Unit 2: Nutrition: Feeds and Feeding

Therefore, knowledge on animal nutrition is key for a profitable and sustainable farming.
Animal nutrition focuses on studying the dietary needs of the animals. These dietary needs
consist of nutrients, which are the components present in the feed that animals can digest and
utilise. Hence, when feeding a diet, it is important to first test its nutrient content. If the feed is an
acquired commercial product (concentrate, lick etc.) the nutritional value must appear in the label of the
product. On the other hand, if the feed is done with in-farm available feedstuffs (fodder crops, crop
residues, grains…) their nutritional values should be tested by sending it for laboratory analyses. Testing
the nutritional value of made in-farm feeds and of forages is a must, especially in the dry season when
their protein content and energy can be extremely low. Animals know how to auto regulate and they
stop eating once they feel satisfied. However, if the nutrient content of the feed is very low, the consumed
feed will not be enough to meet their requirements and they can suffer from malnutrition, even if fed ad
libitum. Some farmers reported cases of animals fed ad libitum that were extremely weak, sick and that
even died. These events may not be necessarily related to a toxic diet, but they could be due to the
shortage of nutrients. If this was the case, it could have been avoided by correcting the diet. Tip: always
test the feed! Animals´ nutrient requirements can vary among different species (swine, poultry, cattle
etc.) but also among the same species in different status (pregnant cow, lactating cow, growing calves
etc.) or under different conditions (external temperature, external stress etc.).

>Feeds
In terms of cost, feed is the most important input for intensive poultry production, and the availability of
low-priced, high-quality feeds is critical for the expansion of the poultry industry. For maximum
performance and good health, poultry need a steady supply of energy, protein, essential amino acids,
minerals, vitamins and, most important, water. Recent advances in poultry nutrition have focused on three
main areas:

1. developing an understanding of nutrient metabolism and nutrient requirements;

2. determining the availability of nutrients in feed ingredients; and
3. formulating least-cost diets that bring nutrient requirements and nutrient supply together.
Practical poultry diets are formulated from a mixture of ingredients, including cereal grains, cereal by-
products, fats, plant protein sources, vitamin and mineral supplements, crystalline amino acids and feed
additives. Increasing costs and decreasing supplies of traditional feedstuffs (due in part to food-feed
competition and population growth) are expected to affect the future expansion of poultry production. This
highlights the urgent need to make greater use of a wide range of alternative feeds (e.g. insect meals,
food waste, agro-industrial byproducts) and to use fewer human-edible components in poultry diets. The
use of most alternative feedstuffs is currently negligible, owing to constraints imposed by nutritional,
technical and socio-economic factors. In many circumstances, feed resources are either unused and
wasted, or used inefficiently.

A major nutritional problem in developing countries is the biological and chemical contamination of poultry
feeds, which may have serious consequences on bird performance and the safety of poultry products for
humans. Of the potential contaminants, mycotoxins are the most widespread, particularly in hot, humid
conditions, and mycotoxin decontamination must be a part of feeding strategies.

>Feeding
Feeding has a direct impact on the growth rate, production capacity and health status of the animal.
Feeding is key for a profitable and sustainable farming.
The cost of feeding has long been recognised as the major cost and the largest cash expense in animal
production. It has a direct impact on the growth rate and health status of the animal as well as on the
animal’s product quality. In addition to this, it also has effects on the environment.

Livestock Feeding: Importance, Quality and Standards

Contents:
1. Importance of Livestock Feeding
2. Feeds and Fodders of Livestock Feeding
3. Feed Quality of Livestock
4. Feeding Standards or Requirements of Livestock
5. Concentrate Feed of Livestock
6. Fodder Crops of Livestock
7. Dry Fodders of Livestock
1. Importance of Livestock Feeding:
Farmers keep livestock for obtaining milk, meat, wool, work etc. Food is the source for production for all
such products as well for producing offspring. Also, a nutritionally balanced ration is a must for keeping the
animals healthy and strong. Note that we call as ‘food’ of what ourselves eat. The same is known as
‘ration’ in the case of animals.
Without proper food, i.e. ration, animals cannot grow well, cannot keep good health, nor can they produce
products and young ones properly. That is why we have to feed animals with nutritionally balanced and
adequate quantity of rations. Hence the need to feed livestock scientifically according to their body needs.

2. Feeds and Fodders of Livestock Feeding:

The feedstuffs used for feeding livestock can be classified into three major classes depending on the
contents of fibre, moisture and nutrients as:
(a) Green or Succulent forages or fodders;
(b) Dry forages or fodders; and
(c) Concentrate Feeds.
The forages – both green and dry are also known as bulk feeds or roughages, as they are voluminous due
to high fibre content. They contain fewer nutrients per unit weight. Their classification is given in the
below. By cultivated feeds and fodders we mean all those main and by products obtained via cultivation of
crops by farmers, whatever may be their nutrient quality.
The natural vegetation is that that occurs in nature even without human endeavour. On the other hand,
there are some nutrients that are added to feeds or supplemented to the ration for providing some specific
nutrient or group of nutrients.
This is done to provide important high value nutrients in small quantities. Due to ever diminishing livestock
feeds in the country, many unconventional feeds ranging from tree leaves to sea weeds were increasingly
being recommended as animal feeds, especially during scarcity periods.
3. Feed Quality of Livestock:
The nutritive value of a feed is determined by analysing the quantity of various nutrients present in it,
which will be available to the animal for maintenance, growth and/or production. This has to be
determined with respect to energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. The simplest and earliest method of
determining the nutritive value of feeds was to estimate the composition of the feed with respect to
various nutrients.
It was soon found that large amounts of nutrients are lost through faeces and that the nutritive value of a
feedstuff is more accurately judged when the digestible nutrients are taken into account. As a
consequence, the feeding trial and digestibility trial techniques were developed
4. Feeding Standards or Requirements of Livestock:
Feeding standards are statements of the average daily nutrient requirements of different types of animals.
Scientists have come to the help of farmers by providing certain guidelines in selecting properly balanced
rations for meeting the nutrient requirements of various types and classes of livestock.
These recommendations have been collected, classified, tabulated and revised from time to time and have
come to be known as feeding standards. Thus, feeding standards are tables stating the amount of various
nutrients that should be present in the daily ration of different classes of livestock for optimum results in
growth, work and production.
Work in the field of nutritive value and nutrient requirements is still going on and, therefore, any feeding
standard is bound to become obsolete in a few years. Consequently, it has been realised that these
standards must be revised every few years to make them up-to- date in describing nutritionally adequate
ration.
The first consideration in feeding standards should be the capacity of the animal to consume feed. The
total dry matter in the daily ration, which could be eaten by the animal, measures this. Usually the dry
matter intake is proportionate to the body weight.
Cattle generally eat 2.0 to 2.5 kg of dry matter per 100 kg live weight. Buffaloes eat slightly more than
this. As a general rule two-thirds of the nutrients should come from roughages and one- third from
concentrates.
After having determined the dry matter need, the next step is to find out the need of the independent
nutrients. In this, the major consideration is the needs of the Digestible Crude Proteins (DCP) and Total
Digestible Nutrients (TDN).

5. Concentrate Feed of Livestock:

Concentrate feed means a mixture of milled grains, pulses, oil cakes etc. Given in Table 23 below are set
of formulae to make feed mixtures with ingredient available in different regions of the country. Farmers
can use those readymade formulae for preparing concentrate mixtures themselves. The values given in
Table 23 are based on raw matter basis, i.e. weights of feeds, as they are normally available.

6. Fodder Crops of Livestock Feeding:

Leguminous Fodders:
The leguminous fodders (stem and leaves) are a group of plants belonging to the group Leguminosae.
These plants, by virtue of bacteria of rhizobium group in their root nodules, ‘fix’ nitrogen from atmosphere
and make it available to themselves, other plants, animals and man.
They always have a higher nitrogen content and can form a major source of protein to farm animals. For
cattle and buffaloes if legumes are fed liberally, there is no need for any additional supply of protein.
Important leguminous fodder crops include true clovers (Trifolium species). Medics (.Medicago species),
Crotalaria species and certain other miscellaneous legumes. Important true clovers useful as fodder crops
are Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum), Shaftal (T. resupinatum), White clover (T. repens), Red clover (T.
pratense) Crimson clover (T. incarnatum) and Subterranean clover (T. subterraneum).
Among medics, Lucerne (Medicago sativa) is the most popular fodder crop. Black medic (M. lupulina) and
Bur clover (M. hispida) are other members of utility as fodder.
Crotalaria group includes a large number of species useful for foraging like Sunhemp (Crotalaria junica),
Cowpeas or Lobia (Vigna sinensis) and Kudzu vine (Pueraris thunbergiana). Certain other legumes like soya
beans (Glycene soya) are also important in livestock feeding.

Non-Leguminous Roughages:
The non-leguminous fodder generally consists of a lower percentage of nitrogen. Therefore, when livestock
get non-leguminous fodder, special care has to be taken to add sufficient protein rich concentrates to
balance the ration. They include many cereal fodder crops, perennial cultivated grasses, some indigenous
grasses and introduced grasses.

Important cereal crops used as fodders:

Maize (Zea mays), Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), Bajra (Pennisetum typhoides), Oats (Avena sativa) and
Teosinte (Euchlaena mexicana).Important perennial cultivated fodder grasses crops used as
fodders:
Para grass (.Brachiana mutica), Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum),
Hybrid {giant) Napier (an interspecies cross between Napier and Bajra), Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana),
Blue panic grass (Panicum antidotale) and Sudan grass (Sorghum vulgare var Sudanense).
Some indigenous grasses that are traditional livestock fodder and which can be developed further are
Anjan grass / Kolukattain grass (Cenchrus celiaris), Dhub grass / Hariali (Cynodon dactylon), Giant star
grass (Cynodon plectostachyus), Marval grass (Dichanthium annulatum), Sewan grass (Elyomirus hirsatus)
and Masel grass (.Iseilema laxum).
Some introduced grasses: Deenabandhu grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum), Orchard grass (Dactylis
glomerata), Signal grass (Brachiaria brizantha) and Meadow fescue (.Festuca elatior) have been introduced
to India.

Dry Fodders of Livestock Feeding:

Dry fodders contain more than 85% dry matter, i. e. less than 15% or moisture. They are highly fibrous,
bulky, and less digestible and mostly help in filling the large digestive tracts of ruminants.

>Forms of Feed

When it comes to feeding our beloved pets and livestock, choosing the
right type of animal feed is crucial. Feed manufacturers offer various
forms of feed, including mash, pellets, and crumbles. In this blog post,
we will explore the differences between these forms and shed light on
the benefits of using mash feed for animals.
Mash Feed: The Basics Mash feed is a form of animal feed that
consists of finely ground ingredients. It is the simplest and most basic
form of feed available. Mash feed typically contains a mixture of
grains, protein sources, vitamins, and minerals. It is often preferred for
its versatility and ease of consumption.
Pellet Feed: Compressed Nutrition Pellet feed is created by
subjecting the mash feed to heat and pressure. This process
compresses the ingredients, forming small cylindrical pellets. Pelleting
offers several advantages, including enhanced digestibility, reduced
dust, improved storage life, and easier handling. Pellets are commonly
used for poultry, rabbits, and larger livestock.
Crumble Feed: A Midway Option Crumble feed is an intermediate
form between mash and pellets. It is produced by crushing pellets,
resulting in smaller particles that are easier to consume for animals,
particularly young ones. Crumbles are often favored for their improved
palatability, nutrient retention, and ease of digestion.

Benefits of Mash Feed: Now that we understand the basic forms of animal feed, let’s focus on the benefits of using
mash feed:
*Increased Palatability: Mash feed retains the natural texture and aroma of its ingredients, making it
highly palatable for animals. This encourages them to consume the feed eagerly, promoting proper
nutrition and growth.
*Improved Digestibility: The finely ground nature of mash feed allows for efficient digestion. The small
particle size increases the surface area available for enzymatic breakdown, enabling animals to extract
maximum nutrients from their feed.
*Customization Options: Mash feed offers flexibility in formulating animal diets. It allows for easy
blending of different ingredients, such as grains, proteins, and supplements, ensuring optimal nutrition
based on specific animal requirements.
*Enhanced Medication Delivery: Mash feed can be easily mixed with medications or supplements. This
makes it an ideal choice for administering treatments or addressing specific health concerns in animals.
*Suitable for Young and Sick Animals: Mash feed is particularly beneficial for young or sick animals
that may have difficulty consuming larger pellets. Its soft texture and small particle size enable easier ingestion,
supporting their nutritional needs during critical growth or recovery stages.
Selecting the appropriate form of animal feed is essential for maintaining the health and well-being of our
animals. While pellet and crumble feeds offer their own advantages, mash feed stands out as a versatile
and beneficial option. Its palatability, digestibility, customization potential, and suitability for young or sick
animals make it a preferred choice for many pet owners and livestock managers. Remember to consult
with a veterinarian or animal nutritionist to determine the best feeding regimen for your specific animals to
ensure their optimal health and performance.
Forages are divided into groups with high, medium and low protein content.
*Legumes (high protein) tropical- Lucerne, desmodium (green leaf & silver leaf), siratro, calliandra,
leucaena, mulberry, vetch, sesbania, sweet potato vines, soya beans, green grams
*Grasses (medium protein)- Napier grass, Guatemala grass, giant setaria, guinea grass, Rhodes grass,
Kikuyu grass, Congo signal, Sudan grass, cow candy, oats
*Crop residues (low protein)-Maize Stover stripped maize cobs, sorghum Stover, banana stems, wheat
straw, rice straw, and barley straw.

Pastures can provide significant quantities of high-quality forages to dairy cows and heifers if
managed intensively. Potential benefits of a pasture-based forage system for dairy herds
include:
*Increased yield and quality of forage from land that previously was unproductive
*Decreased equipment and fuel for harvesting forages
*Less manure handling and lower bedding costs
*Reduced weather-related risks in harvesting forages
*Potential for better animal health because of increased exercise.
*Limitations to pasture-based forage systems are:
*Maintenance of high yields and quality of forages during the entire growing season
*Correct supplementation to maximize productivity and profitability from pasture forages and the short
length of the grazing season in some areas.

Guidelines in the selection of forage grass or legume species

-Good legume or grass should be:
-Fast-growing and well-adapted to frequent cutting or defoliation
-Adapted to climatic and soil conditions where they are to be planted
-Able to provide good soil cover and prevent weeds from growing
-Pleasant/ edible by the livestock
-Have a high nutritive value containing high levels of energy and protein and no poisonous substances.
-Easy to conserve as hay or silage or ability to stay green on the farm during harsh weather
-Able to produce good quality seed / vegetative planting material in adequate quantities.
-Ability to intercrop with other crops if intercropping is desired.
-Tolerance to diseases and pests
-Fast growth to produce adequate forage material.

Mineral Systems
Two basic systems for feeding minerals are:
*Force-feeding systems where the minerals are mixed with grain and/or forage, fed in a total mixed
ration, or top dressed.
*Free-choice systems where cows have unrestricted access to various mineral mixtures. Cafeteria-style
mineral feeders are an example. Most dairy cattle are unable to balance their mineral requirements
through free-choice feeding alone. Therefore, a cow’s mineral requirement, including salt, should be met
through force-feeding in the ration, with supplementary calcium-phosphorus minerals and salt offered free-
choice. Mineral sources should be evaluated on the cost per unit of mineral and the quality of the mineral
source.

Total Mixed Rations

Total mixed rations (TMR), or complete rations, are those with all the forage and grain ingredients blended
together, formulated to specific nutrient concentrations, and fed free-choice. The main advantages of TMR
feeding are:
-Cows consume the desired proportion of forages when two or more forages are offered.
-Cows consume the desired amount of forage relative to the amount of grain offered.
-There is less risk of digestive upsets.
-Feed efficiency improves. It allows for greater use of unpalatable feeds, NPN sources, and commodity
feeds.
-There is potential to reduce the labour required for feeding.
-It allows for greater accuracy in formulating and feeding.

The potential disadvantages include the following:

-It requires a significant equipment investment in a mixer.
-It creates a need to group cows into two or more groups.
-Rations must be carefully formulated and continually checked.
-Pasture feeding and large amounts of long hay are difficult to incorporate into rations.

Ration Formulation
The objective in formulating rations is to provide animals with a consumable quantity of feed stuff that will
supply all required nutrients in adequate or greater amounts and do so in a cost-effective way. The four
most common ways of expressing ration information are:

Analyzer:
The amount of each feed fed, along with its nutrient composition, must be known to obtain an accurate
ration analysis. A ration analysis summarises all feeds in the ration and the nutrients they contribute. An
analysis does not balance the ration, and therefore does not correct any nutrient deficiencies or excesses.

Balancer:
A ration balancer program combines feeds to meet the nutrient specifications set for a ration. The amount
of each feed to be included in the ration will be determined based on its nutrient contributions and how it
fits with other feeds in meeting nutrient specifications. A balancer program does not consider feed costs or
profit.

Least cost:
A normal least-cost formulation involves specifying the nutrient requirements or constraints for the ration
and finding the combination of feeds that meet or exceed these constraints at the lowest cost per kg of
DM. The least cost formulations change as feed costs change. An opportunity or break-even cost for feeds
not used in the ration will often be given. When the price of a new feed goes below the opportunity price, it
is considered a good buy, and the ration should be reformulated to see how much of that feed can now be
used in the ration.

Maximum profit:
A true maximum profit ration program includes the least cost function, incorporates milk price information,
and uses a maximum profit (income over feed cost) as one of the constraints or specifications to formulate
on. The difference between maximum profit and least cost or balanced rations is that the computer selects
feeds and a milk production level to obtain a maximum profit; whereas, in the least cost or balanced
rations, the computer selects only feeds to meet the nutrient requirements specified for a given level of
milk production.

Vitamin synthesis
The rumen microorganisms manufacture all of the B vitamins and vitamin K. Vitamin synthesis in the
rumen is sufficient for growth and maintenance. Under most conditions, cattle with functioning rumens do
not require supplemental B vitamins or vitamin K in the diet. Niacin (B3) and thiamine (B1) may be needed
under stress conditions.

Fat digestion
Most of the digestion and absorption of fat occurs in the small intestine. Rumen microorganisms change
unsaturated fatty acids to saturated acids through the addition of hydrogen molecules. Thus, more
saturated fat is absorbed by cows than by simple-stomach animals. Feeding large quantities of
unsaturated fatty acids can be toxic to rumen bacteria, depress fiber digestion, and lower rumen pH.

Feedstuffs
Feedstuffs are often classified as forages and concentrates. Concentrates usually mean high-quality; low-
fibre feeds and include cereal grains, milling by-products, protein sources, and fats. Concentrates have
high digestible energy content per unit of weight or volume. The energy is derived mostly from starches,
sugars, other readily available carbohydrates, and fats or oils. Forages are characterized by being more
fibrous (greater than 20% ADF) or bulky and generally represent the vegetative portion of a plant. The
digestible energy content of forages is usually lower per unit weight or volume than concentrates, with
most of the energy derived from cellulose or hemicellulose. Classification problems arise with high-quality,
immature forages, as these are more like concentrates than forages. For example, bud-stage Lucerne with
24% ADF and 36% NDF is classified as forage.

Maize silage: Good maize silage contains nearly 50% grain on a DM basis. It is an excellent source of
energy for dairy cattle. If it is properly made, cows will eat large amounts of this feed. Maize silage
requires protein and mineral supplementation to be balanced for high milk production. To attain maximum
yield, maize should be harvested for silage when it has reached physiological maturity: kernels are fully
dented, the milk line is 1/2 to 2/3 down from the crown and cells at the base of the kernel (when dissected)
are turning black. DM content should be approximately 35% (the corn ear is 55 to 60% DM when the whole
plant is 32 to 38% DM). Immature maize silage is usually wetter, below 32% DM, and yields less total dry
feed per acre. Seepage losses from the silo occur when material below 32% DM is put in silage. If maize
becomes too dry before ensiling, field losses are greater, and the feed may not ensile as well (poor
compaction, moulding, and lower palatability).
Sorghum silage: Sorghum can be used for silage in areas adapted to 95-day relative maturity or longer
corn hybrids. Forage sorghum equals corn in yield, but grain sorghum usually does not yield as well as
maize except during drought conditions. Energy and intake potential is lower than with corn silage.
Small grains: Oats, barley, wheat, and rye can be harvested as forage, although yield per acre is usually
less than maize, legume, or grass forages. Harvest in the boot stage for the highest quality. Delaying
harvest until the soft dough increases DM yields but reduces quality. Peas or beans can be included with
small grains to increase protein content. These crops should be wilted to 60% moisture before ensiling.
Straws: Oat, barley, and wheat straws are low in energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins. They should be
limited in rations for lactating cows and used only when the additional fibre is needed. Some straws can be
used for dry cows and older heifers if adequately supplemented.
Stover: Maize Stover, properly supplemented, can be used in heifer and dry cow rations. It is low in
protein and energy and, therefore, is not recommended for feeding to milk cows.
Pastures: If well managed, pastures are a good source of nutrients. They have the added advantage of
eliminating feed handling and manure hauling. Proper fertilization and management are necessary to
maintain a good pasture. Trampling is a problem and results in nutrient wastage. Moving cattle and
maintaining fences are major disadvantages. Frequent rotations of small lots reduce loss but require more
labour. Large herds are not handled easily in pasture situations. Additional grain is needed for high-
producing cows. As the quantity and quality of pasture change during the dry months, cattle need to be
supplemented with stored forages and other feeds.
Green chops:
Harvesting feeds by field chopping and feeding immediately has the advantage of reducing field losses.
However, cutting every day can be a major problem during wet weather or during peak work periods.

Energy Concentrates (Grains and By-Product Feeds)

The main nutrient contribution of grains and by-product feeds is energy. Oats and barley are moderately
high in CP. Processing grain (rolling, cracking or grinding) increases its digestibility when fed to cows. As
much as 30% of the whole grain will pass through cows intact if the grain is not processed before feeding.
Breaking the seed coat increases digestion. Coarse-textured, processed grain enhances palatability and
intake. Fine grinding of grain can increase digestibility but can also lower milk fat per cent and cause
rumen acidosis. Pelleted grain is not dusty and may increase palatability and intake, but it has the same
disadvantages as finely ground grain on rumen fermentation. Because young animals chew their feed
more thoroughly than adults, whole grains can be fed up to 12 months.

Barley is a good source of energy and protein. If barley is used in large amounts in dairy cattle rations,
cattle should be adjusted gradually. Rolling is superior to fine grinding for palatability. If barley is finely
ground, it shouldn’t make up more than 50% of the grain ration.
Beet tubers can be obtained either in plain form from the field or as molasses beet pulp. It is relatively
high in energy, adds highly digestible fibre and bulk to diets, and enhances palatability. The maximum
feeding rate is 30% of the ration DM.
Cottonseed, whole or crushed, is a medium protein, high fat, high fibre, and high energy feed. The whole
cottonseed is white and fibrous, while the de-linted cottonseed is black and smooth in appearance. The
amount fed should not exceed 3 kg per cow per day.
Maize, ear or maize and cob meal is a relatively high-energy feed liked by cows. It contains 10% less
energy than shelled maize. The fibre supplied by the cob aids in maintaining fat tests and keeping cows on
feed.
Maize, shelled, is the most common grain fed to dairy animals. It is one of the highest energy feeds
available for use in dairy rations. Where maize can be grown successfully, it is generally an economical
energy source. Because of its high caloric density, good management (determining the amount to feed,
frequency of feeding, mixing with other feeds, etc.) is needed to obtain maximum consumption without
causing digestive disturbances.
Maize, high moisture offers these advantages: Grain can be harvested 2 to 3 weeks earlier, reducing field
losses and harvest problems associated with adverse weather. Storage and handling losses are reduced. It
fits automated feeding programs. The expense of drying grain is eliminated. Grain is highly palatable. Daily
labour of grain processing or grinding is reduced.
High-moisture ear maize should be stored from 28 to 32% moisture and processed before storage. The wet
cob is more digestible than the cob in dry maize.
High moisture-shelled maize should be stored with 25 to 30% moisture content. In airtight silos, the
shelled maize can be stored whole or ground and rolled upon removal from the silo. In typical silos, bags or
bunkers, it should be processed (ground or rolled) before storing. Propionic acid can be used effectively to
treat and preserve high-moisture maize for dairy cattle.
Fat is a concentrated energy source. Several kinds of animal and vegetable fats or oils are available for
feeding. Amounts to feed and responses from feeding will vary with the fatty acid (saturated or
unsaturated) composition of the fat. Total added fat in diets should not exceed 4% (DM basis), with animal,
vegetable or rumen-inert fats individually not exceeding 2%.
Molasses (cane) supply energy and is used primarily to enhance the acceptability of the ration. The
amount used should be limited to 5 to 7% of the grain mix (10% in pelleted feeds) to avoid undesirable
rumen effects.
Oats contain 15% less energy but 20 to 30% more protein than shelled maize. The advantage of adding
oats to dairy rations is that it adds fibre and bulk, and may help maintain rumen function.
Sorghum grain can be used to replace maize in diets. The energy content is about 90% of that of maize,
and the protein content is variable (7 to 12% CP). Sorghum must be ground before feeding to prevent
whole seed passage, but grinding lowers palatability because of dustiness.
Soya bean hulls are good sources of highly digestible fibre and may replace starch in the diet, but they do
not forage fibre. Limit amounts to 33% of the grain ration.
Wheat is not used often because the price is usually too high. It is acceptable in dairy cattle rations in
reasonable amounts (less than 50% of the grain ration). It is high in energy and relatively high in protein.
Cattle should be adjusted slowly to rations containing wheat.
Wheat bran is included to add bulk and fibre to the diet. It is relatively high in protein and phosphorus,
improves ration palatability, and functions as a laxative.