UNIT - 2

Social Cognition
● Social Cognition— defined as thoughts about social matters
● Children’s social cognition about their peers becomes increasingly important for
understanding peer relationships in middle and late childhood.
● Key are the ways in which children process information about peer relations and their
social knowledge.
● Children go through five steps in processing information about their social world. They
○ decode social cues,
○ interpret,
○ search for a response,
○ select an optimal response, and
○ enact.
■ Example: aggressive boys are more likely to perceive another child’s
actions as hostile when the child’s intention is ambiguous. And when
aggressive boys search for cues to determine a peer’s intention, they
respond more rapidly, less efficiently, and less reflectively than do
nonaggressive children.
● Social knowledge also is involved in knowing what goals to pursue in poorly defined or
ambiguous situations, how to initiate and maintain a social bond, and what scripts to
follow to get other children to be their friends.
■ For example, as part of the script for getting friends, it helps to know that
saying nice things, regardless of what the peer does or says, will make the
peer like the child more

Intentionality
● Refers to the ability of one’s mind to represent something. It is mostly ascribed to mental
states, such as perceptions, beliefs, and desires.
● Intentionality has been an area of focus in developmental psychology, as it contributes to
success in social situations. Understanding the intentions of others’ behaviors is
important for communication and achievng cooperative goals.
Theory of Mind
● Developmental psychologists often consider intentionality, specifically theory of mind, as
a prerequisite for higher-level understanding.
a. Theory of mind is the understanding that people’s actions are caused by internal
mental states, such as their beliefs, desires, and intentions. Once theory of mind
develops, we understand that people do things both because they want to and
know how to.
b. Examples of Theory of Mind in-action include: Perspective-taking,
Understanding False Beliefs, Empathy, Deception, Understanding others’
ignorance,Predicting behavior
● There are several developmental precursors (or skills) that infants need to develop their
theory of mind later on. These skills include:
a. Comprehension of the concept of attention,
b. Understanding the intentions of others
c. Pretend-Play (Imitating others )
d. Understanding the causes and consequences of emotions;
e. Understanding the people who have different likes/dislikes from ourselves.
● There are 5 stages to theory of mind, which are:
a. Stage 1: understanding that people can have different desires
b. Stage 2: understanding that people have different beliefs
c. Stage 3: understanding that people can have limited knowledge
■ In this stage, children learn that people do not always have the information
they have (“if someone hasn’t seen something, they will need extra
information to understand”). They learn that some people can therefore
believe something based on limited knowledge.
d. Stage 4: understanding that people can have false beliefs
■ In this stage, children learn that some people may have false beliefs about
the world around them. They understand that someone can believe
something that does not correspond to reality, even if they themselves
know that it is not true.
e. Stage 5: understanding that people can hide their emotions
 ■ In this stage, children learn that some people hide their emotions and that
they feel differently than how they behave. They understand that someone
can act happy, but is actually sad.
● It is important to mention that the development of theory of mind is not always linear.
Theory of mind develops at different speeds and some children may have difficulty
understanding social situations.
● It is generally assumed that children from the age of 4 can pass all theory of mind tasks.
These skills then continue to develop and improve late into adolescence and adulthood.

Flavell’s Perspective Taking

● Visual Perspective Taking is defined as the ability to see the world from another person’s
perspective, taking into account what they see and how they see it.
● In order to perform VPT successfully a person must draw upon both spatial and social
information.
○ The spatial information used in VPT includes what they can see/cant see
○ The social information used in VPT involves the simultaneous representation of
two differing points of view, taking into account whether someone else can see an
object, or how they see that object.
● By interpreting the spatial relationships between objects in a social framework it becomes
possible to form a rich representation of differing viewpoints which are useful in a variety
of social tasks.
● Flavell defined 2 levels of VPT, which are:
1. Visual Perspective-Taking (VPT) Level 1 (VPT1):
○ Basic ability to judge what a person can or cannot see (i.e., whether an
item is occluded from their line of sight).
○ Marks the period when children begin to understand that others may see
different things.
○ Example: Understanding that if a toy is behind a parent, the parent won’t
see it until they turn around.
○ Measured using tasks where children identify whether an adult can see an
item that may or may not be occluded.
 ○ Development occurs between 18–24 months in typical children.
2. Visual Perspective-Taking (VPT) Level 2 (VPT2):
○ Ability to understand that two people viewing the same scene or object
may not see it the same way.
○ Example: If two people stand on opposite sides of a car, one may see the
back and the other may see the front.
○ Measured by asking participants how someone else sees an object or
scene.
○ Develops later, around 4–5 years old.
○ Development of VPT Skills:
● VPT1 develops before VPT2
● Recent research suggests that implicit measures like eye tracking may show earlier
development of Theory of Mind (ToM) skills.
● Differences Between VPT1 and VPT2:
○ Embodiment-based distinction : VPT1 tasks involve only visual (line of sight)
information, whereas VPT2 requires full transformation of the viewpoint to that
of another person.
○ Implicit vs. Explicit Processing : VPT1 may operate implicitly, while VPT2
typically involves more explicit spatial processing.

IDENTITY - a self-portrait composed of many pieces including vocational/career identity,

political identity, religious identity, relationship identity, intellectual identity, gender identity,
sexual identity and so on

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

● Erik Erikson understood the importance of identity questions to understanding adolescent

development.
● According to Erikson’s theory, adolescents go through a developmental stage that he
called identity versus identity confusion.
● Erikson states that adolescents are faced with deciding who they are and what they are all
about.
 ● These questions about identity occur throughout life, but they become especially
important for adolescents. Erikson maintains that adolescents face an overwhelming
number of choices, as they gradually come to realize that they will be responsible for
themselves and their own lives.
● Identity during adolescence is aided by a psychosocial moratorium, which is the gap
between childhood security and adult autonomy.
● During this period, society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibilities, which
allows them to try out different identities.
● Adolescents in effect start experimenting with different roles and personalities.
● This experimentation is a deliberate effort on the part of adolescents to find out where
they fit into the world.
● Most adolescents eventually discard undesirable roles. Adolescents who do not resolve
this identity crisis suffer identity confusion.
● The confusion results in two paths: individuals withdraw, isolating themselves from peers
and family, or they immerse themselves in the world of peers and lose their identity in the
crowd.

Marcia’s Identity Status Theory

● James Marcia’s theory of identity development involves four statuses of identity. Crisis is
defined as a period of identity development during which the individual explores
alternatives. Commitment is a personal investment in identity.
● Identity diffusion
● It is the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or
made any commitments. They are undecided about occupational and
ideological choices, but they are also likely to show little interest in such
matters.
● Identity foreclosure
● It is the status of individuals who have made a commitment but have not
experienced a crisis. This occurs most often when parents hand down
commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian way, before
 adolescents have had a chance to explore different approaches, ideologies,
and vocations on their own.
● Identity moratorium
● This refers to the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but
whose commitments are either absent or only vaguely defined.
● Identity achievement
● This is the status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and have
made a commitment.
● During high school and college years, teens and young adults move from identity
diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement. The most significant
gains in the development of identity are in college, as college students are exposed to a
greater variety of career choices, lifestyles, and beliefs. This experience is likely to spur
on questions regarding identity. A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence
and young adulthood is about values and goals, as we strive to articulate a personal vision
or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future.

Criticisms of Marcia’s Identity Statuses:

● Identity status may not be global—different aspects of identity can be in different

statuses at the same time.
○ Example: One might be in foreclosure for religious identity, in moratorium for
career identity, and in achievement for gender identity.
● Identity statuses don’t always develop linearly as suggested, although it's the most
common progression.
● Not everyone reaches identity achievement in all areas of their identity.
● Individuals may not stay in the identity achievement status permanently.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of
right and wrong. Moral development has an intrapersonal dimension, which regulates a person’s
activities when they are not engaged in social interaction, and an interpersonal dimension, which
regulates social interactions and arbitrates conflict.
PIAGET’s THEORY

Piaget said that children go through two distinct stages in how they think about morality:

1. Heteronomous Morality:
○ The first stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory, occurring at 4 to 7 years
of age.
○ Justice and rules are seen as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from
the control of people.
○ They judge the rightness or goodness of behavior by considering its
consequences, not the intentions of the actor.
○ For example, to the heteronomous moralist, breaking twelve cups accidentally is
worse than breaking one cup intentionally.
○ The heteronomous thinker also believes in immanent justice, the concept that if a
rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.
○ The young child believes that a violation is connected automatically to its
punishment.
○ Thus, young children often look around worriedly after doing something wrong,
expecting inevitable punishment.
2. Autonomous Morality:
○ The second stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory, displayed by children
about 10 years of age and older.
○ At this stage, children become aware that rules and laws are created by people and
that in judging an action they should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the
consequences.
○ Intentions assume paramount importance.
● Piaget stressed that social understanding comes about through the mutual give-and-take
of peer relations.
● In the peer group, where others have power and status similar to the child’s, plans are
negotiated and coordinated.
 ● In parent-child relations, in which parents have the power, they are less likely to advance
moral reasoning, because rules are often handed down in an authoritarian way.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

● Lawrence Kohlberg suggested that there are six stages of moral development. These
stages are universal.
● Development from one stage to another is fostered by opportunities to take the
perspective of others and to experience conflict between one’s current stage of moral
thinking and the reasoning of someone at a higher stage.
● Kohlberg identified three levels of moral thinking, each of which is characterized by two
stages.

Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning

● Lowest level of moral reasoning, said Kohlberg. At this level, good and bad are
interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments.
a. Stage 1: Heteronomous morality orientation is the first stage in preconventional
reasoning. At this stage, moral thinking is tied to punishment. For example,
children think that they must obey because they fear punishment for disobedience.
b. Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation is the second stage in preconventional
reasoning. At this stage, individuals pursue their own interests (rewards or needs
satisfaction) but also let others do the same.

Level 2: Conventional Reasoning

● The second level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this level, individuals
abide by the standards of others such as parents or the laws of society.
a. Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation is Kohlberg’s third stage of moral
development. At this stage, individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as
a basis of moral judgments. Children and adolescents often adopt their parents’
moral standards
 b. Stage 4. Law and order orientation is the fourth stage in Kohlberg’s theory of
moral development. At this stage, moral judgments are based on understanding
the social order, law, justice, and duty.

Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning

● The highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the individual recognizes
alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral
code.
a. Stage 5. Social contract orientation is the fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage,
individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undercut or transcend the
law. A person evaluates the validity of actual laws and social systems in terms of
the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and
values.
b. Stage 6. Universal ethical principles orientation is the sixth and highest stage in
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed
a moral standard based on universal human rights. When faced with a conflict
between law and conscience, the person reasons that conscience should be
followed, even though the decision might bring risk
● Kohlberg stressed that encounters with peers can produce perspective-taking
opportunities that may advance a child’s moral reasoning.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's theory of moral development

● Cultural bias: eurocentric

● Gender bias: focused on males; because of differences in their socialization, males tend to
value principles of justice and rights, whereas females value caring for and helping others
● Too simple. For example, children may use higher levels of reasoning for some types of
problems, but revert to lower levels in situations where doing so is more consistent with
their goals or beliefs
● Vagueness of “cognitive stimulation” as the determinant of progression from stage to
stage
 ● Lack of empirical evidence especially that his stages form a logically hierarchical
sequence, and
● Inadequate focus on moral emotions (includes concern for human welfare as a
fundamental principle along with justice, but gives no account of the development of
consideration for others).

Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development - Ethics of Care

● Carol Gilligan has argued against Kohlberg’s Theory that, because of differences in their
socialization, males tend to value principles of justice and rights, whereas females value
caring for and helping others.
● Gilligan proposed a framework of three moral positions that represent different extents or
breadth of ethical care (a system of beliefs about human responsibilities, care, and
consideration for others).
● Unlike Kohlberg or Piaget, she does not claim that the positions form a strictly
developmental sequence, but only that they can be ranked hierarchically according to
their depth or subtlety. (hence is “semi-developmental”)
● The 3 positions are:
a. Position 1: Caring as Survival
■ The most basic kind of caring is a survival orientation, in which a person
is concerned primarily with his or her welfare.
■ The morally good choice will be whatever creates the least stress for the
self.
■ Responsibilities to others play little or no part in the thinking process.
b. Position 2: Conventional Caring
■ A more subtle moral position is caring for others, in which a person is
concerned about others’ happiness and welfare, and about reconciling or
integrating others’ needs where they conflict with each other.
■ Here, the morally good choice becomes whatever will please others the
best
■ This position is more demanding than Position 1, ethically, and
intellectually, because it requires coordinating several persons’ needs and
 values. Nevertheless, it is often morally insufficient because it ignores one
crucial person: the self.
c. Position 3: Integrated Caring
■ The most developed form of moral caring in Gilligan’s model is integrated
caring, the coordination of personal needs and values with those of others.
■ The morally good choice takes account of everyone, including yourself.
■ This perspective leads to moral beliefs that are more comprehensive but
ironically are also more prone to dilemmas because the widest possible
range of individuals is being considered.

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

● Prosocial behavior is motivated by altruism, an unselfish interest and voluntary effort in

helping another person.
● During infancy, characters who hinder or harm others are viewed more negatively by
infants as young as 4 months of age and that they will act to punish hinderers and to
reward helpers.
● Older infants and toddlers possess an intuitive sense of fairness that they use in
evaluating observed behavior.
● Critics argue that morality may emerge through infants’ early interaction with others and
evolve through developments in language and reflective thought.
● William Damon proposed that sharing during the first three years of life is done for
non-empathetic reasons such as the fun of social play or simply for imitation.
● At 4 years of age, a combination of empathetic awareness and adult encouragement
produces a sense of obligation on the part of the child to share with others.
● Prosocial behavior occurs more often in adolescence than in childhood.
● Cognitive changes involving advances in abstract, idealistic, and logical reasoning as
well as increased empathy and emotional understanding likely are involved. Young
adolescents increasingly sympathize with members of abstract groups with whom they
have little experience, such as people living in poverty in other countries.
● Three other aspects of prosocial behavior are forgiveness and gratitude.
 a. Forgiveness is an aspect of prosocial behavior that occurs when the injured person
releases the injurer from possible behavioral retaliation.
b. Gratitude is a feeling of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in response to
someone doing something kind or helpful.
c. One’s one emotional state at the time of event can increase or decrease prosocial
behavior
● Factors affecting PSB:
a. Empathy - Altruism (We help others because we experience any unpleasant
feelings they are experiencing, vicariously and want to help bring their negative
feelings to an end)
b. Negative State Relief (prosocial behavior is motivated by the bystander’s desire to
reduce their own uncomfortable/negative emotions or feelings)
c. Empathic Joy (prosocial behavior is motivated by the want to accomplish
something and doing so is rewarding in itself.)
d. Competitive Altruism (we help others to increase our own status reputation and so
we benefit from helping in important ways and this ultimately brings them large
benefits, more than the ones they achieve after engaging in prosocial behavior)
e. Defensive Helping (This motive for prosocial behavior suggests that help is given
to members of outgroups to reduce the threat they pose to the status or
distinctiveness of one’s own ingroup.)

Self-Concept:

● The self-concept is the amalgamation of ideas, feelings, and attitudes people hold about
themselves.
● Can impact various aspects of our behavior, such as how we interact socially based on
our self-perception (e.g., thinking you're too thin or too fat).

Key Characteristics of Self-Concept (Purkey):

● Multi-Dimensional - influenced by feedback from others.

● Learned:
○ Developed through experiences and feedback from others, starting in childhood.
 ○ Influenced by significant people like parents, teachers, and peers.
○ Feedback may be subjective and impact a child’s self-image, whether accurate or
not.
● Organized:
○ Provides consistency to personality, which is relatively permanent in nature.
● Dynamic:
○ Changes throughout life based on experiences and situations.
○ Individuals need to constantly integrate new thoughts and experiences into their
self-concept.

Real Self vs. Ideal Self (Carl Rogers):

● According to Rogers, three different components interact together to make up our

self-concept, they include
○ Real Self: Who we actually are.
○ Ideal Self: Who we aspire to be.
○ Self-Worth: How much value we place on ourselves
● Disparity between Real and Ideal Self:
○ The larger the gap, the more disharmony or incongruence we feel within
ourselves.
○ Congruence is achieved by aligning the real self with the ideal self.
○ High congruence is essential for high self-esteem and a healthy life.
● Incongruence:
○ A greater gap between real and ideal selves leads to low self-esteem, anxiety, and
maladjustment

Self-control:

● Refers to our ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour

● Leads to better adjustment and positive outcomes; Poor self-control may lead to negative
outcomes, such as failing exams or causing accidents
● Teaching children to delay immediate satisfaction of needs helps develop self-regulation.
○ Example: Choosing to study for an exam instead of watching a favorite movie.
Self-regulation:

● Involves focusing on long-term goals and sacrificing short-term pleasures (e.g., dieting to
achieve a healthy weight).
● It requires modifying behavior, acquiring skills, and adjusting strategies to achieve goals.

Self-control failure:

● Occurs when one is unable to regulate themselves due to personal or external factors.
● Excuses: Used to avoid personal responsibility when failure is due to controllable
factors.
● Uncontrollable factors: Can also hinder plans, such as cultural beliefs influencing
self-control.
● Self-control may depend less on impulse power and more on culturally internalized
beliefs.
● Individual differences in personality (e.g., ego-resilience, ego-control, hardiness) affect
self-control

Developing self-control:

1. Observe your own behavior:

○ Being mindful of thoughts, feelings, and actions helps in altering or strengthening
certain behaviors.
2. Self-instruction:
○ Using positive self-talk to guide behavior, especially when noticing negative or
destructive actions.
3. Self-reinforcement:
○ Rewarding positive behaviors (e.g., playing after completing assignments) helps
reinforce self-regulation.

Understanding of Self and Others

Developmental Self-Understanding Understanding Others

Stage
Infancy
● Self-recognition by around 18 ● Supported/Scaffolded by
months. caregiver and family interactions
● Use of personal pronoun “me”
● Able to recognize self in photos
follows aforementioned.

Early Childhood
● Concrete self-descriptions ● Use psychological traits to
(observable traits and actions) describe themselves and others.
● Physical self-descriptions ● Understand Deception
(physical/material attributes) ● Trust nice people more
● Active self-descriptions (by
doing things);
● Unrealistic positive
overestimations (difficulty in
distinguishing b/w real and
desired competencies).

Middle and Late

Childhood ● Social Comparisons ● Perspective-taking
● Real vs. Ideal Self ● Skepticism

Adolescence
● Abstract Thinking, ● Complex understanding
● Self-Consciousness, ● Public vs. Private Selves,
● Contradictions within the self ● In-depth Perspective-Taking.
and Fluctuating self,
● Self-Integration.

PEER RELATIONS:

● Research has established that social development proceeds in a three‐step sequence:

 a. Level 1 - Nonsocial Activity:
■ Unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play.
■ Common among children of 2-5 years; Declines with age
b. Level 2 - Parallel Play:
■ Children play near others with similar materials but do not directly
influence each other’s behavior.
■ Acts as a "way station" for preschoolers, providing a break from more
complex social interactions.
■ Remains stable and common from ages 3 to 6, coexisting with cooperative
play.
c. Level 3 - Associative Play:
■ Children engage in separate activities but share toys and comment on each
other’s behavior.
■ Marks the beginning of more direct social interaction.
d. Level 3 (yes, again) - Cooperative Play:
■ Children work together toward a common goal, such as in make-believe
scenarios or games.
■ Represents the highest level of social interaction and develops after
parallel and associative play.
● All forms of play (nonsocial, parallel, associative and cooperative) coexist in early
childhood rather than following a strict sequence.
● Types of solitary and parallel play change in cognitive maturity as children age, rather
than disappearing.
● Cultural Variations in Peer Sociability exist; In Collectivist Cultures like the Chinese
Culture, Reserved, quiet children are more readily included in play, reflecting collectivist
values that promote group harmony over self-assertion unlike Individualistic Cultures
like the American Culture.

Peer Relations and School Readiness:

● School Adjustment: Children who have friends when starting school adjust better and
show more cooperation and self-direction in tasks, linked to academic success.
 ● Social Skills Impact on Learning: Social competence in early childhood predicts better
academic performance. Socially skilled children outperform peers with similar
intelligence but fewer social skills.
● Kindergarten Readiness: Increasing emphasis on assessing social as well as academic
skills for school readiness. Warm, responsive teacher-child interactions are critical,
especially for shy or impulsive children, aiding social and academic competence.

Parental Influence - Present Directly and Indirectly

● Direct Parental Influences:

○ Arranging Play Activities: Parents who frequently arrange informal peer play
for preschoolers foster larger peer networks and better social skills.
○ Guidance on Social Skills: Parents who teach children how to manage conflicts,
avoid teasing, and join playgroups help improve their social competence and peer
acceptance.
● Indirect Parental Influences:
○ Secure Attachments: Secure attachment to parents is associated with better peer
interactions, larger social networks, and warmer friendships due to responsive and
emotionally expressive communication.
○ Parent-Child Play: Parent-child play, where parents engage as equals, supports
the development of peer interaction skills. Mothers' play is linked to daughters'
social competence, and fathers' play is linked to sons' competence.

POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT MODEL

GENDER AND SEXUALITY - Bell theory;

Sex differences and gender role socialization, sexuality, gender fluidity

Theories of Gender Socialisation

Social Learning Theory

Developed by Albert Bandura, this theory explains that learning occurs through both direct
reinforcement and observation. Originating from behaviorism, this theory suggests that children
learn gender roles based on positive or negative reinforcements. For example, a young boy
playing with dolls might be ignored by his father, a form of negative reinforcement that
discourages the behavior, while a girl who cries might receive a comforting hug, positively
reinforcing her emotional expression. Through such responses, children learn socially approved
behaviors: boys understand that playing with dolls is considered "inappropriate," while girls see
emotional expression as acceptable for their gender.

The theory also emphasizes observational learning—children imitate behaviors of same-sex

adults to understand gender roles. A girl may model herself on her mother’s actions to learn what
it means to be female, while a boy learns masculinity through observing his father.

Limitations:

● It cannot explain why there seems to be considerable variation in the degree to which
individual boys and girls conform to gender role stereotypes.
● It suggests that gender is more or less passively acquired but research shows children are
active participants in the socialization process.
 Gender Schema Theory Cognitive Developmental Theory

● Gender Schema Theory emphasizes ● Cognitive Developmental Theory

cultural influence on gender schemas. emphasizes stages of cognitive
development affecting gender
understanding.

● Gender Schema Theory proposes that ● Cognitive Developmental Theory

children organize information using suggests that gender identity develops
gender-based categories early on. progressively, aligning with cognitive
maturity.

● Gender Schema Theory posits that ● Cognitive Developmental Theory

children are motivated to act in argues that motivation follows the
gender-consistent ways based on development of gender constancy
learned schemas. (recognizing their gender as stable).

● Gender Schema Theory asserts that ● Cognitive Developmental Theory

gender-typed behaviors can emerge implies these behaviors emerge after
early, without full cognitive children achieve gender constancy.
understanding.

● Gender Schema Theory suggests ● Cognitive Developmental Theory does

children use gender as a primary not claim gender as a primary
framework for organizing information, framework but views it as one of
influenced by societal norms. many identity elements developing
with age.

● Gender Schema Theory suggests ● Cognitive Developmental Theory

gender schemas may remain rigid due proposes that as children age, they
to cultural reinforcement. adopt more flexible views of gender
roles.

Gender Fluidity
● Often, the dichotomous models of gender fail to capture the complexity, diversity, and
fluidity” of the gender experience.