preston-Thomas (1975) The International Practical

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Temperature of 1968, Amended Edition of 1975 Metrologia 12. 7-17)

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Note that defining in terms of the thermodynamic temperature scale based on the triple
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point of water, which can be measured more precisely than the ice point, means the
traditional centigrade scale no longer has exactly 100° between the ice point and the
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steam point. This, and to honor Anders Celsius (1701–1744), was the reason for
establishing the Celsius scale for ordinary temperature measurements instead of the
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centigrade scale. The scientific community has been slow to adopt the new terminology.

Many new secondary points of improved precision were added for user convenience.
Temperatures above the gold point in range IV were defined by the ratio of the Planck’s
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law intensity to the Planck’s law intensity at the gold point, but no particular radiation
instrument or wavelength was specified.
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The IPTS-68 was amended in 1975, especially in the cryogenic temperature region
where major improvements in measurement had been achieved. Low-temperature
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interpolating instruments included magnetic thermometers and improved gas

thermometers.
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The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) was adopted by the General
Conference on Weights and Measures. This is a return to the original 1927 concept,
dropping the word “Practical” because the scientific standards community believes the
International Temperature Scale of 1990 represents true thermodynamic temperatures
sufficiently accurately to make the distinction unnecessary.

The International Temperature Scale is intended to represent thermodynamic

temperatures, and is established by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
through its Consultative Committee on Thermometry. Members of that committee are
authorities from around the world on temperature measurement, many of them from
national standards laboratories, such as the National Institute for Standards and
Technology (NIST) in the United States. The scale is the result of many cooperative
measurements, often using round-robin experiments to improve and understand methods,
and interpolation schemes. It is believed to be as close as possible to thermodynamic

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PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol. I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -
Thomas D. McGee

temperatures. However, there is a political component to the discussions. Persuasive

scientists have sometimes, in the past, convinced the standards community of a detail
that later proved to be not as accurate as one of the alternatives. At the present time the
International Temperature Scale is believed to be so close to thermodynamic
temperatures that errors of this nature are not important. Most scientists and engineers
are much more concerned with transfer of the scale to their own laboratories, and the
utilization of practical instruments. They need not be concerned with ITS accuracy
because the errors in those processes are much greater than the errors in establishing
ITS-90.

The utilization of ITS-90 requires definition, realization, transfer, and utilization.

Definition and realization are provided by ITS-90, as amended; but it is not practical to
use the instruments specified in ITS-90 for most applications. Then the ITS-90 is
transferred to other, practical, instruments, often in a standards laboratory. These serve

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as working standards for similar instruments or even for different instruments. These are

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often sold as instruments whose calibration is “traceable” to a recognized standards

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laboratory, such as NIST. Utilization of the secondary or tertiary instruments requires

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not only calibration against appropriate standards, but installation in such a way as not
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to introduce errors from the heat-transfer environment, nor cause errors from operating
components or conditions, and maintenance. Most errors of temperature measurement
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arise in the utilization of practical instruments.
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Bibliography

Comptes rendus, Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures, 94 (1927) See also:. Hall J.A, “The Early
history of the International Practical Scale of Temperature” Metrologia, 1967, 3, (1), 25-28. and Hall
J.A, Barber C.R. “The Evolution of the International Practical Temperature Scale”, Metrologia, 1967, 3
(3), 78-86. [The first international temperature scale was adopted in 1927.]
Dewitt D.P. and Nutter G.D. (1988). Theory and Practice of Radiation Thermometry. 1138 pp; John
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Fahrenheit R.S.S. Philoshophical Transactions (1683-1775), Vol 33. (1724-1725. pp.78-84 (Experiments
and Observations made by D.G.Fahrenheit Concerning the Freezing Point of Water in Vacuum.) [This
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Guilliaume C.E. (1899). Traite practique de la Thermometric de precision. Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Fil.
[Guilliaume describes his precision methods for construction, calibration and use of liquid-in- glass
thermometers. His methods are still in use.]

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PHYSICAL METHODS, INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS – Vol. I - Temperature: Techniques and Instrumentation -
Thomas D. McGee

Harrison T.R. (1960). Radiation Pyrometry and Its Underlying Principles of Heat Transfer. 234 pages,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ,New York [Describes the theory of radiant heat transfer, and the use of radiant
methods, available at the time, to measure temperature.]
Hudson R.P. (1982). Temperature scales, the IPTS, and its future development Temperature, Its
Measurement and Control in Science and Industry (ed. J.F Schooley). Pages 1-7, Vol. 5 Part 1, American
Institute of Physics, New York [Recounts the development of previous international temperature scales,
describes the International Practical Temperature Scale that existed at the time, and describes the
cooperative research intended to address problems recognized to exist at the time.]
Knowles W.E. (1966). A History of the Thermometer. 249 pp. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. [An
excellent text on the history of the liquid-in-glass thermometer.]
M. Planck, (1900). “Ueber irreversible Strahlungenvorgange.” (Concerning Irreversible Radiation
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in a closed container.]

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Mangum B.W. and Furukawa G.T. (1990). Guidelines for Realizing the International Temperature Scale
of 1990 (ITS-90). NIST Technical Note 1265.199pp. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Standards

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and Technology (NIST), Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office. [Extensive

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guidelines for specific techniques are given in detail, to aid in actually realizing ITS-90.]

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McGee T.D. (1988). Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement. 581 pages, John Wiley and
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Sons, New York. [This is a comprehensive reference text on temperature measurement, complete with
problems to illustrate principles. It also includes chapters on response time, calibration methods,
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installation effects, thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics.]
Nicholas, J.R. and White, D.R., (2001) “Traceable Temperatures, an Introduction to Temperature
Measurement and Calibration”, 2nd Ed., John Wiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester, England, 421 pages. [A
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new high-quality text on Temperature Measurement.]Callendar H.L. (1887). On the practical

measurement of temperature: experiments made in the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London A 178, 161. [This describes the use of gas thermometry to
evaluate and calibrate platinum-resistance thermometers. It includes platinum quality, details of strain-
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free construction, three- and four-wire bridges to reduce errors, and numerical methods for converting
resistance to temperature.]
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Ohte A., Yamagata M., and Akiyama K. (1982). Precision silicon transistor thermometer. Temperature,
Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry (ed. J.F. Schooley),American Institute of Physics,
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Peltier J.C.A. (1834). Nouvelle experiences sur la caloricite des courons electriques. New Experiments
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Preston-Thomas H. (1990). The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90). Metrologia 27, 3–10.
[This gives the specific details of ITS-90.]
Ripples, D.C. (2003), “Temperature Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry” Vol 7. Part,
pp1 to 552 and Part 2, pp 553 to 1132 American Institute of Phisics Melville, N.Y. [This is the latest of
this series devoted to advanced research for all forms of temperature measurement.]
Rusby R.L., Hudson-Thomas R.P., Durieux M., Schooley J.F., Steur P.P.M., and Swenson C..A. (1991).
Thermodynamic basis of the ITS-90. Metropologia 28, 9–18. [This describes the thermodynamic
reasoning, the cooperation between international authorities, and the confidence limits for ITS-90.]
Seebeck T.J. (1822/1823). Evidence for the thermal current from a combination Bi-Cu by its action on a
magnetic needle. Abhandlungen der Physicalische Klasse der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin aus den Jahren 1822-1823, pages 265-373 [The discovery of thermoelectric voltages.]
Thomson W. (1847). Theory of thermoelectricity. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 21,
153. [Based on thermodynamic grounds Thomson (the future Lord Kelvin) proposed a homogeneous
metal must have a potential as the result of a temperature gradient, even though it could not be observed

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Thomas D. McGee

directly in homogeneous systems. But two metals converted together would have a net voltage as the
result of the difference in the Thomson voltages for the two metals in the temperature gradient.]
W. Thomson (1848) “On an Absolute Thermodynamic Scale of Temperature founded on Carnot’s Theory
of the Motive Power of Heat” Philosophical Magazine [3] 33, 313-317. [This is the paper in which Lord
Kelvin proposed energy as the fundamental unit for temperature.]

Biographical Sketch

Thomas Donald McGee is Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at Iowa State University,
Ames, USA. He obtained a B.Sc. in Ceramic Engineering, 1948; B.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering, 1948;
M.Sc. in Industrial Engineering, 1958, and Ph.D. in Ceramic Engineering and Metallurgy, 1961—all from
Iowa State University. His has undertaken research in the Biomedical Engineering program and he is a
collaborator in the Veterinary Clinical Science Department. His teaching in high-temperature processing
and property measurements at high temperatures led to his interest in temperature measurement.
Dr. McGee is a member of the National Institute of Ceramic Engineers (NICE), the American Ceramic

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Society, the Society of Glass Technology, and the American Society of Engineering Education. He is a
fellow of NICE and the American Ceramic Society, past president of NICE, and the NICE editor for the

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Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. He is a past Governor of the American Association of
Engineering Societies, and served on the Engineering Joint Council and the Accreditation Board for

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Engineering and Technology. He worked in applied research in industry from 1948 to 1956.
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His publications include Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement (1988), and over 100
refereed publications and 10 patents in the following areas: high-temperature refractories, engineering
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education, glass science and technology, fracture of brittle materials, temperature measurement and
energy control, and biomaterials. His current research is in orthopedic antibiotics, bone grafting, cements,
and induced bone regeneration.
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