Ancient Indian History

ANCIENT
Indian History

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 Ancient Indian History

Ancient Indian History

Contents
1.
The Stone Age-The Stone-Copper Phase..............................................7
Paleolithic Age................................................................................................................8
The Mesolithic Age.......................................................................................................12
Neolithic Age.................................................................................................................13
Chalcolithic Age............................................................................................................16

2. The Harappan Civilization......................................................................21

Important Features of city planning include:............................................................22
Economic Activities......................................................................................................23
Agriculture....................................................................................................................23
Industries and Crafts....................................................................................................24
Trade.............................................................................................................................25
Society...........................................................................................................................25
Religious Beliefs and Practices....................................................................................26

3. Advent of Aryans and - the Age of the Rig Veda The Later Vedic
Phase: Transition to State and Social Formation............................28
The Vedic Age................................................................................................................28
Vedic Literature............................................................................................................29
Early Vedic Economy....................................................................................................30
Later Vedic Economy....................................................................................................30
Political Organization..................................................................................................31
Social Difference between the Early and later Vedic people....................................31

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Early Vedic Religion.....................................................................................................33

4. Jainism and Buddhism.............................................................................35

Origin.............................................................................................................................35
Jainism...........................................................................................................................35
Tenets of Jainism..........................................................................................................36
Spread of Jainism..........................................................................................................36
Jainism...........................................................................................................................37
Buddhism......................................................................................................................38
Spread of Buddhism.....................................................................................................38
Buddhist Councils:........................................................................................................39
Buddhist Literature......................................................................................................41

5. Territorial States and the First Magadhan Empire........................42

Political Administration:.............................................................................................42
Monarchies or Kingdoms.............................................................................................43
State of Varna in the Society........................................................................................44

6. Iranian and Macedonian Invasions.....................................................46

Magadha........................................................................................................................46
Iranian Invasions..........................................................................................................46
Effects of the Iranian Invasion.....................................................................................47
Macedonian Invasion...................................................................................................47
Battle of Hydaspes (326 B.C).......................................................................................47
Effects of Alexander’s invasion....................................................................................47

7. The Age of the Mauryas Significance of the Maurya Rule............48

Mauryas.........................................................................................................................48
Literary Sources............................................................................................................48
Mauryan Administration.............................................................................................49
Revenue Administration..............................................................................................50

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Judicial Administration................................................................................................51
Census............................................................................................................................51
Local Administration....................................................................................................52
Commerce and Industry...............................................................................................52
Army..............................................................................................................................52
Agriculture....................................................................................................................53
Crafts and Goods...........................................................................................................53
Coins and Currency......................................................................................................54
Important Rulers of Mauryan Dynasty.......................................................................54
Extent of Ashoka’s Empire...........................................................................................55
Asoka’s Dhamma..........................................................................................................57
Decline of the Mauryan Empire...................................................................................59

8. The Age of the Satavahanas....................................................................62

Administration.............................................................................................................63
Society...........................................................................................................................64
Coinage System.............................................................................................................64
Architecture:.................................................................................................................65
Decline of Satavahanas:...............................................................................................66

9. The post- Mauryan age............................................................................67

Sunga Dynasty...............................................................................................................67
Foreign Invasions of Northwest India........................................................................68
The Shakas....................................................................................................................68
The Parthians................................................................................................................69
The Kushanas................................................................................................................69
Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.)..............................................................................................69
Polity and Administration...........................................................................................71
Kanishka and Buddhism..............................................................................................71
End of Kushana Rule.....................................................................................................73

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10. The Rise and Growth of Gupta Empire...............................................75

Sources..........................................................................................................................75
Political History............................................................................................................76
Extant of Samudragupta’s Empire...............................................................................78
Chandragupta II (AD 375–414)...................................................................................78
Decline of the empire...................................................................................................79
Adminstration...............................................................................................................79
Society...........................................................................................................................81
Religion.........................................................................................................................82
Economy........................................................................................................................82
Mining and metallurgy.................................................................................................83
Literature......................................................................................................................84
Science and Technology...............................................................................................85
Art and Architecture....................................................................................................85

11. The Harshavardhana Period.................................................................88

Pushyabhutis................................................................................................................88
Harsha’s Military Conquests........................................................................................88
Administration.............................................................................................................88
Religion.........................................................................................................................90
Harsha as a Patron of Art and Literature...................................................................90
Society...........................................................................................................................91
Nalanda University.......................................................................................................91

12. India’s cultural contacts with the Asian Countries.........................93

India and China.............................................................................................................93
India and Tibet..............................................................................................................93
Sumatra and Java..........................................................................................................94
Indian Culture in South East Asia................................................................................94

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13. The Sangam period...................................................................................95

Sangam Literature........................................................................................................95
Political History............................................................................................................96
The Cheras.....................................................................................................................96
The Cholas.....................................................................................................................97
The Pandyas..................................................................................................................98
Social Formation in Tamil Eco-zones..........................................................................98
Society and Economy....................................................................................................99
End of the Sangam Age.................................................................................................99

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The Stone Age

1
The Stone-Copper Phase

History
The word ‘history’ comes from the Greek historia (inquiry or investigation).
History is essentially a discipline that inquires into the experiences of people
who lived in the past. It helps us to understand those processes that enabled
the early humans to successfully conquer their environment and develop the
present day civilizations. It is also an analysis of society, economy and cultural
trends over a long period as reflected in available sources. It can be divide into
three parts:

History

Ancient Medieval Modern

History History History

Classification of Ancient History

The Indian stone age is divided into the palaeolithic, mesolithic, and
neolithic on the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone
tools, and subsistence base. It is also called the prehistoric period, i.e., the

Pre History

Stone Age
Bronze Iron Age
Age

Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic

Age(5,00000- Age(10,000 - Age(6000-
10,000 B.C) 4000 B.C) 1000 B.C)

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period before the development of the script, therefore the main source of
information for this period is the archaeological excavations.

Paleolithic Age
The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘palaeo’ which means
old and ‘lithic’ meaning stone. It is an ancient stage of human development,
characterized by the creation and use of basic chipped stone tools.
Main characteristics of the Palaeolithic age –
1. The Indian people are believed to have belonged to the ‘Negrito’ race,
and lived in the open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters.
2. They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived on
hunting.
3. There was no knowledge of houses, pottery, agriculture. It was only in
later stages they discovered fire.
4. In the upper palaeolithic age, there is evidence of art in the form of
paintings.
5. Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades,
burins and scrapers
Main characteristics of the Palaeolithic age –

 The people lived in the river valleys, caves and rock shelters.
 They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived on hunting.
 Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades, burins
and scrapers.

On the basis of the nature of progress made in tool types and techniques the
Palaeolithic cultures have been divided into three phases.

 Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC

 Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC

 Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

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Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC

The main tools of lower Palaeolithic
phase were handaxes, cleavers and choppers.
These were rough and heavy and were made by
chipping the sides of the stones. Limestone was
also used to make tools. Lower Palaeolithic tools
have also been found in the Belan valley in UP
and in the desert area of Didwana in Rajasthan
Fig: Tools of lower Paleolithic
 One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic Age
sites is Bori in Maharashtra. And also the sites have been found in the valley of
river Son or Sohan in Punjab, now in Pakistan.Several sites have been found
in Kashmir and the Thar desert.

Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC

In the middle paleolithic
there is a shift towards smaller,
lighter flake tools, some of them
made by prepared core techniques,
including the Levallois technique.
Middle palaeolithic tools have been
found in many parts of the
subcontinent, such as

 Didwana (Rajasthan)
 The Hiran valley (Gujarat)
 The Belan valley (UP)

In South India, the middle Fig: Middle Paleolithic tools

palaeolithic culture is marked by a
flake tool industry. On the Visakhapatnam coast, quartzite, chert, and quartz were
frequently used to make stone tools.

Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

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 The important technical advance of the upper palaeolithic was the making of
parallel sided blades. There was also an increase in the number of burins which
have been found in AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra, central MP, southern UP,
Jharkhand and adjoining areas.
 Caves and rock shelters for use by human beings in the Upper Palaeolithic
phase have been discovered at Bhimbetka
 An Upper Palaeolithic assemblage, characterized by comparatively large flakes,
blades, burins, and scrapers has also been found in the upper levels of the
Gujarat sand dunes.

Fig: Upper Paleolithic tools

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The Mesolithic Age

The term mesolithic is generally used for hunting gathering stone age cultures
marked by the use of microliths . The mesolithic economy, have given
evidence of the domestication of animals. Some sites seem to have been
permanent or semi-permanent settlements, or at least settlements that were
repeatedly inhabited over long periods of time. Also Many environmental
changes took place during this Age like,

 Increasing aridity in soil.

 High Rainfall etc.

Fig Mesolithic tools

Microliths range in length from under 1 cm to 5 cm. The tools are mostly
made on short parallel-sided blades made of crypto-crystalline silica stone
such as quartzite, chert, chalcedony, jasper, and agate.

Mesolithic people made a number of technological innovations like bow and arrow
for hunting; querns, grinders and hammer stones for grinding and pulverising plant
foods like roots, tubers and seeds; and regular use of fire for Indian Mesolithic
Cultures roasting meat, tubers, etc. They created a large volume of art in the form of
several thousand paintings and engravings, which not only tell us about their
aesthetic taste but also about their capability for innovating new technological

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elements, modes of subsistence economy, items of material culture, social

organisation and religion.

Fig: Mesolithic sites in India

Neolithic Age
The ‘neolithic Age’ or the ‘New Stone Age’ in the Indian subcontinent dates back to
around 8000 BC. The term ‘Neolithic’ was coined by Jonn Lubbock. The chief

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characteristic of this age was the new type of ground and polished stone tools. The
Neolithic culture had following characteristics:

 Beginning of agricultural activities

 Domestication of animals
 Grinding and polishing of stone tools having sharper edges
 Use of pottery
 beginning of settled life and the growth of village settlements

Fig Neolithic tools in Fig Bone tools in

Burzahom Burzahom

Tools

 The Neolithic tools consist of the ground tools having smooth surfaces, and
wellrounded and symmetrical shapes. The grinding made the tools sharper,
polished and more effective than those in the earlier period.
 The ground stone tools of the Neolithic period included different types of axes
called ‘celt’.

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 Besides the stone tools, the sites of this period have also yielded various types
of bone objects such as needles,scrapers, borers, arrowheads, pendants,
bangles and earrings.

The various Neolithic sites of the Indian subcontinent and the findings include:

 North-western region – The areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan-At Mergarh

the earliest evidence of plant and animal domestication can be seen.
 Northern region – The region of Kashmir- evidence of pit dwellings is found.
 The Belan valley - Neolithic sites have cord-marked pottery and produced
evidence for transition from hunting gathering to agriculture.

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 The Vindhyan hills and the Ganga valley - show evidence of plant and
animal domestication
 North-eastern region – Assam and the sub-Himalayan region- traits of
shouldered axes , Cord marked and paddle impressed potteries are found .
 Southern region – Peninsular India, mainly Andhra, Karnataka and parts
of Tamil Nadu- Ash mounds in the early stages and evidence of plant and
animal domestication is found

Social Organization and Belief System

 People began to live in sedentary and semi sedentary settlements. They

perhaps had tribe level social organization.
 The idea of land and plant ownership emerged, as they domesticated plants
and animals. The presence of small houses may suggest nuclear families.
 The ceramics and beads suggest the improvement in material cultural
production.
 People had demarcated certain territories.
 The dead were buried within the houses and sometimes, animal burials are
also found. They suggest the adoption of certain rituals and the worship of the
dead.
 They may have worshipped the natural forces. Evidence of art objects is
limited; the terracotta images of cattle suggest some fertility cult.

Chalcolithic Age
Copper was the first metal to be used by man for making tools. Gradually several
cultures developed in Indian subcontinent which were based on the use of stone and
copper tools. They also used bronze, a mixture of copper and tin, for this purpose. This
phase in history is known as the Chalcolithic chalco-Copper; lithic-Stone) period.
Features of Chalcolithic Age

 Polychrome painted pottery is a key distinguishing feature of the Chalcolithic

period. "Fenestrated pottery," pots with holes cut into the walls, was
discovered in Chalcolithic sites.

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 Farmers traditionally produced domestic animals such as sheep, cattle, and

pigs, supplementing their food with hunting and fishing.
 Fruit trees (such as fig and olive) and milk and byproducts were significant.
 Chalcolithic farmers built their houses out of stone or mudbrick. A chain
building is a type of design that consists of a row of rectangular houses joined
by common party walls on the short ends.
 Burials ranged from single interments to jar burials to small box-shaped above-
ground ossuaries and even rock-cut tombs.
 Knives, axes, fishing hooks, chisels, pins, and rods were all made from metals
such as copper and its alloys.

The identification of Chalcolithic cultures based on their geographic location include:

Ahar Culture
The Ahar culture –also known as the Banas culture, is derived from the name of the
valley in which most of the sites of this culture are located is one of the earliest
Chalcolithic cultures of India.
Agriculture and domestication

 The evidence of rice has been noticed at Ahar in the form of impressions on
potsherds. The other crops cultivated during this period were wheat, barley,
milletbajra and jawar.
 Faunal remains of domesticated species like cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, dog
and fowl have been recovered from excavations.
 The wild animals hunted were sambhar, nilgai, chital, blackbuck and wild boar.
The evidence suggests mixed economy of cultivation and hunting gathering.

Social Organization:

 The presence of specialised classes of craftsmen can be found. The evidence of

fortification at Balathal implies that there may have been destructive conflicts.

Kayatha Culture
This Chalcolithic culture was named after the type site Kayatha, in Ujjain dist., Madhya
Pradesh.

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Features of Kayatha Culture

 People lived in small huts with well-rammed floors and wattle and daub walls
supporting a thatched roof.
 A mixed economy was practiced as seen from evidence on subsistence
farming, stock raising and hunting-fishing.
 Barley and wheat were grown.
 Domesticated animals included cattle and sheep/goat. Also, horse remains
have been found from the Chalcolithic level at Kayatha.

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Malwa Culture

 The Malwa culture is the most predominant chalcolithic culture of central

India, with a wide distribution of sites almost all over Malwa region.It can be
traced out at Maheshwar, on river Narmada.
 The Sites are mostly found on the banks of the tributaries.
 A sort of two level settlement pattern existed, consisting of a large number of
small villages and a few large villages.
 At Inamgaon houses of the Malwa period have been identified, which were
large rectangular structures with a low partition wall in the middle. Inside the
room were low mudwalls with large fire pits and pit silos meant for storage.
 Circular pit dwellings also existed at Inamgaon.

Jorwe Culture

 The Jorwe culture is the most important and characteristic chalcolithic culture
of Maharashtra, extending almost all over the present state, excepting the
coastal strip on the west and Vidarbha in the north east.
 The culture is named after the type site of Jorwe in Ahmadnagar district,
Gujrat.
 In regions, such as, Prakash in the Tapi valley, Daimabad in the Pravara
Godavari valley and Inamgaon in the Bhima valley large centres of this culture
were found.
 The Early Jorwe houses were rectangular in plan while the Late Jorwe houses
were circular.
 A variety of crops were grown, and the Jorwe farmers have also been credited
for practicing crop rotation.
 The principal crops were barley, wheat, jowar, rice, ragi, green pea, grass pea,
lentil, and green and black gram.
 Many child burials were found in urns laid in pits. In case of adults, the portion
below the ankles was chopped off in Inamgaon and Daimabad.

The Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture

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 The OCP or the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture is named after a ceramic type
which is extremely rolled and fragile.
 It has a wash of red ochre which is easily washed off and hence its name.
 OCP sites have been found in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh.

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture

 Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is a very fine, smooth, and even-coloured grey
pottery, with a thin fabric. It was made out of well-worked, very high quality
clay.
 The main concentration of the sites is in the Indo-Gangetic divide, Sutlej basin,
and upper Ganga plains.
 Structural remains at PGW levels consist mainly of wattle-and-daub and mud
huts. Unbaked bricks and one baked brick were found at Hastinapura.
 Jakhera represents a fairly-evolved proto-urban stage of this culture.
 The PGW sites indicate a subsistence base that included cultivation of rice,
wheat and barley. Double cropping was possibly practiced.
 There is no actual evidence of irrigation facilities, but a few deep circular pits
outside the habitation area at Atranjikhera are indicative of kachcha wells.
 Animal husbandry was also practiced.

PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) Neolithic period of age is not characterised by (1980)
a) Agriculture
b) Use of copper
c) Domestication of animals
d) Fishing
ANSWER: B
2) Man passed from the food gathering stage ot the food producing stage in
the (1988)
a) Neolithic age
b) Mesolithic age
c) Chalcolithic age

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d) Palaeolithic age
ANSWER: A

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The Harappan Civilization

2
Harappan Civilization:
 The Indus Valley Civilization flourished between 2600 BC and 1900 BC on the
banks of the river Indus. This is also called Harappan Civilization after the
first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan). The Indus Valley was
home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India and China.
 The abundance of sculptures, seals, pottery, jewelry, and other artifacts
discovered at the excavation sites were a defining characteristic of this ancient
civilization.
 One of the earliest
and best examples of
urban civic
planning can be
found at the two
main sites of this
civilization,
Harappa and
Mohenjo-daro.

The Harrapan Cities in

the Subcontinent Map

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Important Features of city planning include:

 Most houses had a separate bathing area, and some had wells to supply water.
Many of these cities had covered drains that were laid out, in straight lines.
 Mostly, drains in houses were connected to those on the streets and smaller
drains led into bigger ones. Also the drains were covered, and inspection holes
were provided at intervals to clean them.

(a) A street in Mohenjodaro with a drain and a

well.
(b)A view of citadel and the lower town.

The ancient city of Dholavira is an archaeological site at Kachchh District, in the

state of Gujarat. It comprises two parts: a walled city and a cemetery to the west
of the city. A series of reservoirs are found to the east and south of the Citadel.
UNESCO has placed the Harappan city of Dholavira in Gujarat as

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India’s 40th world heritage site. It is the first site of Indus Valley Civilisation
(IVC) in India.

Economic Activities
Agriculture
 Agriculture along with pastoralism (cattle-rearing) was the base of
Harappan economy.
 The availability of fertile Indus alluvium contributed to the surplus in
agricultural production. It helped the Harappan people to indulge in exchange,
both internal and external, with others and also develop crafts and industries.
 The granaries discovered at sites like Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Lothal
served as the storehouses for grains.
 Furrows or plough-marks have been observed in a field at Kalibangan. These
indicate plough cultivation.
 A terracotta plough has also been reported from Banawali in Hissar district of
Haryana. The irrigation was carried on a small scale by drawing water from
wells or by diverting river water into channels.
 The chief food crops included wheat, barley, sesasum, mustard, peas, jejube,
etc. The evidence for rice has come from Lothal and Rangpur in the form of
husks embedded in pottery.
 Cotton was another important crop. A piece of woven cloth has been found at
Mohenjodaro.
 Apart from cereals, fish and animal meat also formed a part of the Harappan
diet.

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Industries and Crafts

 The Harappan people were aware of almost all
the metals except iron. They manufactured
gold and silver objects.
 The gold objects include beads, armlets, needles
and other ornaments. But the use of silver was
more common than gold. A large number of
silver ornaments, dishes, etc. have been
discovered.
 A number of copper tools and weapons like
axe, saws, chisels, knives, spearheads and
arrowheads were found.
 Stone tools were also commonly used.
 Copper was brought mainly from Khetri in Figure 1: Dancing Girl
Rajasthan. Gold might have been obtained
from the Himalayan river-beds and South India, and silver from Mesopotamia.
 The evidence of the use of the bronze though in limited manner is as seen. The
most famous specimen in this regard is the bronze ‘dancing girl’ figurine
discovered at Mohenjodaro.
 Bead-making also was an important craft.

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 Ivory carving and inlaying used in beads, bracelets and other decorations were
also in practice. The Harappans thus showed their masterly skill in a variety of
arts and crafts.

Fig: Terracotta toys

Trade
 Trading network, both within the
country and foreign, was a
significant feature of the urban
economy of the Harappans.
 The inscriptional evidence from
Mesopotamia also provides with
valuable information on Harappan
contact with Mesopotamia.
 They indicate that Mesopotamia
imported copper, carnelian, ivory,
shell, lapis-lazuli, pearls and ebony
from Meluhha (Harappan region). The export from Mesopotamia to Harappans
included items such as garments, wool, perfumes, leather products and sliver.

Society
 The Harappan society appears to have been matriarchal in nature. This view
is supported by the popularity of the mother goddess and a large number of
terracotta female figurines in Punjab and Sind region.
 The Harappan Society comprised of people following diverse professions.
These included the priests, the warriors, peasants, traders and artisans
(masons, weavers, goldsmith, potters, etc.)
 The structural remains at sites such as Harappa and Lothal show that different
types of buildings that were used as residence by different classes.

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 Men are mostly shown wearing a dress wrapped round the lower half of the
body with one end worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm.
 They used cotton and woollen clothes. A piece of woven cloth has been found
at Mohenjodaro. Spindles and needles discovered at many sites attest to the
practice of spinning and weaving.
 The people were also fond of ornaments. These mainly included necklaces,
armlets, earrings, beads, bangles, etc.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

 Despite having the engineering know-
how, the Indus Valley civilization did not
build any huge monuments. Despite the
presence of religious elements, no
settlements have been found that show a
dominant religious influence.
 They Harappan worshipped trees,
stones ,animals etc.A large number of
terracotta figurines discovered at the
Harappan sites have been associated with
the worship of mother goddess.
 Harappans’ belief in a male deity is evident by the seal depicting a deity with a
buffalo horned head-dress, sitting in a yogic posture and surrounded by
animals He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo
each facing a different direction). Two deer appear on his feet. He is identified
as God Pashupati (Lord of beasts) or ‘Proto-Shiva’.

PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) Which one of the following animals was not represented on the seals and
terracotta art of the Harappan culture? (2001)
a) Cow
b) Elephant

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c) Rhinoceros
d) Tiger
ANSWER: A
2) Regarding the Indus valley civilization, consider the following statements?
(2011)
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though
present, did not dominate the scene.
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India _
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
ANSWER: C
3) Which one of the following is not a Harappan site? (2019)
a) Chanhudaro
b) Kot Diji
c) Sohagaura
d) Desalpur
ANSWER: C
4) Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system
of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and
channelising water into connected reservoirs? (2021)
a) Dholavira
b) Kalibangan
c) Rakhigarhi
d) Ropar
ANSWER: A
4) Consider the following pairs: (2021)
(Historical place) (Well-known for)
1. Burzahom : Rock-cut shrines
2. Chandra-ketugarh : Terracotta art

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3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2
c) 3 only
d) 2 and 3
ANSWER: D

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Advent of Aryans and

3 the Age of the Rig Veda
The Later Vedic Phase: Transition to State and Social Formation

The Vedic Age

By 1500 B.C., the towns of the Harappan Culture had declined. As a result, their
economic and administrative systems gradually deteriorated. Around this time,
speakers of the Indo-Aryan language Sanskrit arrived in northwestern India from
the Indo-Iranian region.

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 Ancient Indian History

 They would have come in small groups at first through the passages in the
northwestern mountains. Their first settlements were in the northwestern
lowlands and the Punjab plains. They later spread into the Indo-Gangetic
plains. During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the
Indus region.

Vedic Literature
The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means to know. In other words,
the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the
four Vedas namely:

Rig Yajur
Veda Veda

Athar
Sama
va
Veda
Veda

 The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns.
The hymns were sung in praise of various gods. The Rig Veda also refers to
Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab,
namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be
traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.
 The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time
of sacrifice.
 The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is
called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it.
 The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.

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Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like :

 The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony.
The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with topic like the soul, the
absolute, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature.
 The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites,
rituals and sacrifices.

Early Vedic Economy

 The Vedic Aryans were pastoralists in the beginning. Their main source of
income was cattle rearing.
 Cattle, sheep, goats, and horses were raised for milk, meat, and hides. People
were involved in a variety of economic activities aside from cattle-rearing and
small-scale agriculture such as Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-
making, metal smelting, and others.
 Barter was used to exchange the fruits of these activities. Cows, on the other
hand, were the most popular medium of commerce.
 Priests were paid in cows, horses, and gold jewelry for performing sacrifices.

Later Vedic Economy

 Agriculture became the Vedic people's staple during the later Vedic period.
Buffalo was domesticated for agricultural uses. During this time, the god Indra
was bestowed with the title "Lord of the Plough."
 Apart from barley, they also cultivated wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet,
sugarcane, and other crops. With the advent of food production, agricultural
products began to be offered in ceremonies. Tila, the source of the first
extensively utilized vegetable cooking oil, was gradually used in ceremonies.
 The introduction of iron around 1000 BC was a major element in the spread of
the Aryan culture throughout the later Vedic period.
 The advent of iron tools now allowed people to remove dense rain forests
more effectively, particularly the massive stumps left after fire. Large areas of
forestland could be transformed into cultivable land in a relatively short period
of time.

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CRAFT PRODUCTION
The Rig Veda mentions artisans such as carpenters, chariot-makers, weavers
and leather-workers. Copper metallurgy was one of the important
developments of this period. The term ayas in the Rig Veda refers to copper and
bronze. Karmara, smith, is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Likewise, there are
references to siri or yarn, indicating spinning which was done by women and to
carpenters, takshan.

Political Organization
The basic unit of political organization was kula or family. Several families joined
together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama. The leader of grama
was known as gramani. A group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was
headed by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe. There were
several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas,
Yadus and Purus. The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic
polity was normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king was
assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of the army in his
administration. There were two popular bodies called the Sabha and Samiti. The
former seems to have been a council of elders and the latter, a general assembly of the
entire people.

Social Difference between the Early and later Vedic people

EARLY VEDIC AGE LATER VEDIC AGE

 The family was the basic unit of  The family remained the basic
the Rigvedic society. It was unit of the Vedic society.
patriarchal in nature However, the later Vedic family
Monogamy was the usual norm became large enough to be called

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of marriage but the chiefs at a joint-family with three or four

times practiced polygamy. generations living together.

 The Rigvedic society was a simple  The four divisions of society

and largely an egalitarian (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
society. There was no caste and Sudras) or the Varna system
division. Occupation was not was thoroughly established
based on birth. Members of a during the Later Vedic period.
family could adopt different The two higher classes -
occupations. Brahmana, and Kshatriya enjoyed
privileges that were denied to the
Vaisya and Sudra. Many sub-
castes on the basis of their
occupation appeared in this
period.

 The women in society enjoyed  According the Aitreya

respectable position. She was Brahmana a daughter has been
married at a proper age and could described as a source of misery.
choose a husband of her own Child marriages were common.
choice.  The power of the father increased
 Women were given equal during the Later Vedic period and
opportunities as men for their they were considered inferior
spiritual and intellectual and subordinate to men.
development. There were women  The participation of women in
poets like Apala, Viswavara, public meetings was restricted.
Ghosa and Lopamudra during the
Rig Vedic period.
 She could take part in the
proceedings of the tribal
assemblies called sabha and

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samiti.

Transition of settlements in later Vedic Age:

 With the intensification of agriculture, the Later Vedic people led a settled life
leading to formation of territorial units.
 Lineages of clans and small kingdoms arose in several regions of the Ganga
valley, leading to the creation of the state after 600 BCE.
 People lived either in mud-brick houses or houses with wattle and daub walls.
 The term nagara, referring to commercial quarters, is found in the later Vedic
texts. However, large towns appeared only at the end of the Vedic period.
 The sites of Hastinapura and Kausambi are considered proto urban (urban-
like) settlements.

Early Vedic Religion

 Religion and rituals played an important role in Vedic society. In the Rig Veda,
the natural forces sun, moon, rivers, mountains and rains were defined as
divinities. The religion was naturalistic and polytheistic. Indra was the most
important god and he was called Purandara. Agni was seen as intermediary
between God and people. Ushas was the goddess of dawn. Aditi, Prithvi and
Sinivali are other goddesses.
 Rituals were adopted as a solution to many issues and the problems of day-to-
day life and thus the priests had an important role in the society.

Changes in the later Vedic Religion

 The Vedic gods Agni and Indra lost their importance. Prajapati became the
main deity. Rudra, the god of rituals, identified with Siva, became important.
 Another important feature was the increase in the frequency and number of
the yajna which generally ended with the sacrifices of a large number of
animals. This was probably the result of the growing importance of a class of
brahmanas and their efforts to maintain their supremacy in the changing
society. These yajnas brought to them a large amount of wealth in form of

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dana and dakshina. Some of the important yajnas were - ashvamedha,

vajapeya, rajasuya etc.

Numerous rituals were prescribed for solving all kinds of day to day problems. The
resort to rituals and sacrifices as a solution for problems led to the view that
material wealth could achieve anything. The ideas in the Upanishads argue against
such a view, and stress the importance of realising the atman or inner self. Such
degeneration of rituals and the material-oriented nature of the priests created
dissension and led to the development of heterodox faiths such as Buddhism and
Jainism which emphasized correct human behaviour and discipline.

PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of

a) Bhakti
b) Image worship and Yajnas
c) Worship of nature and Yajnas
d) Worship of nature and Bhakti

ANSWER: C

2) Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, chiefly contains

a) Collection of hymns to gods

b) Methods of Vedic yagnas
c) Early Aryan culture
d) Origin and works of Hindy gods

ANSWER: A

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4 Jainism and Buddhism

Origin
The religious upheaval in India in the sixth century B.C. was the fundamental cause of
the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism. The complicated ceremonies and sacrifices
laid out during the Later Vedic period were unacceptable with the common people.

 Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors, the rigid caste
system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher classes
enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower classes. The growth
of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas.
As a result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna
system did not allow this.
 Therefore, when new religions such as Jainism and Buddhism preached the
concept of peace and social equality, people welcomed it. These religions
emphasized that true happiness does not lie in material prosperity or
performance of rituals but in charity, frugality, non-violence, and good social
conduct.

Buddhism and Jainism were not the only religions, which

Jainism
challenged brahmanical dominance. According to the
Buddhist sources,Mahavira,
 Vardhaman more than 62 sectsasand
is regarded the philosophies
founder of Jainism. He was born in
flourished in this period. One of these sects was
599 BC near Vaishali in Bihar. He was twenty-fourthknown andas the last tirthankara of
Ajivika, whichJainism
Jainism. was founded
believedby Makkhali
that the mainGoshal.
goal of Ajivakas
human life is the purification of
were very popular in Magadh in the third century
soul and attainment of nirvana, which means freedom BC and from birth and death.
MauryanThiskings
can bedonated
achievedseveral caves rituals
not through in the and
honour of but by pursuance of
sacrifices
Ajivaka monks. and panchamahavrata(Five Great Vows).
triratna

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Tenets of Jainism
The central tenet of Jainism is non-violence.
Triratnas

 Jain discipline requires adherence to certain rigorous rules. The Jains are
required to follow three principles called Triratnas or Three Gems.
 Right faith (samyag-darshana)
 Right knowledge (samyag-jnana)
 Right conduct (samyag-mahavrata)

Five Great Vows

The monks have to undertake the five great vows (pancha-mahavrata):

 Not to kill or injure (ahimsa)

 Not to steal (asteya)
 Not to lie (satya)
 Celibacy (brahmacharya)
 Not to possess property (aparigraha)

Mahavira regarded all objects, both animate and inanimate, have souls and various
degrees of consciousness. They possess life and feel pain when they are injured.
Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals. He
advocated a very holy and ethical code of life.

 Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to the
earth, worms and animals. Similarly the doctrine of asceticism and
renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by the practice of starvation,
nudity and other forms of self-torture

Spread of Jainism
 Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men
and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers.

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 It spread rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya,

Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as the
Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism.

Jainism
 Vardhaman Mahavira, is regarded as the founder of Jainism. He was born in
599 BC near Vaishali in Bihar. He was twenty-fourth and the last tirthankara of
Jainism. Jainism believed that the main goal of human life is the purification of
soul and attainment of nirvana, which means freedom from birth and death.
This can be achieved not through rituals and sacrifices but by pursuance of
triratna and panchamahavrata(Five Grea Vows)

 By the end of the fourth century B.C., due to a serious

famine in the Ganges valley there was division of Jainism
into two sects
 Svetambaras (whiteclad) - led by Bhadrabagu and
Chandragupta Maurya who came to Sravana Belgola in
Karnataka.
 Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked)- led by a monk named
Sthulabahu who stayed back in North India.

Jain Councils

 The first Jain Council was convene

 d at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning
of the 3rd century B.C.
 The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th century A.D. The final
compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this
council.

Decline of Jainism in India

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 Absence of royal patronage

 Split amongst Jains as Digambaras and Swetambaras
 The severity of practices
 Spread of Buddhism as a rival faith led to the decline of Jainism

Buddhism
Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.)

 Gautama Buddha was born as Siddhartha in the Sakya clan to its king
Suddhodhana and his chief queen Mahamaya. At the age of sixteen he married
Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. The sight of an old man, a diseased
man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life. He left home
at the age of twenty nine in search of Truth. He wandered for seven years and
at last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after
which he got Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since then he
became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He delivered his first
sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next forty five years he led the
life of a preacher. He died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara.

Teachings of Buddha
The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are:

 The world is full of suffering.

 The cause of suffering is desire.
 If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.
 This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct,
right livelihood, right effort, and right mindfulness.

Spread of Buddhism
Buddha had two kinds of disciples –

 Monks (bhikshus) - The monks were organized into the Sangha for the
purpose of spreading his teachings. The membership was open to all persons,

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male or female and without any caste restrictions. There was a special code for
nuns restricting their residence and movement. Sariputta, Moggallana and
Ananda were some of the famous monks.
 Lay worshippers (upasikas).
The Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce
discipline among its members. Owing to the organised efforts made by the
Sangha, Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s
life time
Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states of North India
embraced this religion. The Mauryan Emperor Asoka embraced Buddhism.
Through his missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and
Ceylon. Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion

Buddhist Councils:

Buddhist Council Place Importance

First Buddhist Council Rajagriha  Held under the patronage of Ajata

(after Buddha’s death) Satru. It was headed by Upali.
 Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka.
Ananda recited Sutta Pitaka.

Second Buddhist Council Vaishali The Buddhist Order split into two:

 Sthaviravadins or ‘Believers in
the Teachings of the Elders’
 Mahasanghikas or ‘Members of
the Great Community’.

Third Buddhist Council Pataliputra  Held under the patronage of

Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa
presided over it
 The Sthaviravadins established

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themselves strongly and expelled

the heretics.
 The last section called
“Kathavatthu” was added to
Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Fourth Buddhist Council Kashmir  Held during the reign of

Kanishka under the
chairmanship of Vasumitra.
 Asvagosha participated in this
council.
 Mahayana Buddhism came into
existence .

Fig : Buddhist Council

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Buddhist Literature
The Buddhist texts were compiled in Pali. The Pali canons are called as the
Tripitakas (Three Baskets). They are

 Vinaya Pitaka: deals with monastic rules and moral disciplines

 Sutta Pitaka : Sutta Pitaka dwells upon discourses and teachings of Buddha. It
is divided into five groups or Nikayas. They contain popular works such as
Theragatha and Therigatha (Hymns of the Elder Monks and Nuns) and Jataka
tales (Buddha’s deeds in previous births as Bodhisattva).
 Abhidhamma Pitaka : expounds Buddhist philosophy.

Other important Buddhist works include

Milinda Panha, a discussion between Greco Bactrian king Menander and Buddhist
monk Nagasena, and Ceylonese chronicles Dipavamsa , Mahavamsa and Culavamsa.
Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India

 The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of
popularity of Buddhism.
 The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the language of Buddhism was
given up from the 1st century A.D. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the
language of the elite.
 After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and
making offerings led to the deterioration of moral standards.
 Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the Turkish
invaders in 12th century destroyed the monasteries.

All these factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.

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Territorial States and the First

5 Magadhan Empire
The increased agricultural activity and settled life led to the rise of sixteen
Mahajanapadas (large territorial states) in north India in sixth century BC. The
Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called
‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’.
They were:

 Gandhara  Kuru
 Kamboja  Panchala
 Asmaka (Assaka)  Matsya
 Vatsa  Vajji (Vrijji)
 Avanti  Anga
 Shurasena  Kasi
 Chedi  Kosala
 Malla  Magadha

 The mahajanapadas are classified as ganasanghas and chiefdoms based on the

nature of their polity.

Political Administration:
Gana-Sanghas

 The Vrijjis were one of the best known of the gana-sanghas, and Vaishali was
their capital in the Mithila region. These kingdoms did not come under the
single decision-making authority of a king but decisions were taken on a
collective basis by the heads of the different clans together. There were also
smaller kingdoms such as Kosala and Kasi.

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Monarchies or Kingdoms
 The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies. Vedic
orthodoxy was an established practice in these kingdoms. The priestly class
enjoyed a preeminent status in
the mahajanapadas unlike in
the gana-sanghas.
 The kingdoms were governed
by kings and the
administration was
centralised. The brahman
priests provided legitimacy to
the king through various
rituals. The kingship was
hereditary and the succession
was in most cases based on
the law of primogeniture. The
king was assisted by councils
called parishad and sabha.
The councils were advisory in
nature.

The king appropriated the agricultural surplus through land revenue apart from a few
other taxes.

 Bali was a tax imposed based on the area of cultivable land.

 Bhaga was obtained as a share of the produce.
 Kara and Shulka were some of the other taxes collected during this period.

Thus the king raised revenue through taxes to maintain an elaborate administrative
structure and an army.

 The richer landowners were called grihapatis. These landowners employed

labourers called dasas or karmakaras. The smaller landowners were known
as kassakas or krishakas.

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State of Varna in the Society

 The society was stratified on the basis of varna. It emerged as a marker of
status. Cultivators and artisans were identified as the shudras. A new social
category that emerged during this period was placed below the shudras in the
social hierarchy and considered untouchables.
 They were forced to live on the fringes of the settlements and subsisted on
hunting and gathering their food.
 They were marginalised and given only menial jobs as urbanisation was on the
rise. They had their own language, which was different from that spoken by the
Indo-Aryans

PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) At which place Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon?

a) Sarnath
b) Lumbini
c) Bodh Gaya
d) Vaishali
ANSWER: A
2) The first Buddhist council met at
a) Rajagriha
a) Pataliputra
b) Jalandhara
c) Kashmir
ANSWER: A
3) Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas while the other viharas.
What is the difference between the two?
a) Chaityas is a place of worship while vihara is the dwelling place of the
monks
b) Chaityas is the stupa the far end of the cave while vihara is the hall axial to
it
c) There is no material difference between the two

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 Ancient Indian History

d) Vihara is a place of worship while Chaityas is the dwelling place of the

monks
ANSWER: A

4) Consider the following: (2019)

1. Deification of the Buddha
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
3. Image worship and rituals
Which of the above is/are the feature/features of Mahayana Buddhism?
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
ANSWER: D
5) With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following
statements: (2020)
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism
2. Lokattaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana
Buddhism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
ANSWER: B

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6 Iranian and Macedonian Invasions

Magadha
Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous. It
became the nerve centre of political activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by
nature with certain geographical and strategic advantages.

 These made her to rise to imperial greatness. Its strategic position between the
upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had a
fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits
near Gaya added to its natural assets.
 Its location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to
enormous wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.

Iranian Invasions
 Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C) the Great was the greatest conqueror of the
Achaemenian Empire. He was the first conqueror who led an expedition and
entered into India. He captured the Gandhara region.
 Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.) the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus valley in
518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab and Sindh. This region became the 20th
Satrapy of his empire. It was the most fertile and populous province of the
Achaemenian Empire. Darius sent a naval expedition under Skylas to explore
the Indus.
 Xerxes (465-456 B.C.) utilized his Indian province to strengthen his position.
He deployed Indian infantry and cavalry to Greece to fight his opponents. But
they retreated after Xerxes faced a defeat in Greece. After this failure, the
Achaemenians could not follow a forward policy in India. However, the Indian
province was still under their control. Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers to fight

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against Alexander in 330 B.C. It is evident that the control of Persians

slackened on the eve of Alexander’s invasion of India.

Effects of the Iranian Invasion

 The Iranian invasion provided an impetus to the growth of Indo-Iranian
commerce. Also, it prepared the ground for Alexander’s invasion. The use of
the Kharoshti script, a form of Iranian writing became popular in
northwestern India and some of Asoka’s edicts were written in that script.
There are so much influence of Persian art on the art of the Mauryas,
particularly the monolithic pillars of Asoka and the sculptures.

Macedonian Invasion
 After two centuries of the Persian invasion, Alexander from Macedonia
invaded India. The writings of Greek authors like Herodotus about the fabulous
wealth of India attracted Alexander. Moreover, his interest in geographical
enquiry and love of natural history urged him to undertake an invasion of India
 During his invasion, there were a number of small kingdoms in northwestern
India. The leading kings were Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus
who ruled the region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab. Almost all
along the northwestern India remained the most disunited part of India and
the rulers were fighting with one another.

Battle of Hydaspes (326 B.C)

 Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum).
On the other side of the river he saw the vast army of Porus. As there were
heavy floods in the river, Alexander was not able to cross it. After a few days,
he crossed the river and the famous battle of Hydaspes was fought on the
plains of Karri. It was a well-contested battle. Although Porus had a strong
army, he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage and heroism
of this Indian prince, treated him generously and reinstated him on his throne.

Effects of Alexander’s invasion

 The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it encouraged political
unification of north India under the Mauryas. The system of small
independent states came to an end.

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 Alexander’s invasion had also paved the way for direct contact between
India and Greece. The routes opened by him and his naval explorations
increased the existing facilities for trade between India and West Asia.

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The Age of the Mauryas

7 Significance of the Maurya Rule
Mauryas
Introduction:
The flat plains and the availability of plentiful water from the perennial rivers,
such as the Ganga and its many tributaries, were among the favourable ecological
conditions which promoted the rise of a large state in the Gangetic plains of present-
day Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh.

 Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of Buddha, started the process of empire

building in Magadha. It was strengthened by his son Ajatashatru and then by
the Nandas. The empire reached its glory and peaked with the advent of the
Mauryan Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya. The foundation of the
Mauryan Empire opens a new era in the history of India. For the first time, the
political unity was achieved in India.

The history of writing has also become clear from this period due to accuracy in
chronology and sources.

Literary Sources

Kautilya’s Arthasastra
* This book in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary of
Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya was also called ‘Indian Machiavelli’.
* The Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters and It is the most
important literary source for the history of the Mauryas .
It is divided into three parts:

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* The first deals with the king and his council and the departments of
government; the second with civil and criminal law; and the the third
with diplomacy and war.
Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa
* It is a drama in Sanskrit. Though written during the Gupta period, it
describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew
the Nandas. It also gives a picture on the socio-economic condition
under the Mauryas.
Megasthenes’ Indica
* Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of
Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indica has survived only in
fragments. Yet, his account gives details about the Mauryan
administration, particularly the administration of the capital city of
Pataliputra and also the military organization.
Other Literature
* The Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide
information on the Mauryas.
* The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on
the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka

Mauryan Administration
Polity

 Mauryan administration was highly decentralized. At the head of the

administration was the king. He was assisted by a council of ministers and a
purohita or priest, who was a person of great importance, and secretaries
known as mahamatriyas. There were civil servants called Amatyas to look
after the day-to-day administration. These officers were similar to the IAS
officers of independent India. The method of selection of Amatyas was
elaborately given by Kautilya. Asoka appointed Dhamma Mahamatras to

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supervise the spread of Dhamma. Thus the Mauryan state had a well organized
civil service.

Revenue Administration
 Samharta, the chief of the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection
of all revenues of the empire. The revenues came from land, irrigation,
customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines and pastures, license fee from
craftsmen, and fines collected in the law courts. The land revenue was
normally fixed as one sixth of the produce. The main items of expenditure of
the state related to king and his household, army, government servants, public
works, poor relief, religion, etc.

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Judicial Administration
Justice was administered through courts, which were established in all the major
towns. There were two types of courts :

 The dharmasthiya courts mostly dealt with civil law relating to marriage,
inheritance and other aspects of civil life.
 Another type of court was called kantakasodhana (removal of thorns).

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The courts were presided over by three judges (well-versed in sacred laws ) and
three amatyas (secretaries).

 The main purpose of these courts was to clear the society of anti-social
elements and various types of crimes, and it functioned more like the modern
police, and relied on a network of spies for information about such anti-social
activities. Punishments for crimes were usually quite severe.

Police stations were found in all principal centres. Both Kautilya and Asokan
Edicts mention about jails and jail officials. The Dhamma Mahamatras were
asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust imprisonment. Remission of
sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s inscriptions

Census
 The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period. The village
officials were to number the people along with other details like their caste and
occupation. They were also to count the animals in each house. The census in
the towns was taken by municipal officials to track the movement of
population both foreign and indigenous. The data collected were cross checked
by the spies. The Census appears to be a permanent institution in the Mauryan
administration.

Local Administration
The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila,
Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The provincial governors were mostly appointed
from the members of royal family. They were responsible the maintenance of law and
order and collection of taxes for the empire.

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 The district administration was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position
and functions are similar to modern collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas or
subordinate officials.
 Village administration was in the hands of Gramani and his official superior
was called Gopa who was in charge of ten or fifteen villages.
 Urban administration was handled by a nagarika.

Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of Municipal

administration. Arthasastra contains a full chapter on the role of Nagarika or city
superintendent. His chief duty was to maintain law and order.
Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members each to look after the
administration of Pataliputra. These committees looked after: 1. Industries 2.
Foreigners 3. Registration of birth and deaths 4. Trade 5. Manufacture and sale of
goods 6. Collection of sales tax.

Commerce and Industry

This department controlled all the retail and wholesale prices of goods and tried to
ensure their steady supply through its officers called Adyakshas. It also controlled
weights and measures, levied custom duties and regulated foreign trade.

Army
 The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of
Senapati. The salaries were paid in cash.
 Kautilya refers to the salaries of different ranks of military officers. According
to Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army consisted of six lakh infantry, thirty
thousand cavalry, nine thousand elephants and eight thousand chariots.
 In addition to these four wings, there were the Navy and Transport and Supply
wings. Each wing was under the control of Adyakshas or Superintendents.
Megasthenes mentions six boards of five members each to control the six
wings of the military.

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Agriculture
 Agriculture formed the backbone of the economy. It was the largest sector in
terms of its share in total revenue to the state and employment. The Greeks
noted with wonder that two crops could be raised annually in India because
of the fertility of the soil.
 Besides food grains, India also grew cash crops such as sugarcane and
cotton, described by Megasthenes as a reed that produced honey and trees on
which wool grew. These were important commercial crops. The fact that the
agrarian sector could produce a substantial surplus was a major factor in the
diversification of the economy beyond subsistence to commercial production.

Crafts and Goods

 Many crafts producing a variety of manufactures flourished in the economy.
Spinning and weaving, especially of cotton fabrics, were the most widespread
occupations.
 A great variety of cloth was produced in the country. The Arthasastra refers to
the regions producing specialised textiles – Kasi (Benares), Vanga (Bengal),
Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai and many others.
 Each region produced many distinctive and specialised varieties of fabrics.
Cloth embroidered with gold and silver was worn by the King and members of
the royal court.
 Silk was known and was generally referred to as Chinese silk, which also
indicates that extensive trade was carried on in the Mauryan Empire.
 Stone work–stone carving and polishing–had evolved as a highly skilled
craft. This expertise is seen in the stone sculptures in the stupa at Sanchi and
the highly polished Chunar stone used for Ashoka’s pillars.
 A whole range of luxury goods was produced, including gold and silver
articles, jewellery, perfumes and carved ivory. There is evidence that many
other products like drugs and medicines, pottery, dyes and gums were
produced in the Mauryan Empire. The economy had thus developed far beyond
subsistence production to a very sophisticated level of commercial craft
production.

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 Each craft had a head called pamukha (pramukha or leader) and a jettha
(jyeshtha or elder) and was organised in a sreni (srenior a guild), so that
the institutional identity superseded the individual in craft production.
Disputes between srenis were resolved by a mahasetthi, and this ensured the
smooth functioning of craft production in the cities.

Coins and Currency

 Though coinage was known, barter was the medium of exchange in pre-
modern economies.
 In the Mauryan Empire, the silver coins known as pana were the most
commonly used currency.

Important Rulers of Mauryan Dynasty

Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.)

 Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He, at the
young age of 25, captured Pataliputra from the last ruler of the Nanda
dynasty, Dhanananda. Then Chandragupta Maurya defeated Selukas
Niketar who controlled the northwestern India and a treaty was signed. By
this treaty, Selukas Niketar ceded the trans-Indus territories – namely
Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia – to the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta
embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the
throne in favour of his son Bindusara. Then he went to Sravana Belgola,
near Mysore along with Jain monks led by Bhadrabhagu and starved
himself to death.

Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.)

 Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of

enemies. He is said to have conquered the Deccan up to Mysore. The
Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far
south. Therefore, it can be said that the Mauryan Empire under Bindusara

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extended up to Mysore. Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect.

Bindusara appointed his son Asoka as the governor of Ujjain.

Asoka the Great (273 – 232 B.C.)

 During early days Asoka 9659141+acted as Governor of Ujjain and also

suppressed a revolt in Taxila during his father Bindusara’s reign.
 The most important event of Asoka’s reign was his victorious war with
Kalinga in 261 B.C. Although there is no detail about the cause and course
of the war, the effects of the war were described by Asoka himself in the
Rock edict XIII: “A hundred and fifty thousand were killed and many
times that number perished…” After the war he annexed Kalinga to the
Mauryan Empire.
 Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka
embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.

Extent of Ashoka’s Empire

Asoka’s inscriptions mention the southernmost kingdoms – Cholas, Pandyas,
Satyaputras and Keralaputras – as border-states. Therefore these states remained
outside the Mauryan Empire. According to Rajatarangini, Kashmir was a part of the
Mauryan Empire. Nepal was also within the Mauryan empire. The northwestern
frontier was already demarcated by Chandragupta Maurya.

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Asoka’s Dhamma
Although Asoka embraced Buddhism and took efforts to spread Buddhism, his policy
of Dhamma was a still broad concept. It was a way of life, a code of conduct and a set
of principles to be adopted and practiced by the people at large. His principles of
Dhamma were clearly stated in his Edicts. The main features of Asoka’s Dhamma as
mentioned in his various Edicts may be summed as follows:

 Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth, reverence to

teachers and good treatment of relatives.
 Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and avoiding expensive
and meaningless ceremonies and rituals.
 Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social welfare and
maintenance of constant contact with people through the system of
Dhammayatras.
 Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by government
officials.
 Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to relations and
liberality to Brahmins.
 Tolerance among all the religious sects.
 Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war.

The concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of Asoka’s Dhamma are identical
with the teachings of Buddha. But he did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist
teachings.Buddhism remained his personal belief. His Dhamma signifies a general
code of conduct. Asoka wished that his Dhamma should spread through all social
levels.

Ashoka’s Major Rock edicts

There are 14 major rock edicts:

Edict Inscription Details

Major Rock Edict I  Prohibition of animal sacrifice, especially during

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festive seasons.

Major Rock Edict II  Medical treatment of humans and animals,

planting of fruits, medicinal herbs and the digging
of wells. Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and
Keralaputras of South India.

Major Rock Edict III  Generosity to Brahmins. About Yuktas,

Pradeshikas and Rajukas who would go every five
years to different parts of his empire to spread
Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict IV  Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/

righteousness) over Bherighosha (sound of war).
The King Ashoka attached greatest value to his
duty.

Major Rock Edict V  About Dhammamahamatras. Talks about treating

slaves right. A special cadre of officials, Dhamma
Gosha were appointed and entrusted with the
duty of spreading Dhamma within the kingdom.

Major Rock Edict VI  King’s desire to know about his people’s

conditions. About welfare measures.

Major Rock Edict VII  Tolerance towards religions among all sects and
welfare measures for the public in his as well as
his neighbouring kingdoms.

Major Rock Edict VIII  Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi
tree (his first Dhamma Yatra). Gave importance to
Dhamma tours.

Major Rock Edict IX  Condemns popular ceremonies. Stresses on moral

conduct.

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Major Rock Edict X  Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame

and glory and stresses on Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict XI  Dhamma is the best policy to follow, which

includes respect for elders and concern for slaves
and servants.

Major Rock Edict XII  It mentions Mahamattas in charge of women’s

welfare, Ithijika Mahamatta and tolerance
towards the dhamma of others.

Major Rock Edict XIII  Mentions victory over Kalinga. Mentions Ashoka’s
Dhamma victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of
Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye),
Magas of Cyrene (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon
(Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro).
Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
 The thirteenth rock edict which was issued at the
end of the Kalinga war gives a vivid picture of the
change of Ashoka from an aggressive and violent
warrior to a great lover and preacher of peace.
The direct and immediate effect of the Kalinga
war was the conversion of Ashoka to Buddhism.

Major Rock Edict XIV  Purpose of rock edicts.

Decline of the Mauryan Empire

 The highly centralized administration became unmanageable when Ashoka’s
successors were weak and inefficient. A weakened central administration with
a large distance to communicate led to the rise of independent kingdoms.
 After Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split into two. There were invasions from
the northwest. The notable groups that undertook military expeditions and

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established kingdoms on Indian soil were the IndoGreeks, the Sakas and the
Kushanas.
 The last ruler Brihadratha was killed in (c.185 B C (BCE)) by his commander-
inchief Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga dynasty that ruled India for
over hundred years.

PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) The ancient Indian play Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutt has its subject on

a) A conflict between Gods and Demons of ancient Hindu lore
b) A romantic story of an Aryan prince and a tribal women
c) The story of the power struggle between two Aryan tribes
d) The court intrigues at the time of Chandragupta Maurya
ANSWER: D
2) Megasthenes visited the court of
a) Ashoka
b) Harsha
c) Chandragupta Maurya
d) Vikramaditya
ANSWER: C
3) What was the main feature of Maurya dynasty in India?
a) Education was widespread
b) Terrorists were driven out of Sind and Punjab
c) Removal of land tax for the first rime
d) Decentralisation of administration
ANSWER: D
4) The name by which Asoka is generally referred to in his inscriptions is
a) Chakravarti
b) Dharmadeva
c) Dharmakirti
d) Priyadarsi
ANSWER: D

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5) Who among the following rulers advised his subjects through this
inscription?
“Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of
excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect,
he rather injures his own sect very severely.”
a) Ashoka
b) Samudragupta
c) Harshavardhana
d) Krishnadeva Raya
ANSWER: A
6) In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’
(King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?
a) Kanganahalli
b) Sanchi
c) Shahbazgarhi
d) Sohagaura
ANSWER: A

7) Consider the following pairs:

Site of Ashoka’s major rock edicts
Location in the state of
1. Dhauli - Odisha
2. Erragudi - Andhra Pradesh
3. Jaugada - Madhya Pradesh
4. Kalsi - Karnataka
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
a) Only one pair
b) Only two pairs
c) Only three pairs
d) All four pairs
ANSWER: B

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8 The Age of the Satavahanas

Satavahanas
Satavahana empire in 220 B.C. is an important mile-stone in the history of the
Deccan. Before the foundation of the Satavahana empire, the Deccan was covered with
a large number of petty kingdoms, which were often at war with one another. The
Satavahanas for the first time wielded the Deccan into a powerful State and gave a
cohesion and integrity to its history.

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 The term “Satvahana” originated from the Prakrit which means ” driven by
seven” which is an implication of the Sun God’s chariot that is driven by seven
horses as per Hindu mythology.The first king of the Satavahana dynasty was
Simuka.
 Present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Telangana made up the
majority of the Satavahana monarchy. At times, their rule also included parts of
Gujarat, Karnataka as well as Madhya Pradesh.The capital of the kingdom
changed over time. Amaravati and Pratishthana (Paithan) were the
two capitals of the empire.

Administration
 Administration under the Satavahanas was much simpler that under the
Mauryas. Inscriptions refer to ministers who were incharge of various
functions. There were treasury officers who maintained land records.
 These ministers were appointed directly by the king and the post of a minister
does not seem to have been hereditary. They were perhaps paid in money from
the revenue collected by the state. The state collected taxes both from
agriculture and trade.

One of the practice started by Satavahana rulers in the first century A.D. was that of
donating revenue of a village to, either a Brahmana or the Buddhist Sangha. This
practice became much more widespread under the Gupta rulers.

 There was elaborate procedure that was used to record donations of land.
These donations were first proclaimed in an assembly nigama-sabha. It was
then written down either on a copper-plate or cloth by an officer or minister.
 This record was then delivered to the donee to whom the grant had been made.
There was a keeper of records who maintained a detailed account of these
donations.
 The rulers at this time were eager to bring more land under cultivation so that
they could earn extra revenue. It seems that anyone who cleared the forest and
tilled a plot could claim ownership of the land. Revenue was collected both
in cash and kind.

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 The trade was handled by guilds who also acted as bankers. The state took
elaborate measures to encourage trade. Highways were made secure and rest-
houses were constructed along them.
 The official language was Prakrit, but the script was Brahmi. Sanskrit was
occasionally used by the Satavahanas in their political inscriptions also.
 Katakas and Skandhvaras were the special military camps or cantonment
areas. According to Pliny, the Andhra kingdom maintained an army of 100,000
infantry, 2000 cavalry and 1000 elephants.

Society
 The social structure of the Deccan under the Satavahanas shows many features
which are different from those prescribed in the sanskrit texts such as the
Manusnuti. For example, many inscriptions of the Satavahana rulers mention
the names of their mothers rather than those of their fathers, such as
Gautamiputra Satakarni or Satakarni, son of Gautami.
 Inscriptions also mention that the Satavahanas described themselves as
Brahmanas who broke the Kshatriyas' ego. (according to the Brahmanical
writings the only people with the authority to rule, , were the Kshatriyas).
 Blacksmiths, gardeners, and fishers are also significant donors, in addition to
traders and merchants. The increased long-distance trade was advantageous
to the craftspeople and artisans. The basis of the division was labor and
craft, and people were typically identified by their professions rather than
their castes.

Coinage System
 Coins made of copper, bronze, and
potin (a combination of copper, tin,
and lead) were issued. The majority
of the coins made by the Satavahana
kings were made of lead.
Karshapanas, silver coins, were
also used in trade.

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 The names "Satakarni" and "Pulumavi" were engraved on the coins with
various animal images.
 Most Satavahana coins had an elephant, horse, lion, or Chaitya on their reverse.
The Ujjain emblem, a cross with four circles at the ends of the two crossing
lines, was displayed on the opposite side. The language used was Prakrit.

Architecture:
 The Amaravati Stupa's sculptures serve as a visual representation of the
architectural evolution of the Satavahana eras.They constructed 95-foot-tall
Buddhist stupas in Amravati.
 Additionally, they built numerous stupas at Shri Parvatam, Amravati
Bhattiprolu, Gantasala, Jaggiahpeta, and Goli.
 Satavahana patronized the Ajanta paintings in caverns IX and X.The older
brick and wood structures were replaced with stone works as Ashokan Stupas
were expanded. The Amravati Stupa and the Nagarjunakonda Stupa are two
of the most well-known stupas among these monuments.
 Rock-cut structures: In the northwest of the Deccan, chaityas and viharas
were carved out of solid rock. Chaitya served as the place of worship, whereas
monks resided in viharas (monasteries). Eg. Karle Chaitya in Ajanta Caves.

GAUTAMIPUTRA SATAKARNI
He is considered the greatest king of the
Satavahana dynasty. In a Nasik inscription of
his mother Gautami Balashri, he is described as
the destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas and the
Yavanas (Greeks); as the uprooter of the
Kshaharatas and the restorer of the glory of the
Satavahanas.
He is also described as Ekabrahmana (a peerless Brahmana) and Khatiya-
dapa-manamada (destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas).

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Decline of Satavahanas:
 Weak succession: Yajnashri Satakarni's successors were incapable of leading
the empire. He was the final strong Satavahana emperor.
 Huge empire: There was split the kingdom among themselves.
 Loss of centralized power
 Empire fragmentation: Following Pulumavi IV's demise, the Satavahana
empire was divided into five more compact kingdoms:
 Thus the Ikshvaku dynasty's kings succeeded the Satavahana kings.

PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) The Prakrit text ‘Gathasaptasati’ is attributed to the Satavahana king

a) Vasishtiputra Pulumavi
b) Hala
c) Gautamiputra Satkarni
d) Amaru
ANSWER: B

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9 The post- Mauryan age

The disintegration of the Mauryan empire led to the rise of many regional kingdoms in
different parts of the country. There were numerous ethnic groups with roots in
western China and Central Asia. These were Indo-Greeks, the Scythians or the
Shakas, the Parthians or the Pahlavas and the Kushanas. It was through such
political processes that India came in closer contact with the central Asian politics and
culture.

 In the further south, the Satavahanas established their separate dominion after
Kalinga declared its independence. Because of this, the Sunga dynasty quickly
replaced the Mauryan empire, which was limited to the Gangetic valley.

Sunga Dynasty
 Pushyamitra Sunga, the commander-in-chief of the Mauryas, was the founder
of the Sunga dynasty. He took the throne after killing the last Mauryan
emperor. The biggest threat to Sunga reign was defending north India against
invasions by Bactrian Greeks coming from the northwest.
 Greek troops advanced up to Pataliputra and almost captured it. However,
Pushyamitra was able to recover the lost territory. He also fought a campaign
against Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded north India.
 Pushyamitra embraced Brahmanism . He is referred to as a Buddhist
persecutor in Buddhist literature.Buddhist sources refer him as a persecutor of
Buddhism. The Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated
and notably improved during his rule.
 When Pushyamitra passed away, his son Agnimitra took over as ruler.
Devabhuti, the last Sunga emperor, was assassinated by Vasudeva Kanva, the
ancestor of the Kanva dynasty, who was also his minister.
 For 45 years, the Kanva dynasty ruled. After the fall of the Kanvas, the history
of Magatha was a blank until the establishment of the Gupta dynasty.

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 The rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the Gangetic
valley from foreign invasions. In the cultural sphere, the Sungas revived
Brahmanism and horse sacrifice. They also promoted the growth of
Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language.

Foreign Invasions of Northwest India

The Bactrians

 Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian empire in the middle
of the third century B.C. Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria invaded
Afghanistan and Punjab and occupied them.
 From Taxila, he sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander for
further conquests. Appolodotus conquered the Sindh and marched up to Ujjain.
Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and from there he made attempts to
capture Pataliputra. But he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the
grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga.
 Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his kingdom was
Sakala (Sialcot). He evinced much interest in Buddhism and his dialogues with
the Buddhist monk Nagasena was compiled in the Pali work, Milindapanho
(Questions of Milinda).
 He also embraced Buddhism. A Greek ambassador Heliodorus became a
Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar.The Greek influence in
India lasted for more than a century after the death Menander.

The Shakas
 Shaka is the Indian term used for the people called Scythians, who originally
belonged to central Asia. Defeated by their neighbours the Yueh-chis (the tribal
stock to which the Kushanas belonged) they gradually came to settle in
northwestern India around Taxila in the first century B.C Under the successive
Shaka rulers their territories extended up to Mathura and Gujarat.
 The most famous of all the Shaka rulers was Rudradaman who ruled in the
middle of second century AD. His empire was spread over almost whole of
western India. His achievements are known through the only inscription that

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he got engraved on a boulder at Girnar or Junagarh. This inscription happens

to be the first royal inscription of early India composed in chaste Sanskrit.

The Parthians
 The Parthians were of Iranian origin and because of strong cultural
connection with the Shakas, these
groups were referred to in the
Indian sources as Shaka-Pahlava.
 The important inscription indicating
the Parthian rule in northwestern
area of Pakistan is the famous
Takht-i-Bahi inscription recovered
from Mardan near Peshawar. The inscription, dated in 45 AD, refers to
Gondophernes or Gondophares as a Parthian ruler. Some literary sources
associate him with St. Thomas, who is said to have converted both, the king and
his brother, to Christianity.

The Kushanas
 The Kushanas, originally belonged to western China. They are also called Yueh-
chis. The Kushanas after defeating Shakas and Pahlavas created a big empire in
Pakistan.
 The founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I.
He occupied the Kabul valley and issued coins in his name. His son Wima
Kadphises or Kadphises II conquered the whole of northwestern India as far as
Mathura. He issued gold coins with high-sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the
Whole World’. He was a devotee of Lord Siva.

Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.)

 Kanishka was the most important ruler of the Kushana dynasty. He was the
founder of the Saka era which starts from 78 A.D. He was not only a great
conqueror but also a patron of religion and art.

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 At the time of his accession, Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind, and Punjab were all
parts of his empire. He afterwards took control of Magadha and further
consolidated his hold on Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya. Kalhana claimed that
Kanishka occupied Kashmir after invading it. Since his coinage have been

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discovered in numerous locations, including Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi, and

Benares, he could have controlled the majority of the Gangetic plain.

Polity and Administration

 The whole empire was divided into
provinces, each ruled by a
mahakshatrapa ( a military governor),
who was assisted by a kshatrapa. Sources
indicate that Kushana horsemen wore
trousers while riding. A headless statue
of Kanishka found at Mathura reflects the
same. A prominent feature of Kushana
polity was the title of devaputra, i.e., son
of God, used by the Kushana kings. It
indicates the claim to divinity by the
Kushana kings.
 The empire of Kanishka was a vast one Fig: Headless statue of Kanishka
extending from Gandhara in the west to
Benares in the east, and from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in the south. His
capital was Purushapura or modern day Peshawar. Mathura was another
important city in his empire.

Kanishka and Buddhism

 In the early years of his rule, Kanishka embraced Buddhism. But in addition
to depicting Buddha, his coins also feature Greek and Hindu deities. It
illustrates the tolerance of the Kanishka for different religions. Kanishka also
sent missionaries to Central Asia and China for the propagation of the new
faith. Buddhist chaityas and viharas were built in different places. He
patronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna.
 Kanishka was famous in history as a great patron of Buddhism. He convened
the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalavana (present day Harwan near
Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir) in which a large number of Buddhist scholars

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took part. It was in this council that Buddhism got split into two schools –
Hinayana and Mahayana. Kanishka also patronized the Gandhara and
Mathura schools of sculptural art.
 Kanishka was famous in history as a great patron of Buddhism. He convened
the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalavana (present day Harwan near
Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir) in which a large number of Buddhist scholars
took part. It was in this council that Buddhism got split into two schools –
Hinayana and Mahayana. Kanishka also patronized the Gandhara and Mathura
schools of sculptural art.

Art and Architecture

Gandhara Art Mathura School of Art

 The home of the Gandhara school  The school of art that developed
of art is the territory in and at Mathura in modern Uttar
around Peshawar in Pradesh is called the Mathura art.
northwestern India.

 The best of sculpture was  It flourished in the first century

produced during the first and A.D. In its early phase, the
second centuries A.D. It Mathura school of art developed
originated during the reign of on indigenous lines
Indo-Greek rulers but the real
patrons of this school of art were
the Sakas and the Kushanas,
particularly Kanishka.

 Gandhara art was a blend of  The Mathura school also carved

out the images of Siva and Vishnu

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along with their consorts Parvathi

Gandhara art was a blend of Indian
and Lakshmi. So it has influence
and Graeco-Roman elements.
of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism.
And has a influence of Buddhism.

 The expression of calmness is the  The image of the Mathura Buddha

centre point of attraction of shows him smiling, seated in
Gandhara Buddha Padmasana, with his right hand in
Abhyamudra and his left hand
resting on his left thigh, signifying
masculinity.

 This school use grey sandstone,  This school used red stone for
stucco (lime plaster). making the sculptures.

End of Kushana Rule

 The reign of Kanishka's successors lasted another 150 years. The empire was
preserved by Kanishka's son, Huvishka. Under his leadership, the city
of Mathura rose to prominence.The last important Kushana ruler was
Vasudeva.

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PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) Saka era commenced from

a) 78 AD b) 120 AD
c) 1000 AD d) 1953 AD
ANSWER: A
2) Saka era was introduced by
a) Ashoka b) Kanishka
c) Chandragupta Maurya d) Harsha Vardhana
ANSWER: B
3) With reference to the invaders in ancient India, which one of the following
is the correct chronological order?
a) Greeks- Sakas- Kushans b) Greeks- Kushans- Sakas
c) Sakas- Greeks- Kushans d) Sakas- Kushans- Greeks
ANSWER: A
4) Which of the following is not a feature of Gandhara school or art?
a) It was patronised by Sakas and Kushanas
b) It has Indian and Greek influence
c) It resulted in the origination of Hinayanism
d) It portrayed human figures exactly
ANSWER: C
5) The Buddhist sect Mahayana formally came into existence during the reign
of
a) Ajatashatru b) Ashoka
c) Dharmapala d) Kanishka
ANSWER: D
6) Which of the following was the most important characteristic of Kanishka’s
rule?
a) Expansion of Buddhism outside India
b) Re-emergence of Jainism
c) Fourth Buddhist Council at Srinagar

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d) Gandhara School or Art

ANSWER: C

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The Rise and Growth of Gupta

10 Empire
After the decline of the Kushanas, north India witnessed the rise of the Gupta dynasty.
The rulers of this dynasty were able to establish a vast empire that included almost
the entire north India. They emerged as a great power and achieved the political
unification of a large part of the Indian subcontinent. It featured a strong central
government, bringing many kingdoms under its hegemony. Feudalism as an
institution began to take root during this period. With an effective guild system and
overseas trade, the Gupta economy boomed. Great works in Sanskrit were produced
during this period and a high level of cultural maturity in fine arts, sculpture and
architecture was achieved.

Sources
There are three types of sources for reconstructing the history of the Gupta period.
Literary sources

 Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati and Katyayana smritis.

 Kamandaka’s Nitisara, a work on polity addressed to the king (400 CE)
 Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshasam by Vishakadutta provide details
about the rise of the Guptas.
 Buddhist and Jaina texts
 Works of Kalidasa
 Accounts of the Chinese traveller Fahien

Epigraphical Sources

 Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription – achievements of

Chandragupta I.

Mehrauli Iron Pillar

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 Allahabad Pillar inscription – describing Samudragupta’s personality and

achievements in 33 lines composed by Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit and
in Nagari script.

Numismatic Sources

 Coins issued by Gupta kings contain legends

and figures. These gold coins tell us about
the titles the Guptas assumed and the Vedic
rituals they performed.

Political History
 The first ruler of the Gupta Empire was Sri Gupta (240–280 CE) who was
succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE). Both Sri Gupta and
Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharajas in inscriptions.

Chandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D.)

 Chandragupta I, the son of Ghatotkacha, ruled from 319 to 335 CE and is

considered to be the first great king of the Gupta Empire. Chandragupta held
the title of maharajaadhiraja (great king over other kings). He strengthened his
position by a matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis. He married Kumaradevi,
a princess of that family. This added to the power and prestige of the Gupta
family.

Samudragupta (330-380 A.D.)

 Samudragupta was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The
Allahabad Pillar inscription provides a detailed account of his reign. It refers to
three stages in his military campaign:
 Against some rulers of North India
 His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian rulers
 A second campaign against some other rulers of North India.
 After these military victories, Samudragupta performed the asvamedha
sacrifice. He issued gold and silver coins with the legend ‘restorer of the

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asvamedha’. It is because of his military achievements Samudragupta was

hailed as ‘Indian Napoleon’.

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 Samudragupta patronised scholars and poets like Harisena and thus promoted
Sanskrit literature. Though an ardent follower of Vaishnavism, he also
patronised the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu. As a lover of poetry and
music, he was given the title “Kaviraja”. His coins bear the insignia of him
playing the vina.

Extant of Samudragupta’s Empire

 Samudragupta's authority gradually extended the upper Gangetic valley, the
majority of modern-day Uttar Pradesh, a significant portion of central India,
and the southwest corner of Bengal. He had direct control over the
administration of these areas. There were tributary states in the south. His
sphere of power included the Saka and Kushana states in the west and
northwest. His sovereignty was recognized by all of the Deccan's eastern
kingdoms, all the way to the Pallava Kingdom.

Chandragupta II (AD 375–414)

 Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II also known as
Chandragupta Vikramaditya, he not only extended his father’s empire but
also consolidated his position through matrimonial alliances with other royal
dynasties of the period.
 He married Kuvernaga, the Naga princess and had a daughter Prabhavati from
her. Prabhavati was given in marriage to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty
ruling in Deccan.
 The control of Vakataka territory proved very beneficial to Chandragupta II, as
he was now able to target his other enemies better. His greatest military
achievement was his victory over the Shaka kings who were ruling in western
India for the last three hundred years.
 This conquest made Gupta empire reach up to the western coast. An iron pillar
inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi indicates that his empire included even north-
western India and Bengal. He took the title of Vikramaditya i.e. the one who is
as powerful as the sun.

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 His court had nine jewels or navaratnas, that is, nine eminent people in various
fields of art, literature and science. This included the great Sanskrit poet
Kalidasa, the Sanskrit scholar Harisena, the lexicographer Amarasimha, and the
physician Dhanvantari. Fahien, the Buddhist scholar from China, visited India
during his reign. He records the prosperity of the Gupta Empire. Chandragupta
II was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins. His rule thus formed the peak
period of Gupta’s territorial expansion.

Decline of the empire

 Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumara Gupta I, who founded the
Nalanda University. He was also called Sakraditya. The last great king of the
Gupta dynasty, Skanda Gupta, was the son of Kumara Gupta I. He was able to
repulse an attack by the Huns, but the recurrence of Huns’ invasion strained his
empire’s coffers. The Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skanda Gupta in
467 CE. He was followed by many successors who hastened the end of the
Gupta Empire. The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnu Gupta
who reigned from 540 to 550 CE.

Adminstration
 During the Gupta age, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles
adopted. Kings assumed titles such as maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka
and parameshvara. They were also connected with gods through epithets
such as parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and
paramabhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna).
 The king was assisted in his administration by a council consisting of a chief
minister, a Senapati or commander in- chief of the army and other important
officials.
 The various high-ranking functionaries included the sandhivigrahika or
mahasandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war), who seems to have
been a high-ranking officer in charge of contact and correspondence with other
states, including initiating wars and concluding alliances and treaties.

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 High-ranking officials were called dandanayakas, and mahadandanayakas

were high-ranking judicial or military officers. One of the seals mentions a
mahadandanayaka named Agnigupta.
 The Allahabad prashasti refers to three mahadandanayakas. All these suggest
that these posts were hereditary by nature. Another person had a designation
mahashvapati (commander of the cavalry), indicating military functions.

Divison of the Empire

 The king maintained a close contact with the provincial administration through
a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. Provinces in the Gupta
Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as Uparikas. They
were mostly chosen from among the princes. Bhuktis were subdivided into
Vishyas or districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis. Nagara Sreshtis
were the officers looking after the city administration. The villages in the
district were under the control of Gramikas.

Fahien’s account on Gupta’s Adminstration

Fahien’s account on the Gupta administration provides useful information. He
characterises the Gupta administration as mild and benevolent. There were no
restrictions on people’s movements and they enjoyed a large degree of personal
freedom. There was no state interference in the individual’s life. Punishments
were not severe. Imposing a fine was a common punishment. The
administration was so efficient that the roads were kept safe for travelers, and
there was no fear of thieves. He mentioned that people were generally
prosperous and the crimes were negligible. Fahien had also appreciated the
efficiency of the Gupta administration as he was able to travel without any
fear throughout the Gangetic valley. On the whole the administration was
more liberal than that of the Mauryas.

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The Maitrakas were tributary chiefs of the Guptas, who established an independent
kingdom in western India. Dhruvasena II was the most important ruler of the
Maitrakas. He was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and was married to his
daughter.
The Maukharies ruled over Kanauj, a city in western Uttar Pradesh, which gradually
replaced Pataliputra as a political center of north India. Maukharies were also the
subordinate rulers of the Guptas and used the title of samanta.

Society
 The caste structure intensified throughout the Gupta era. The apex of society
was occupied by the Brahmins.
 The emperors and other wealthy individuals showered them with presents.
During this time, the practice of untouchability had just started. The
untouchables are referred to as chandalas. They lived outside the village and
dealt in unclean jobs such as scavenging or butchery.
 The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien tells us that whenever they entered the towns or
market places they would strike a piece of wood to announce their arrival, so
that the others might not touch them and get polluted.

Position of Women

 The status of women continued to decline in Gupta period. The main reason for
the subordination of women was their complete dependence on men for their
livelihood. The women were not entitled to inherit property. However, she
had full right on her stridhana i.e. the presents received by the bride at the
time of her marriage. The free representation of females in art suggest that
there was no purdah system in the society. However, there is evidence of the
presence of sati system.

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Religion
 In terms of religion, the Gupta era was dominated by Brahmanism. It had two
subsectors: Saivism and Vaishnavism.
 Vaishnavaites made up the majority of the Gupta kings. They carried out
Aswamedha sacrifices. These two faiths gained popularity through the
adoration of pictures and the celebration of religious holidays with elaborate
ceremonies. During this time, religious literature like the Puranas was written.
Buddhism and Jainism were neglected while Brahmanism advanced.
 In the Gangetic valley, Buddhism is said to have declined, according to Fahien.
However, a few Buddhist intellectuals, such as Vasubandhu, received support
from Gupta kings. Jainism thrived in western and southern India. The Jain
Canon of the Swetambras was written during this time, and the Great Jain
Council was held at Valabhi.

Economy
Agriculture

 The period from circa fourth century to eighth century was a period of great
agricultural expansion. The vast areas of land were brought under cultivation
and improvements were made in the existing methods of production to attain
higher yield. One of the reasons for it was the practice of granting lands to
brahmanas and secular officers in different areas. It helped in bringing virgin
land under the plough. The spread of knowledge regarding the use of iron
plough share, manure, irrigation and preservation of cattle wealth in backward

Kshetra Cultivatable land

Khila Waste land

Aprahata Jungle waste land

Vasti Habitable land

Gapata
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areas also contributed to rural prosperity. It however brought no relief to

peasants who continued to suffer tremendous tax burden.
 The crops cultivated during the Gupta period were paddy, wheat, barley, peas,
lentils, pulses, sugarcane and oil seeds. From Kalidasa, we come to know that
the south was famous for pepper and cardamom. Varahamihira gives elaborate
advice on the plantation of fruit trees. During the Gupta period, the land was
classified as detailed below

Different Kinds of Taxes

Tax Nature

Bhaga King’s customary share of the produce normally

amounting to one-sixth of the produce paid by cultivators

Bhoga Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the

village had to provide to the king

Kara A periodic tax levied on the villagers (not a part of the

annual land tax)

Bali A voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later

became compulsory. It was an oppressive tax.

Udianga Either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police

stations or a water tax. Hence, it was also an extra tax.

Klipta and Upakilpta related to sale and purchase of lands.

Mining and metallurgy

 This was one of the most flourishing industries during the Gupta period.
Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa make frequent mention of the

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existence of mines. The rich deposits of iron ore from Bihar and copper from
Rajasthan were mined extensively during this period. The list of metals used
apart from iron were gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bellmetal, mica,
manganese, antimony, red chalk (sanssilajata) and red arsenic. Blacksmiths
were next only to agriculturists in importance in the society. Metal was used
for the manufacture of various domestic implements, utensils and weapons.
The improvement in the ploughshare, with the discovery of iron, for deep
ploughing and for increasing cultivation happened during this period. The most
important and visible evidence of the high stage of development in metallurgy
is the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of Chandragupta II in the Qutb Minar Complex in
Delhi, identified with Chandragupta II. This monolith iron pillar has lasted
through the centuries without rusting.

Literature
 The Gupta period is considered as the Golden Age of art and literature. A
huge body of religious and secular literature was compiled in this period.
The two great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were finally
completed in the fourth century. Both Rama and Krishna came to be
considered incarnation of Vishnu.
 The Gupta period marks the beginning of the writing of the literature known as
Puranas. These texts refer to the stories about the Hindu gods and mention the
ways to please them through fasts and pilgrimages. The major Puranas written
in this period are the Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana and the Matsya Purana.
 Some Smritis or the law books were also compiled in the Gupta period. One of
these, the Narada Smriti throws light on the general social and economic rules
and regulations of the period.
 The literature in Gupta period was written in Sanskrit. The greatest of all the
poets was Kalidasa who lived in the court of Chandragupta II in the fifth
century AD. His works are very famous and have been translated in many
European languages. Some of the works that he authored are Meghadutam,
Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava and
Ritusamhara. The notable feature of his works is that the characters of higher

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caste speak in Sanskrit while those of lower caste and women speak in
Prakrit. The other famous dramatists to have flourished in this period are
Shudraka, writer of Mrichchhkatikam and Vishakhadatta who authored
Mudrarakshasa.
 The Nalanda University founded by
Kumaragupta I became the most celebrated
Buddhist educational centre in North India.

Science and Technology Nalanda University

 The important literature on those subjects that

were written during the Gupta period provide insight into the development of
science and technology. The most prominent of these is an astronomical work
by Aryabhatta from the fifth century, known as Aryabhatiyam. Aryabhatta was
a mathematician and astronomer.
 He put out the idea that the earth rotates on its axis, circles around the sun, and
causes eclipses for the first time. He was the one who invented "zero" and the
decimal system. Another notable astronomer and author of literature on
astronomy was Varahamihira (end of the sixth century).
 Panchasiddhantika, one of his works, discusses five astronomical systems.
The renowned mathematician Brahmagupta also resided in the Gupta
dynasty.

Art and Architecture

 It is for the first time in the Gupta period that the temples in the form of
structures were constructed in north India. These temples were made in the
architectural style known as Nagara. Two of these temples, one made of bricks
at Bhitargaon in Kanpur and the other of stone at Deogarh in Jhansi have
been found in Uttar Pradesh. Here the images of Vishnu are placed in the
center as a chief deity.

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 There was no influence of Gandhara style. But the

beautiful statue of standing Buddha at Mathura reveals a
little Greek style. The Buddha statue unearthed at
Saranath was unique piece of Gupta art.

The Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta is also

remarkable.
Sculpture

 The erect Buddha from Sarnath, which is well-known, is

a fine example of stone sculpture. The Great Boar (Varaha) at the entrance of a
cave at Udayagiri is perhaps the most stunning of the puranic pictures.

Metal statues

 The technology of casting statues on a large scale of core process was practised
by the craftsmen during the Gupta period with great workmanship. Two
remarkable examples of Gupta metal sculpture are a copper image of the
Buddha about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar and the
Sultanganj Buddha of seven-and-a-half feet in height.

Paintings

 The mural paintings of this period are found at Ajanta,

Bagh, Badami and other places. The mural paintings of
Ajantha mostly illustrate the life of the Buddha as depicted
in the Jataka stories. The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka
Fig: Ajantha
were highly influenced by the Ajantha style.
Painting

PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) Which of the following statements is incorrect?

a) Chandragupta Vikramaditya killed the Saka

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b) Samudragupta is known as Indian Napolean

c) Skandagupta defeated Huns
d) Kumaragupta restored the embankment of Sudarsana lake
2) Who among the following is knowns for his work on medicine during the
Gupta period?
a) Saumilla b) Sudraka
c) Shaunaka d) Susrutha
ANSWER: D
3) The silver coins issued by the Guptas were called
a) Rupaka b) Karshapana
c) Dinara d) Pana
ANSWER: A
4) With reference to forced labour (vishti) in India during the Gupta period,
which one of the following statements is correct?
a) It was considered a source of income for the state, a sort of tax paid by the
people
b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the
Gupta empire
c) The forced labourer was entitiled to weekly wages
d) The eldest son of the labourere was sent as the forced labourer
ANSWER: A
5) From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early
seventh century, which of the following kingdoms were holding power in
Northern India?
1. The Guptas of Magadha
2. The Paramaras of Malwa
3. They Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1, 2 and 5 b) 1, 3, 4 and 6

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c) 2, 3 and 4 d) 5 and 6
ANSWER: B

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11 The Harshavardhana Period

Pushyabhutis
The founder of the Vardhana dynasty was Pushyabhuti who ruled from Thaneswar.
He served as a military general under the imperial Guptas and rose to power after the
fall of the Guptas. With the accession of Prabakara Vardhana (580–605 CE), the
Pushyabhuti family became strong and powerful. Rajavardhana (605-606 CE), the
eldest son of Prabhakaravardhana, ascended the throne after his father’s death. He
was treacherously murdered by Sasanka, the Gauda ruler of Bengal. This resulted in
his younger brother Harshavardhana becoming the king of Thanesar.

Harsha’s Military Conquests

 In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. He made Kanauj
his new capital. This made him the most powerful ruler of north India The
most important military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Chalukya
ruler Pulakesin II. Both the accounts of Hiuen Tsang and the inscriptions of
Pulakesin II provide the details of this campaign. Harsha established his control
over Kashmir and its ruler sent tributes to him. He also maintained cordial
relations with Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam. Harsha’s last military
campaign was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.
 Thus Harsha established his hold over the whole of north India. The regions
modern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his
direct control.

Administration
 Harsha's administration was structured similarly to that of the Guptas. Hiuen
Tsang provides a detailed image of this.

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 T h e k i n g w a s

his domain, he made frequent inspection visits. For him, the day was too short.
Taxation was also minimal, and forced labor was uncommon. Land tax was

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levied on one-sixth of the production. Cruel punishments from the Mauryan

period persisted during Harsha's reign. The trials, according to Hiuen Tsang,
were barbaric and superstitious. Harsha's army was divided into four
divisions: foot, horse, chariot, and elephant. The cavalry numbered over a lakh,
while the elephants were more than sixty thousands.

Religion
 Harsha was a worshipper of Siva at least up to 631 CE. But he embraced
Buddhism under the influence of his sister Rajyasri and the Buddhist monk
Hieun Tsang. He subscribed to the Mahayana school of thought. Yet he held
discourses among learned men of various creeds. Slaughter of animals and
consumption of meat was restricted. Harsha summoned two Buddhist
assemblies (643 CE), one at Kanauj and another at Prayag.

Harsha as a Patron of Art and Literature

 Harsha patronized literary and artistic endeavors. It is estimated that the state
spent a fourth of its revenue on such activities. Bana, the author of
Harshacharita and Kadambari, was Harsha's court poet. The emperor
himself was a renowned litterateur, as evidenced by the plays he wrote,
including Priyadarsika, Rathnavali, and Nagananda. Harsha generously
donated to the advancement of education. Temples and monasteries served as
educational institutions.

 Hiuen Tsang, known as the "Prince of Pilgrims," visited India during Harsha's
rule. He became a Buddhist monk at the age of twenty after being born in China
in 612 CE. During his travels, he visited a number of sacred sites in northern
and southern India. Hieun Tsang studied at the University of Nalanda for
around five years. Harsha admired him for his enormous knowledge of
Buddhism and strong devotion to Buddha. Hieun Tsang traveled with 150
pieces of Buddha's relics, a significant number of Buddha images in gold, silver,
and sandalwood, and 657 volumes of precious manuscripts.

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 Renowned academics taught in monasteries in Kanauj, Gaya, Jalandhar,

Manipur, and other locations. During this time, Nalanda University rose to
prominence. Hiuen Tsang visited the Nalanda University and remained as a
student for some time.

Society
 Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang depict social life during Harsha's reign. The society
was divided into four classes: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vysya, and Sudra. The
Brahmins were the most favored members of society, and the kings granted
them land .
 The ruling class was the Kshatriyas. The Vysyas were primarily merchants.
Hiuen Tsang indicates that the Sudras were farmers. There were numerous
subcastes. Women's positions were not satisfactory. The system of dowry had
also become common. The practice of sati was also prevalent. Women wore
purdah. Hieun Tsang, however, added that the purdah system was not followed
among the higher class. . People were honest and not deceitful or treacherous
in their conduct. The butchers, fishermen, dancers and sweepers were asked to
stay outside the city. Even though the caste system was rigid, there was no
social conflict among the various sections of the society.

Nalanda University
 The term Nalanda means “giver of knowledge”. It was founded by
Kumaragupta I during the Gupta period. It was patronised by his successors
and later by Harsha. The professors of the University were called panditas.
Some of its renowned professors were Dingnaga, Dharmapala, Sthiramati and
Silabadhra. Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and he became the head
of the Nalanda University.
 Despite being a Mahayana University, it also taught many religious disciplines
such as the Vedas, Hinayana ideology, Sankhya, and Yoga philosophies. In
addition, the curriculum included general disciplines like , logic, language,
astronomy, medicine, and art.It drew students not just from diverse parts of
India, but also from other nations in the east.

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PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) Which one of the following was the contemporary Bengal king during the
time of Harsha of Kannauj?
(a) Bhaskaravarman
(b) Divakaramitra
(c) Devagupta
(d) Sasanka
ANSWER: D
2) Emperor Harsha’s southward march was stopped on the Narmada river by:
a) Pulakesin- 1
b) Pulakesin- 2
c) Vikramaditya- 1
d) Vikramaditya- 2
ANSWER: B
3) Assertion (A): Harshavardhana convened the Prayag Assembly
Reason (R): He wanted to popularise only the Mahayana form of Buddhism
a) Both A and R are individually true, and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are individually true, but R is Not a correct explanation of A
c) A is true, but R is false
d) A is false, but R is true
ANSWER: B

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India’s cultural contacts with the

12 Asian Countries
An important chapter in the history of India is the spread of Indian
culture and civilization to the rest of Asia. From the beginning, India
had maintained trade relationships with foreign nations. It had
inevitably led to the spread of Indian languages, religions, art, and
architectural styles as well as Indian philosophy, beliefs, and social
mores. Even Hindu kingdoms were formed in various regions of
South East Asia by Indian political explorers.

India and China

 Both the land route through Central Asia and the maritime route through
Burma had an impact on China. At the beginning of the first century A.D.,
Buddhism arrived in China. Many Chinese pilgrims, including Fahien and Hiuen
Tsang, traveled to India. On the other hand, several Buddhist monks traveled to
China, including Gunabhadra, Vajrabothi, Dharmadeva, and Dharmagupta. At
the behest of Chinese emperors, Indian academics translated a large number of
Sanskrit literature. Even after the Mongols established their empire in China in
the thirteenth century, there was still communication with China. Indian art
had also had an impact on Chinese art.

India and Tibet

 India began to have an impact on Tibet in the seventh century. Lhasa was
established by the well-known Buddhist ruler Gampo, who also introduced
Buddhism. Indian academics contributed to the development of the Tibetan
alphabet. Later, Indian academics contributed to the development of Lamaism
in Tibet. The Bengali Pala dynasty had close ties to Tibet in the eleventh
century. When the Muslim kings conquered Bengal, many Buddhist monks
sought refuge in Tibet.

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Sumatra and Java

 The Sailendra empire, which included Java (also known as Suvarnadvipa or the
island of gold by the ancient Indians), Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and other
regions of Southeast Asia, arose as the most significant power in the region in
the eighth century.
 Because of their location, they had control over trade between China and India
as well as with other western nations.
 The Mahayana Buddhist kings of Sailendra kept friendly ties with both the
Cholas of Tamil Nadu and the Palas of Bengal.
 The Sailendra ruler Maravijayottungavarman was granted permission by
Rajaraja I, the Chola king, to erect a Buddhist temple in Nagapattinam (Tamil
Nadu).
 Under the patronage of the Sailendras, the greatest monument was built at
Barabodur in Java.

Indian Culture in South East Asia

 Indian culture had a significant impact on South East Asia, which includes the
Malay Archipelago and Indo-China. They are situated on the other side of the
Bay of Bengal. These grounds caught the attention of the Indians because they
were fertile and abundant in minerals.
 Additionally, India's east coast is lined with various ports, and Indians
frequently traveled to these places. Ancient traditions spoke about traders'
journeys to Suvarnabhumi, also known as "the land of gold" and the collective
moniker for all of the East Asian nations.
 East Asia was first colonized by Indians during the Gupta era. The Pallavas
further promoted it.
 Thus for nearly fifteen hundred years Hindu kings were ruling over numerous
islands of the Malay Archipelago and over the Indo- China peninsula. Indian
religions and Indian culture moulded the lives of the primitive inhabitants of
these regions who were elevated to a higher plan of civilization.

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13 The Sangam period

The Sangam Age is an important period in the history of South India.

According to Tamil traditions, there were three Sangams (Academies
of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu known as Muchchangam.
These Sangams thrived under the Pandyas' royal support. The first
Sangam, held in Madurai at the time, was attended by gods and
legendary sages, but there was no written record of it. The second
Sangam was held in Kapadapuram, but all of the literary works
except Tolkappiyam were perished. Mudathirumaran established the
third Sangam in Madurai. It was attended by a huge number of poets
who created extensive literature, but only a handful remained. These
Tamil literary works continue to be valuable materials for
reconstructing the history of the Sangam Age.

Sangam Literature
 The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu,
Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
 Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiyar, is the first piece of Tamil literature. It is
a study on Tamil language, but it also discusses the political and economical
realities during the Sangam period.
 Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai,
Paripadal, and Padirruppattu are the works included in the Ettutogai or Eight
Anthologies.
 Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunarruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai,
Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji,
Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai, and

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 Malaipadukadam comprise the Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls. Ettutogai and

Pattuppattu were split into two groups: Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
 Pathinenkilkanakku features eighteen pieces, the most of which deal with
ethics and morals. The most important of these is Tirukkural, written by
Thiruvalluvar.
 Elango Adigal's Silappathigaram and Sittalai Sattanar's Manimegalai both
contain useful information about the Sangam polity and society.

Political History
 The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and
Pandyas during the Sangam Age. The political history of these dynasties can be
traced from the literary references.

The Cheras
 The Cheras ruled over Kerala's central and northern regions, as well as the
Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Vanji, and they controlled the
west coast ports of Musiri and Tondi. Vanji is associated with Karur, however
some scholars associate it with Tiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala. Most scholars
now agree that there were two main branches of the Chera family, and the
Poraiya branch reigned from Karur in present-day Tamil Nadu.
 The Patitruppathu speaks of eight Chera kings, their territory and fame. The
inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention Chera kings of three generations.
Cheral Irumporai issued coins in his name. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan
and Chenguttuvan are some of the prominent Chera kings. Chenguttuvan
defeated many chieftains and is said to have ensured the safety of the great
port Musiri by putting down piracy. . Some Cheras issued copper and lead
coins, with Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating Roman coins. There are many
other Chera coins with their bow and arrow emblem but without any writing
on them.

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Fig: Sangam Period, ruled by Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty

The Cholas
 During the Sangam period, the Chola kingdom stretched from contemporary
Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was formerly located
in Uraiyur before being relocated to Puhar. Karikala was a well-known Sangam
Chola king. Pattinappalai depicts his childhood and military conquests. He
vanquished the powerful confederacy of the Cheras, Pandyas, and eleven

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smaller chieftains at the Battle of Venni. Many Sangam poems describe this
occurrence.
 Vahaipparandalai was another significant fight in which he defeated nine
enemy chieftains. Karikala's military achievements elevated him to the position
of overlord of the entire Tamil kingdom. During his rule, trade and commerce
prospered.

The Pandyas
 The Pandyas ruled from Madurai. Korkai was their main port, located near the
confluence of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl
fishery and chank diving. Korkai is referred to in the Periplus as Kolkoi. Fish
was the emblem of the Pandyas. Their coins have elephant on one side and a
stylised image of fish on the other. They invaded Southern Kerala and
controlled the port of Nelkynda, near Kottayam. According to tradition, they
patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the Sangam
poems. The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi Inscription mentions a Pandya king by
name Nedunchezhiyan of the second century BCE.
 Sangam poems help us understand the social formation of the time. According
to the thinai concept, Tamilagam was divided into five landscapes or eco-
regions, Ainthinai namely Kurinji, Mullai, Marutam, Neythal and Palai. Each
region had distinct characteristics – a presiding deity, people and cultural life
according to the environmental conditions, as follows:

Social Formation in Tamil Eco-zones

Kurinji hilly region: hunting and gathering

Mullai forested region: pastoralism combined with shifting cultivation

Marutham riverine tract: agriculture using plough and irrigation.

Neythal coastal land: fishing and salt making.

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Palai parched land: Unsuitable for cultivation and hence people took to
cattle lifting and robbery

Society and Economy

 The Vendar's (chiefs who attained higher status) battles throughout the
Sangam Age were focused on expanding their territorial base by annexing the
enemy's territory. Endemic conflict, it is assumed, established the
circumstances for societal inequality. War captives are mentioned as serving in
several cult centers. There are also some references to slavery.Women were
actively engaged in economic activity, and there were many female poets
during the Sangam Age.
 There is evidence of craft production such as bronze vessels, beads and gold
works, textiles, shell bangles and ornaments, glass, iron smithy, pottery
making. Craft production was common in the major urban centres such as
Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam, Madurai, Korkai, and
Pattanam in Kerala.
 Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the common crop. Ragi,
sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of fruits
were the other crops. Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country.
Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country.
 In trade, barter system was much in vogue, though coins were also in use.
Roman coins circulated as bullion. Long distance trade existed and the
connections with the Roman empire and southeast Asia are in evidence at
many archaeological sites. The southern part of India, because of its easy
access to the coast and location in the maritime trade route connecting the East
and the West, played an important role in the overseas contacts. Roman gold
and silver coins have been found in many hoards in the Coimbatore region and
in many other places in south India.

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End of the Sangam Age

 The Sangam period gradually declined at the end of the third century A.D. The
Kalabhras ruled over Tamil Nadu for around two and a half centuries. We know
very little about the Kalabhra rule. During this time, Jainism and Buddhism
rose to prominence. The Pallavas in northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in
southern Tamil Nadu drove away the Kalabhras and established their authority
in Tamil Nadu.

PREVIOUS YEAR MCQS

1) Assertion (A): The Aham and Puram poems of the Padnine Kilukanakku group
formed a continuation of the Sangam composition
Reason (R): They were included under the Post-Sangam works as against the
Sangam works proper.
a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true, but R is not a correct explanation of A
c) A is true, but R is false
d) A is false, but R is true
ANSWER: A

2) Which one of the following statements about Sangam literature in ancient

South India is correct?
(a) Sangam poems are devoid of any reference to material culture
(b) The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam poets
(c) Sangam poems have no reference to warrior ethic
(d) Sangam literature refers to magical forces as irrational
ANSWER: B

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