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Download your Full Reports for Solid Waste Management

Abstract
Solid waste management is one among the basic essential services provided by
municipal authorities in the country to keep urban centers clean. However, it is
among the most poorly rendered services in the basket. The systems applied are
unscientific, outdated and inefficient ; population coverage is low ; and the poor are
marginalized. Waste is littered all over leading to insanitary living conditions. Municipal laws
governing the urban local bodies do not have adequate provisions to deal effectively with the
ever- growing problem of solid waste management. With rapid urbanization, the situation is
becoming critical. The urban population has grown fivefold in the last six decades with 285.35
million people living in urban areas as per the 2001 Census.
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INTRODUCTION
The improper disposal of municipal waste has a serious and dangerous impact on a
wide range of areas. Garbage thrown in the street or in open spaces creates a public
health hazard, while waste dumped near rivers, lakes and streams contaminates the
water supply. Rubbish that is burned in the open rather than disposed of properly
creates pollution and releases toxic fumes into the environment. Non- biodegradable
materials thrown into open drains make their way into the sewerage system, clogging
pipelines and damaging infrastructure. The hazards posed by the dumping of untreated
hospital and industrial waste are even greater, with the release of pathogens and toxic
compounds posing a grave threat not just to human life but also to plants and animals.
Garbage dumped in the countryside is not simply an eyesore; entire landscapes are
ruined and unique habitats for flora and fauna are lost. All of these problems are
common in India, where vast quantities of solid waste remain uncollected in the streets,
along major roads, in empty plots of land, down hill slopes and in illegal dumps.
NATURE OF SOLID WASTE
Per capita waste generation ranges between 0.2 kg and 0.6 kg per day in the Indian
cities amounting to about 1.15 lakh MT of waste per day and 42 million MT annually.
Also, as the city expands, average per capita waste generation increases. Waste
Generation per Capita in Indian cities The waste generation rates in India are lower than
the low-income countries in other parts of the world and much lower compared to
developed countries. However, lifestyle changes, especially in the larger cities, are
leading to the use of more packaging material and per capita waste generation is
increasing by about 1.3 per cent per year. With the urban population growing at 2.7 per
cent to 3.5 per cent per annum, the yearly increase in the overall quantity of solid waste
in the cities will be more than 5 percent. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) has
estimated that waste generation will exceed 260 million tonnes per year by 2047—more
than five times the present level. Cities with 100,000 plus population contribute 72.5 per
cent of the waste generated in the country as compared to other 3955 urban centers
that produce only 17.5 per cent of the total waste and practices continue to be outdated
and inefficient. No serious efforts are made to adapt latest methods and technologies of
waste management, treatment and disposal. Though a large portion of the municipal
budget is allotted for solid waste management, most of it is spent on the wages of
sanitation workers whose productivity is very low. There are no clear plans to enhance
their efficiency or improve working conditions through the provision of modern
equipment and protective gear. Unionization of the workers, politicization of labour
unions and the consequent indiscipline among the workforce are all results of bad
working conditions and inept handling of labour issues.
METHODS FOR PROCESSING, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
The main technological options available for processing/treatment and disposal of MSW
are composting, vermicomposting, anaerobic digestion/ biomethanation, incineration,
gasification and pyrolysis, plasma pyrolysis, production of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF),
also known as pelletization and sanitary landfilling/landfill gas recovery. Not all
technologies are equally good. Each one of them has advantages and limitations.

COMPOSTING :- Composting is a technology known in India since times immemorial.

Composting is the decomposition of organic matter by microorganism in warm, moist,
aerobic and anaerobic environment. Farmers have been using compost made out of
cow dung and other agro-waste. The compost made out of urban heterogeneous waste
is found to be of higher nutrient value as compared to the compost made out of cow
dung and agro-waste. Composting of MSW is, therefore, the most simple and cost
effective technology for treating the organic fraction of MSW. Full-scale commercially
viable composting technology is already demonstrated in India and is in use in several
cities and towns. Its application to farm land, tea gardens, fruit orchards or its use as
soil conditioner in parks, gardens, agricultural lands, etc., is however, limited on account
of poor marketing.
Main advantages of composting include improvement in soil texture and augmenting of
micronutrient deficiencies. It also increases moisture-holding capacity of the soil and
helps in maintaining soil health. Moreover, it is an age-old established concept for
recycling nutrients to the soil. It is simple and straightforward to adopt, for source
separated MSW. It does not require large capital investment, compared to other waste
treatment options. The technology is scale neutral. Composting is suitable for organic
biodegradable fraction of MSW, yard (or garden) waste/waste containing high
proportion of lignocelluloses materials, which do not readily degrade under anaerobic
conditions, waste from slaughterhouse and dairy waste.
This method, however, is not very suitable for wastes that may be too wet and during
heavy rains open compost plants have to be stopped. Land required for open compost
plants is relatively large. Also, issues of methane emission, odour, and flies from badly
managed open properly carried out there is possibility of toxic material entering the
stream of MSW.
VERMI-COMPOSTING :- Vermi-compost is the natural organic manure produced from
the excreta of earthworms fed on scientifically semi-decomposed organic waste. A few
vermi composting plants generally of small size have been set up in some cities and
towns in India, the largest plant being in Bangalore of about 100 MT/day capacity.
Normally, vermi-composting is preferred to microbial composting in small towns as it
requires less mechanization and it is easy to operate. It is, however, to be ensured that
toxic material does not enter the chain which if present could kill the earthworms.
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND BIOMETHANATION :- Biomethanation is a
comparatively well-established technology for disinfections, deodorization and
stabilization of sewage sludge, farmyard manures, animal slurries, and industrial sludge.
Its application to the organic fraction of MSW is more recent and less extensive. It leads
to bio-gas/power generation in addition to production of compost (residual sludge).
This method provides a value addition to the aerobic (composting) process and also
offers certain other clear advantages over composting in terms of energy. This method
is suitable for kitchen wastes and, other putrescible wastes, which may be too wet and
lacking in structure for aerobic composting. It is a net energy-producing process (100–
150 kWh per tonne of waste input). A totally enclosed system enables all the gas
produced to be collected for use.
A modular construction of plant and closed treatment needs less land area. This plant is
free from bad odour, rodent and fly menace, visible pollution, and social resistance. It
has potential for co-disposal with other organic waste streams from agro-based
industry. The plant can be scaled up depending on the availability of the waste.
INCINERATION :- This method, commonly used in developed countries is most suitable
for high calorific value waste with a large component of paper, plastic, packaging
material, pathological wastes, etc. It can reduce waste volumes by over 90 per cent and
convert waste to innocuous material, with energy recovery. The method is relatively
hygienic, noiseless, and odourless, and land requirements are minimal. The plant can
be located within city limits, reducing the cost of waste transportation.
This method, however, is least suitable for disposal of chlorinated waste and
aqueous/high moisture content/low calorific value waste as supplementary fuel may be
needed to sustain combustion, adversely affecting net energy recovery. The plant
requires large capital and entails substantial operation and maintenance costs. Skilled
personnel are required for plant operation and maintenance. Emission of particulates,
SOx , NOx, chlorinated compounds in air and toxic metals in particulates concentrated
in the ash have raised concerns.
PELLETIZATION :- It is basically a processing method for mixed MSW, which can be
very effective in preparing an enriched fuel feed for thermal processes like incineration
or industrial furnaces.
The RDF pellets can be conveniently stored and transported long distances and can be
used as a coal substitute at a lower price. As pelletization involves significant MSW
sorting operations, it provides a greater opportunity to remove environmentally harmful
materials from the incoming waste prior to combustion.
The process, however, is energy intensive and not suitable for wet MSW during rainy
season. If RDF fluff/pellets are contaminated by toxic/hazardous material, the pellets
are not safe for burning in the open or for domestic use.
SANITARY LANDFILLS AND LANDFILL GAS RECOVERY :- Sanitary landfills are the
ultimate means of disposal of all types of residual, residential, commercial and
institutional waste as well as unutilized municipal solid waste from waste processing
facilities and other types of inorganic waste and inerts that cannot be reused or recycled
in the foreseeable future.
Its main advantage is that it is the least cost option for waste disposal and has the
potential for the recovery of landfill gas as a source of energy, with net environmental
gains if organic wastes are landfilled. The gas after necessary cleaning, can be utilized
for power generation or as domestic fuel for direct thermal applications1 . Highly skilled
persMajor limitation of this method is the costly transportation of MSW to far away
landfill sites. Down gradient surface water can be polluted by surface run-off in the
absence of proper drainage systems and groundwater aquifers may get contaminated
by polluted leacheate in the absence of a proper leacheate collection and treatment
system
DRAWBACKS IN PRESENT SOLID WASTE MANGEMENT SERVICES
1. No Storage of Waste at Source :- There is no practice of storing the waste at
source in a scientifically segregated way. Citizens have not been educated to keep
domestic, trade, and institutional bins for storage of waste at source and stop littering on
the streets.
2. No System of Primary Collection from the Doorstep :- There is no public system
of primary collection from the source of waste generation. The waste discharged here
and there is later collected by municipal sanitation workers through street sweeping,
drain cleaning, etc. Street sweeping has, thus become the principal method of primary
[Link] are not required to operate a sanitary landfill.
3. Irregular Street Sweeping :- Even street sweeping is not carried out on a day-to-day
basis in most cities and towns in India. Generally commercial roads and important
streets are prioritized and rest of the streets are swept occasionally or not swept at all.
Generally, no sweeping is done on Sundays and public holidays and a back log is
created on the next working day.
The tools used for street sweeping are generally inefficient and out - dated. For
instance, the broom with a short handle is still in use forcing sweepers to bend for hours
resulting in fatigue and loss of productivity.
Traditional handcarts/tricycles are used for collection, which do not synchronize with the
secondary storage systems. Waste is deposited on the ground necessitating multiple
handling.
There are no uniform yardsticks adopted for street sweeping. Though, some
states/cities have prescribed work-norms, these are not very scientific. Most of the cities
allocate work to sanitation workers on ad hoc basis. The work distribution ranges
between 200 metres to 1000 metres of street sweeping each day. Some sanitation
workers are found under worked while some over burdened.
4. Waste Storage Depots :- As waste is collected through traditional
handcarts/tricycles that can carry only a small quantity of waste at a time, there is a
practice to set up depots for temporary storage of waste to facilitate transportation
through motorized vehicles. Generally, open sites or round cement concrete bins,
masonry bins or concrete structures are used for temporary bulk storage, which
necessitates multiple handling of waste. Waste often spills over which is both unsightly
as well as unhygienic.
5. Transportation of Waste :- Transportation of waste from the waste storage depots
to the disposal site is done through a variety of vehicles such as bullock carts, three-
wheelers, tractors, and trucks. A few cities use modern hydraulic vehicles as well. Most
of the transport vehicles are old and open. They are usually loaded manually. The fleet
is generally inadequate and utilization in optimal. Inefficient workshop facilities do not do
much to support this old and rumbling squad of squalid vehicles. The traditional
transportation system does not synchronize with the system of primary collection and
secondary waste storage facilities and multiple manual handling of waste results.
6. Processing of Waste :- Generally no processing of municipal solid waste is done in
the country. Only a few cities have been practising decentralized or centralized
composting on a limited scale using aerobic or anaerobic systems of composting. In
some towns un- segregated waste is put into the pits and allowed to decay for more
than six months and the semi-decomposed material is sold out as compost. In some
large cities aerobic compost plants of 100 MT to 700 MT capacities are set up but they
are functioning much below installed capacity. A few towns are practising vermi-
composting on a limited scale.
7. Disposal of Waste :- Disposal of waste is the most neglected area of SWM services
and the current practices are grossly unscientific. Almost all municipal authorities
deposit solid waste at a dump-yard situated within or outside the city haphazardly and
do not bother to spread and cover the waste with inert material. These sites emanate
foul smell and become breeding grounds for flies, rodent, and pests. Liquid seeping
through the rotting organic waste called leachate pollutes underground water and poses
a serious threat to health and environment.
Landfill sites also release landfill gas with 50 to 60 per cent methane by volume.
Methane is 21 times more potent than carbon dioxide aggravating problems related to
global warming. It is estimated by TERI that in 1997 India released about 7 million
tonnes of methane into the atmosphere. This could increase to 39 million tonnes by
2047 if no efforts are made to reduce the emission through composting, recycling, etc.
CASE STUDY: INTIATIVE TAKEN BY STATE GOVERNMENTS TO HANDLE SOLID
WASTE
Karnataka :- Karnataka formulated the state policy for implementation of Integrated
Solid Waste Management (ISWM) based on MSW Rules 2000 laying down guidelines
for all the activities under MSWM, defining roles and responsibilities of all the
stakeholders namely, ULBs, elected representatives, waste generators, NGOs, CBOs,
SHGs, etc. It created the post of Environmental Engineers in 123 local bodies to build
technical capability. SWM Action Plan and Management Plans for 56 cities were
prepared based on data pertaining to concerned ULBs.
The state also prepared technical manuals on (a) design and specifications of the tools
and equipment for SWM and (b) treatment and landfill operations. To promote SWM
practices at the local level it prepared a short film and issued six short books on MSWM
for educating stakeholders. A series of workshops was conducted for the local body
officials, elected representatives, NGOs, etc., for preparation of action plan, adoption of
state policy, identification of best practices, carrying out of Information, Education and
Communication (IEC) activities and identifying suitable landfill sites for treatment and
disposal of waste.
The state has issued orders for transfer of government land free of cost to the 226 local
bodies for sanitary landfills, issued guidelines for identification and purchase of private
land for this purpose and, if required, provides 100 per cent financial assistance to
purchase the identified land from a budget allocation of Rs 16.1 crore. The government
initiated action to develop scientific landfill sites in eight class 1 cities on BOT basis.
Gujarat :- Government of Gujarat has set up a state level committee headed by the
Principal Secretary, Urban Development and Urban Housing Department and a sub-
committee headed by a subject expert to identify systems for solid waste management.
All cities and towns have been advised to implement the recommended systems.
Regional and state level workshops have been conducted to provide training to all
responsible officers of ULBs and action plans have been prepared for almost all the
cities through the Gujarat Municipal Finance Board, a nodal agency of the state
government and City Manager’s Association, Gujarat. The state government has given
Rs 22 crore since 2000 to ULBs of class I cities/towns for the procurement of tools and
equipment.
Government of Gujarat has passed a resolution to allot land to municipal corporations at
25 per cent of the market value and to smaller local bodies on a token lease rent for a
period of 30 years for treatment and disposal of waste. Thus, 147 out of 149 cities and
towns have been able to earmark appropriate land and these sites have been duly
authorized by the state pollution control board for treatment and disposal of waste.
The year 2005 has been declared the Year for Urban Development. Under this initiative,
construction of treatment and disposal sites in all the 141 municipalities, has been taken
up centrally using expert agencies, state government funds and central government
grants. For this purpose, the state government has formed a core committee of
administrative and technical experts and identified the Gujarat Urban Development
Company as a nodal agency to facilitate the construction of treatment and disposal sites
through qualified contractors. The work is proposed to be taken up simultaneously in
four regions of the Gujarat state.
Besides bearing the full cost of construction of treatment and disposal facilities, using
12th Finance Commission grant and Urban Renewal Mission fund the state government
now proposes to give financial support ranging between 50 and 90 per cent to
municipalities for tools and equipment for collection, secondary storage, and waste
transportation facilities. The entire venture is expected to cost the government of
Gujarat Rs 346 crore. The 141 urban local bodies in the state (other than the
corporations) have been grouped in four to six categories and cost estimates have been
prepared for the construction of landfill sites and compost plants of standard designs for
different levels of cities/towns .
West Bengal :- The Government of West Bengal has launched a ‘West Bengal Solid
Waste Management Mission’ registered under the West Bengal Societies Registration
Act 1961 on 18 May 2005. The mission has been set up under the chairmanship of the
Chief Secretary to Government and a technical committee headed by the Secretary,
Department of Environment. Regulations have been framed and the powers, duties and
functions of the mission as well as technical advisory committee have been laid down.
The objective of the mission is to promote modernization of collection and transportation
of MSW and facilitate development of cost-effective technology for treatment and
disposal of the same in the state. Provision of technical and financial support to
municipal bodies, PRIs, and authorities of the statutory area for setting up of regional or
common solid waste management facilities is proposed.
The technical committee has prepared an action plan for implementing MSW Rules
2000 in the state. It has been envisaged that 25 to 30 regional facilities would be
constructed in the state to cover 126 ULBs including six corporations. One regional
facility would serve about five ULBs and each city would share the O&M cost in
proportion to the waste delivered for treatment and disposal.
The state government’s technical committee has prepared a tentative estimate of over
Rs 395 crore for supporting municipal authorities in the state if they agree to enter into a
cost sharing arrangement of a little over Rs 15 crore (cost estimates in Table 8.7).
Upgrading SWM services would include provisions for public awareness, capacity
building of the municipal authorities, procurement of tools, equipment, and vehicles for
primary collection, secondary storage and transportation of waste, construction of
transfer stations, procurement of large hauling vehicles for transportation, construction
of regional as well as individual compost plants and construction of about 25 regional
landfill facilities covering the entire state. The state government proposes to use the
funds allocated by the 12th Finance Commission as well as from the urban renewal
fund for this purpose.
The government of India has allocated Rs 393 crore to the municipalities in the state out
of which 50 per cent is earmarked for solid waste management in urban areas. Besides
another Rs 1271 crore have been allotted to panchayats out of which the state expects
to spend at least 10 per cent on solid waste management making a total Rs 323.60
crore. Some additional funds would be found from the urban renewal grant to be
allocated by the government of India and internal resources of the state as well as local
bodies.
FUNDS REQUIRED AND SOURCES OF FUNDS FOR SOLID WASTE MANGEMENT
Operational Expenditure :- SWM constitutes up to 10 to 50 per cent of municipal budget
expenditure depending on the income sources of the municipal authorities. The main
expenditure heads under SWM are in salaries and allowances, consumables, vehicles
repair and maintenance, contingencies and others. A recent survey by the National
Institute of Urban Affairs shows ‘salaries of sanitation workers’ for SWM in class I cities,
constitute as much as 75 per cent of total SWM expenditure. This is still higher at 85 per
cent in class II cities.
Capital Investments :- Capital costs for SWM in India are met from the current revenue
and borrowings. City level planning with related budget estimates, is usually absent in
most local bodies. Cities borrow funds from financial institutions such as HUDCO and
banks for financing equipment and vehicles to the extent their financial health permits.
SOURCES OF FUNDS
Conservancy Tax :- Traditionally, funding for solid waste systems comes from the
general fund. Most ULBs use a percentage of the property tax to support the solid waste
management system. This tax, known as conservancy tax, is easy to administer since
 no separate billing or collection system is needed. However, the disadvantage is that in
most Indian cities’ assessment and collection of property tax is poor and this poor base
provides for very little income.
User Charges :- Increased public awareness of solid waste issues and public
involvement in the decision-making process may provide the opportunity to adjust user
charges to reflect real costs of providing solid waste services. User charges if properly
administered: • are an equitable means of funding SWM services;

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