Sreedam Das, PhD

[email protected]
❑ Structural and functional unit of all living matters

❑ The average human being is composed of around 100 Trillion

individual cells!!!
❑ It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area of a dot on

the letter “i”

[email protected]
❑ 1665- English Scientist, Robert Hooke, discovered cells while looking at
a thin slice of cork
❑ He described the cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb
❑ He thought that cells only existed in plants and fungi

[email protected]
❑ 1673- Used a handmade microscope to observe pond scum &
discovered single-celled organisms
❑ He called them “animalcules”

❑ He also observed blood cells from fish, birds, frogs, dogs, and
humans
❑ Therefore, it was known that cells are found in animals as well
as plants
[email protected]
❑ 1838- German Botanist, Matthias Schleiden,
concluded that all plant parts are made of
cells

❑ 1839- German physiologist, Theodor Schwann,

who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that
all animal tissues are composed of cells.
[email protected]
❑ 1858- Rudolf Virchow, German physician, after extensive study
of cellular pathology, concluded that cells must arise from
preexisting cells.

[email protected]
The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory include:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. (Schleiden &
Schwann, 1838-39)

2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things. (Schleiden &
Schwann, 1838-39)

3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells.

(Virchow, 1858)
[email protected]
Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in addition to the original Cell
Theory:
1. The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on
from cell to cell during cell division.
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and
metabolic activities.
3. All basic chemical & physiological functions are carried out inside the
cells (e.g. movement, digestion, etc.)
4. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures (e.g.
organelles, nucleus, plasma membrane) within the cell.
[email protected]
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:
✓ Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
✓ The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a
separate membrane.
✓ The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for
reproduction and cell growth.
✓ Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
✓ Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the
energy transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
✓ Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
✓ Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the
cell by synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them
to their appropriate locations.
 Types of Cells in Human

 Sex cells (germ cells):

▪ reproductive cells
▪ male sperm
▪ female oocytes (eggs)

2. Somatic Cells
◼ Somatic cells (soma = body):
◼ all body cells except sex cells
[email protected]
What is the difference between
bacteria and cyanobacteria?
Cyanobacteria are capable of
photosynthesizing. The key
difference between bacteria and
cyanobacteria is that bacteria do
not produce free oxygen during
their photosynthesis while
cyanobacteria are capable of
producing free oxygen during the
photosynthesis.

[email protected]
 What is the difference between
bacteria and cyanobacteria?
Cyanobacteria are capable of
photosynthesizing. The key
difference between bacteria and
cyanobacteria is that bacteria do
not produce free oxygen during
their photosynthesis while
cyanobacteria are capable of
producing free oxygen during the
Nucleus photosynthesis.

Cell Cell Wall

Membrane
[email protected]
✓ Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as
bacteria have a region within the cell where the genetic material is
freely suspended. This region is called the nucleoid.
✓ They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea,
bacteria and cyanobacteria.
✓ The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
✓ The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
✓ Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual
reproduction. They are also known to use conjugation – which is often
seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual reproduction.
Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.
✓ The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
✓ This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
✓ The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of
nutrients and electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible
for cell to cell communication.
✓ They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
✓ There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells.
For eg., the plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other
plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.
Organelles of cell
[email protected]
❑ Eukaryotic cells are more
complex than prokaryotic cells.

❑ They are larger and have many

organelles including a nuclear
envelope.

❑ This results in a separation of

their chromosomes (chromatin)
from their cytoplasm.
[email protected]
❑ Prokaryotic cells are generally much
smaller than most eukaryotic cells. This
allows these cells to take in nutrients
and excrete waste products easier,
which results in a greater rate of
multiplication.

❑ These cells do not have a nuclear

envelope and have a limited number of
organelles.

[email protected]
 Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells
small cells (< 5 mm) larger cells (> 10 mm)
always unicellular often multicellular
no nucleus or any membrane-bound always have nucleus and other
organelles membrane-bound organelles
DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated with
proteins to form chromatin
ribosomes are small (70S) ribosomes are large (80S)

no cytoskeleton always has a cytoskeleton

cell division is by binary fission cell division is by mitosis or meiosis

reproduction is always asexual reproduction is asexual or sexual

[email protected]
What Are the Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells?
Plant cells have to perform two functions that are not required of animal cells:
1. Produce their own food (which they do in a process called photosynthesis).
2. Support their own weight (which animals usually do by means of a skeleton).

The structures possessed by plant cells for performing these two functions create the primary differences between plant and animals cells.
These structures are:
Structures Unique to Plant Cells
•Cell Wall: A wall on the outside of the membrane, which, in combination with the vacuole, helps the plant cell maintain its shape and
rigidity.
•Plastids: Used in photosynthesis to convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into food. The most well-known plastids are chloroplasts,
which contain the chlorophyll that gives many plants their green hue.
•Large Vacuole: While animal cells may have many tiny vacuoles, a plant cell usually has a single large vacuole, which serves as a storage
tank for food, water, waste products, and other materials. The vacuole has an important structural function, as well. When filled with
water, the vacuole exerts internal pressure against the cell wall, which helps keep the cell rigid. A plant that is wilting has vacuoles that are
no longer filled with water.
While animal cells do not have a cell wall, chloroplasts, or a large vacuole, they do have one component plant cells do not. This is:

Structures Unique to Animal Cells

•Centrioles: Animal cells contain organelles known as centrioles, which are not present in plant cells. Centrioles help move chromosomes
during cell division. Since animal cells are softer than plant cells, centrioles are required to ensure the chromosomes are in the proper
location when the cell divides. Plant cells, with their more fixed shape, can safely assume that the chromosomes are correctly positioned.
The cellular components are called cell organelles. These cell
organelles include both membrane and non-membrane bound organelles
 Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and
Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-bound cell organelles. They are
present both in the prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell.
 Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi
Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum are single membrane-bound
organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
 Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and
chloroplast are double membrane-bound organelles present only in a
eukaryotic cell.
 The cell membrane which envelops the cell, is a thin, pliable, elastic
structure.
 Thickness: 7.5 to 10 nanometer
 Composition: Its composed almost entirely of proteins and lipids.

The approximate composition is-

1. Protein : 55%
2. Lipid : 42%
a. Phospholipid : 25%
b. Cholesterol : 13%
c. Other lipids : 4%
3. Carbohydrate : 3%
The plasma membrane consists of both lipids and proteins.

The fundamental structure of the membrane is the phospholipid

bilayer, which forms a stable barrier between two aqueous
compartments. In the case of the plasma membrane, these
compartments are the inside and the outside of the cell.

Proteins embedded within the phospholipid bilayer carry out

the specific functions of the plasma membrane, including
selective transport of molecules and cell-cell recognition.
 The currently accepted model for the structure of the plasma membrane, called
the fluid mosaic model, was first proposed in 1972. This model has evolved
over time, but it still provides a good basic description of the structure and
behavior of membranes in many cells.
 According to the fluid mosaic model, the plasma membrane is a mosaic of
components—primarily, phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins—that move
freely and fluidly in the plane of the membrane. In other words, a diagram of the
membrane (like the one below) is just a snapshot of a dynamic process in which
phospholipids and proteins are continually sliding past one another.
 Interestingly enough, this fluidity means that if you insert a very fine needle into
a cell, the membrane will simply part to flow around the needle; once the needle
is removed, the membrane will flow back together seamlessly.
✓ The principal components of the plasma membrane are lipids
(phospholipids and cholesterol), proteins, and carbohydrate
groups that are attached to some of the lipids and proteins.
✓ A phospholipid is a lipid made of glycerol, two fatty acid tails,
and a phosphate-linked head group. Biological membranes usually
involve two layers of phospholipids with their tails pointing
inward, an arrangement called a phospholipid bilayer.
✓ Cholesterol, another lipid composed of four fused carbon rings, is
found alongside phospholipids in the core of the membrane.
✓ Membrane proteins may extend partway into the plasma membrane,
cross the membrane entirely, or be loosely attached to its inside or
outside face.
✓ Carbohydrate groups are present only on the outer surface of the plasma
membrane and are attached to proteins, forming glycoproteins, or
lipids, forming glycolipids.
✓ The proportions of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in the plasma
membrane vary between different types of cells. For a typical human
cell, however, proteins account for about 50 percent of the composition
by mass, lipids (of all types) account for about 40 percent, and the
remaining 10 percent comes from carbohydrates.
 Phospholipids, arranged
in a bilayer, make up the
basic fabric of the
plasma membrane. They
are well-suited for this
role because they
are amphipathic,
meaning that they have
both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions
Cholesterol is a 27 carbon
compound with a unique
structure with a hydrocarbon
tail, a central sterol nucleus
made of four hydrocarbon
rings, and a hydroxyl group.
The center sterol nucleus or
ring is a feature of all steroid
hormones.
Proteins are the second major component of plasma membranes. There are two main
categories of membrane proteins: integral and peripheral.
 Integral membrane proteins are integrated into the membrane: they have at least one
hydrophobic region that anchors them to the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid
bilayer. Some stick only partway into the membrane, while others stretch from one side
of the membrane to the other and are exposed on either side . Proteins that extend all the
way across the membrane are called transmembrane proteins.
 Transmembrane proteins may cross the membrane just once, or may have as many as
twelve different membrane-spanning sections. A typical membrane-spanning segment
consists of 20-25 hydrophobic amino acids arranged in an alpha helix, although not all
transmembrane proteins fit this model. Some integral membrane proteins form a channel
that allows ions or other small molecules to pass.
Peripheral membrane proteins are found on the outside and
inside surfaces of membranes, attached either to integral
proteins or to phospholipids. Unlike integral membrane
proteins, peripheral membrane proteins do not stick into the
hydrophobic core of the membrane, and they tend to be more
loosely attached.
 Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes.
In general, they are found on the outside surface of cells and are bound
either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids
(forming glycolipids). These carbohydrate chains may consist of 2-60
monosaccharide units and can be either straight or branched.
 Along with membrane proteins, these carbohydrates form distinctive
cellular markers, that allow cells to recognize each other. These markers
are very important in the immune system, allowing immune cells to
differentiate between body cells, which they shouldn’t attack, and
foreign cells or tissues, which they should.
 The structure of the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids is important in determining the
properties of the membrane, and in particular, how fluid it is.
 Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds (are saturated with hydrogens), so they are
relatively straight. Unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, contain one or more double
bonds, often resulting in a bend or kink. The saturated and unsaturated fatty acid tails of
phospholipids behave differently as temperature drops:
• At cooler temperatures, the straight tails of saturated fatty acids can pack tightly
together, making a dense and fairly rigid membrane.
• Phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acid tails cannot pack together as tightly because
of the bent structure of the tails. Because of this, a membrane containing unsaturated
phospholipids will stay fluid at lower temperatures than a membrane made of saturated
ones.
 Most cell membranes contain a mixture of phospholipids, some with two saturated
(straight) tails and others with one saturated and one unsaturated (bent) tail. Many
organisms—fish are one example—can adjust physiologically to cold environments by
changing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in their membranes.
 In addition to phospholipids, animals have an additional membrane component that helps
to maintain fluidity. Cholesterol, another type of lipid that is embedded among the
phospholipids of the membrane, helps to minimize the effects of temperature on fluidity.
 Component Location
Phospholipids Main fabric of the membrane

Tucked between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane

Cholesterol
phospholipids

Embedded in the phospholipid bilayer; may or may not

Integral proteins
extend through both layers

On the inner or outer surface of the phospholipid

Peripheral proteins
bilayer, but not embedded in its hydrophobic core

Attached to proteins or lipids on the extracellular side of

Carbohydrates
the membrane (forming glycoproteins and glycolipids)
Transport: It facilitates the transport of materials across it. It is selectively permeable
to certain substance and helps transports of substances needed for survival. The various
transport mechanisms are:
a. Diffusion ( oxygen, carbon dioxide, small molecules, etc.) and passive osmosis
(water)
b. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters:
Aquaporins for water transport, ion channels for sodium and potassium transport, etc.
c. Endocytosis:
It is a process by which cell absorbs molecules by engulfing them: Example:
Pinocytosis: Small vesicles, by a process of pinocytosis ( drinking by cells), encircle
and carry fluid within it across the membrane.
d. Exocytosis:
In which cells removed undigested products brought in by endocytosis, or to secrete
enzymes and hormones or to excrete substances outside the cell.
In addition to transport, the cell membrane:
• Helps in the protection of cell. It surrounds cytoplasm of cell and forms a physical barrier
between intracellular component and extracellular compartment.
• It anchors to the cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix and thereby provide shape to the cell
and maintains its structural integrity.
• Receives stimuli from the outside. The protein component of cell membrane acts as ligand
receptors. The cell membrane contain receptor site for some hormones, immune proteins and
neurotransmitters thus the cell recognizes and process these signals.
• Takes in food and excretes waste products.
• They aid in cell recognition (identifiers).
Example: Glycoproteins ( e.g. major histocompatibility complex, ABO blood group antigens).
The surface protein markers which are embedded in the cell identify the cells, thus helps
neighbouring cell to communicate with each other.
• The proteins in cell membrane act as enzymes and catalyze reactions and thus involved in
 CELL WALL CELL MEMBRANE
Present only in plants and in some fungi, bacteria, algae. Present in all types of cells, in humans, animals, plants, bacteria, etc.
It is the outermost part of the plant cell It is the outermost covering the animal cells
It is made up of pectin, chitin, lignin, glycoproteins, It is a lipid bilayer. And is composed of lipoproteins and
glycolipids, sugar, and cellulose. carbohydrates.
The cell wall is 0.1 μm to several μm in thickness The cell membrane is 7.5–10 nm in thickness
It is a thin and delicate structure. It is flexible to change the shape as
It is the thick and rigid structure with a fixed shape.
needed.
It protects the cell from the external environment. It protects and maintains the internal environment of the cell.
The cell wall is metabolically inactive. The cell membrane is metabolically active.
The cell wall grows in thickness over time. It is of the same thickness for the lifetime of the organism.
The cell wall is fully permeable to smaller molecules with The membrane is selectively permeable and controls the movement
the size of 30-60 kDa. of the substance into and outside the cell.
Functions include protection from the external Functions include permeability, signal reception, motility conduction,
environment. cell division, sexual reproduction, etc.
 ❑ Structural proteins for shape and strength It functions as the cells skeleton.

❑ The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers

extending throughout the cytoplasm.
❑ It provides an internal protein framework that
give cytoplasm strength and flexibility
❑ The cytoskeleton organizes the
structures and activities of the cell.
❑ Providing structural support to the cell, the
cytoskeleton also functions in cell motility and
regulation.
❑ Mechanical support
▪ Maintains shape
❑ Fibers act like a geodesic dome to stabilize
and balance opposing forces
❑ Provides anchorage for organelles
❑ Dynamic
▪ Dismantles in one spot and reassembles in another to change cell
shape
❑ The cytoskeleton also plays a major role in cell motility.
▪ This involves both changes in cell location and limited movements of
parts of the cell.
❑ The cytoskeleton interacts with motor proteins.
▪ In cilia and flagella motor proteins pull components of the cytoskeleton
past each other.
▪ This is also true in muscle cells.
❑ Interactions of motor proteins and the
cytoskeleton circulates materials within
a cell.
❑ Motor molecules also carry vesicles or
organelles to various destinations along
“monorails’ provided by the cytoskeleton.
❑ Recently, evidence is accumulating that
the cytoskeleton may transmit
mechanical signals that rearrange the
nucleoli and other structures.
There are three main
types of fibers in the cytoskeleton:
 microtubules,
 microfilaments, and
 intermediate filaments.
• Motor proteins are a class of molecular motors that can move along
the cytoplasm of animal cells. They convert chemical energy into mechanical work
by the hydrolysis of ATP.
• The best prominent example of a motor protein is the muscle protein myosin which
"motors" the contraction of muscle fibers in animals. Motor proteins are the driving
force behind most active transport of proteins and vesicles in the cytoplasm.
• Kinesins and cytoplasmic dyneins play essential roles in intracellular transport
such as axonal transport and in the formation of the spindle apparatus and the
separation of the chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis.
• Axonemal dynein, found in cilia and flagella, is crucial to cell motility, for example
in spermatozoa, and fluid transport, for example in trachea.

Cytoskeletal motor proteins

Motor proteins utilizing the cytoskeleton for movement fall into two categories based on
their substrate: microfilaments or microtubules.
• Actin motors such as myosin move along microfilaments through interaction with actin, and
• microtubule motors such as dynein and kinesin move along microtubules through interaction with tubulin.
 Target cytoskeletal
Drug Name Effect Applications
component

Colchicine Microtubule Prevents polymerization Used to treat gout

Demecolcine Microtubule Depolymerizes Chemotherapy

Vinblastine Microtubule Prevents polymerization Chemotherapy

Rotenone Microtubule Prevents polymerization Pesticide

1. They are the primary sites
for ATP synthesis in the cell

2.They have a key role in

apoptosis - programmed
cell death
 Mitochondria are organized into 4
distinct compartments

Outer membrane:
▪ Perforated with large channels
(porins) that allow entry of
molecules < 5000 kD

▪ Enzymes involved in
mitochondrial lipid synthesis
 Mitochondria are organized into 4
distinct compartments

Intermembrane space:
 Enzymes that use newly-
made ATP to phosphorylate
other nucleotides

 Compartment into which H+

is pumped
 Mitochondria are organized into 4
distinct compartments
Inner membrane:
 Folded into christae to maximize
surface area
 Proteins that carry out redox
reactions of the electron transport
chain
 Proteins that synthesize ATP
 Transport proteins that move
molecules into and out of the matrix
 Mitochondria are organized into 4
distinct compartments

Matrix:
 Internal space containing enzymes
for Krebs cycle

 Contains mitochondrial DNA, special

ribosomes, tRNAs, and enzymes
required for gene expression
The three stages of cellular
respiration are (1) glycolysis, (2)
citric acid cycle, and (3) oxidative
phosphorylation
Pyruvate from sugars, fatty acids from fats
Nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH)
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
These consist of network of canals (tubules) and vesicles (cisternae). These are three-
dimensional and bounded by membrane of about 80 A in thickness. The elements of the
endoplasmic reticulum may connect intermittently with the plasma membrane at one hand and
on the other hand with the outer nuclear membrane.
Two types of endoplasmic reticulum have been recognized:
l. Rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum:
This reticulum is studded with granules-the ribosomes lying in rows in contact with the
membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. The roughness of the membrane is due to the
presence of these granules-Palade granules.

2. Smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum:

This type of endoplasmic reticulum does not possess granules-the ribosomes at the outer
border of the membrane. This is why it is smooth.
✓ As the smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum is very abundant in the interstitial
(Leydig) cells of the testis and in cells of the corpus luteum, this reticulum is
concerned with the synthesis of steroid hormones.
✓ In the parietal cells of the gastric mucosa, it is concerned with secretion of
hydrochloric acid.
✓ In the skeletal muscle, it (sarcoplasmic reticulum) is concerned in some way with
binding of the Ca++ ions and also plays role in conducting impulses in the
substances of muscle cells.
✓ In the liver cells both types of reticula are concerned with the synthesis of protein
and carbohydrate.
✓ Leydig cells are the primary source of testosterone or androgens in males.

✓ The sarcoplasmic reticulum is the major intracellular organelle in the mature heart that controls the cytosolic calcium concentrations required
for contraction; this organelle stores, releases, and reuptakes calcium to maintain ongoing contraction and relaxation.
The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is
an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.

Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, it packages proteins into membrane-
bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination.

The Golgi apparatus, or Golgi complex, functions as a factory in which proteins received
from the ER are further processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations:
lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or secretion. In addition, as noted earlier, glycolipids
and sphingomyelin are synthesized within the Golgi.

The three primary functions of the Golgi apparatus are the transport, sorting and
modification of both protein and lipid, and the protein composition of the organelle reflects
these functions.
✓ It is probably concerned with synthetic process of the
cell, specially secretions.
✓ The secretory substance passes to the Golgi apparatus
which possibly modifies the products of synthesis by
concentrating and chemically altering it to some extent.
✓ In addition, Golgi apparatus independently synthesizes
polysaccharide part of glucoprotein secretion.
 The nucleus is generally a round
body occupying the centre of the
cell.
 Its shape, size, position and
number vary.
 The nucleus may contain many
lobes.
 Usually most mature cells
possess a nucleus, but there are
certain larger cells in the body
which may contain more than one
nucleus. If the nucleus is
removed, the cell dies.
1. The nuclear material differs from the cytoplasm in several respects.
✓ First, it is more opaque to the ultra- violet rays.
✓ Secondly, it shows many selective staining reactions but usually takes basic stain, while
cytoplasm may take neutral, basic or acid stain.
✓ Thirdly, the nucleus is very rich in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), while cytoplasm is rich in
ribonucleic acid (RNA).

2. The nuclear membrane is also a unit membrane. Surrounding the nucleus, there is a lipoprotein
nuclear envelope. This envelope is double-layered and the spaces between two folds are known as
perinuclear cisterns.

3. In the apparently quite permeable membrane of the nucleus, pores (areas of discontinuity) of
about 6 micron diameter are closed by a thin homogeneous membrane which permits passage of
molecules from the nucleus to the cytoplasm . This indicates connecting link between the genes
and ribosomes, the site of cytoplasmic protein synthesis.
Inside a nucleus there is
usually single or may be
from two to five smaller
bodies known as
nucleolus or nucleoli
which lie among
nuclear sap
(karyoplasm) and
among the pale-staining
karyoplasm chromatin
granules lie.
✓ The nucleolus comprises the irregular network or rows of fine granules,
nucleolonema as seen in EM. The nucleolus loses its identity during
cell division. The nucleolus contains still smaller nucleus known as
nucleololus or nucleolinus or nucleolonucleus.
✓ The nucleus is responsible for the synthesis of messenger RNA
(mRNA) which carries the genetic information in code through the
pores in the nucleus. Recently it has been studied that mRNA is formed
in the strands of DNA within the nucleus and actually the strands of
DNA direct the synthesis of specific mRNA.
✓ The mRNA thus formed in the nucleus comes out of the nucleus for
carrying the DNA-message to the protein-synthesising centre
(ribosome) of the cytoplasm. Here it is attached to the ribosome and
stretched out on its surface to direct the protein synthesis.
✓ The amino acid sequences in the protein are determined by the transfer
or soluble RNA (tRNA or sRNA) which recognises the code for the
amino acids; the tRNA is carrying to the particular spot of the
ribosomal surface where the mRNA is already attached.

✓ Main function of tRNA is to transfer the specific amino acid to the

template of mRNA for correct amino acid sequence. There are 20
specific tRNA for 20 specific amino acids. With the help of these tRNA
the protein is synthesised with proper sequences at the template of the
mRNA and are stretched on the surface of the ribosome.

✓ After completion of protein synthesis, the protein molecules become

detached from ribosomal particles and pass into the canal of the
endoplasmic reticulum. From here it passes into the Golgi complex.
The division of one cell into two daughter cells is the basis of the continuity of
life.
➢ Mitosis (indirect cell division)
➢ Amitosis ( direct cell division) and
➢ Meiosis are considered as some of several types of existing cell division.
Cell division may be separated into:
l. Karyokinesis: Division of nuclear material starts with doubling of the
chromosome in parent nucleus, followed by distribution between two daughter
nuclei in equal proportion.
2. Cytokinesis: Cytoplasmic division in which each of two daughter cells
receives one of the daughter nuclei. In a few cell types, karyokinesis may occur
without cytokinesis.
 Cell cycle

Interphase Mitosis
Prophase
G1 (gap 1) phase
Prometaphase
S (synthetic) phase Metaphase
G2 (gap 2) phase Anaphase
Telophase
G1 phase

▪ The first phase of interphase.

▪ The cell usually grows larger, and some organelles are copied.
▪ Cells take preparation to replicate DNA by synthesising the mRNAs and
proteins required to execute the future steps.
S phase
▪ All the genetic information (DNA) in the cell is copied by the process of DNA
replication.
▪ DNA replication is semi conservative and semi discontinuous type which results in
the formation of identical pairs of DNA molecules.
▪ DNA replication generates sister chromatids, which are identical pairs of
chromosomes. So after replication, number of chromosome is still 46 but cell
contains 92 chromatids. (The number of chromosome = the number of functional
centromere. The number of DNA molecule= the number of chromatids)
▪ These sister chromatids are attached to each other by a centromere.
▪ The centrosome (centriole) is also duplicated during the S phase.
G2 phase

▪ The final phase of interphase is the G2 phase.

▪ Cell grows further, makes proteins and organelles.
▪ Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for
mitosis.​
▪ The phase ends when mitosis begins.
Mitosis (M)

▪ Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter

cells with the same genetic component as the parent cell.
▪ Chromosomes replicated during the S phase are divided in such a way as
to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome.
▪ In actively dividing animal cells, the whole process takes about one hour.
Mitosis (M)
▪ Mitosis can be divided into five phases:
o Prophase
o Prometaphase
o Metaphase
o Anaphase
o Telophase
▪ Sometimes, prometaphase is not considered a separate phase.
▪ During growth or regeneration of tissue, cells divide by mitosis.
▪ Each chromosome reproduces itself by splitting lengthwise, so that two
identical portions (or chromatids) pass to the daughter cells and grow
into mature chromosomes identical with those in the parent cell.
▪ Normal cell division or mitosis is divided usually into four stages-
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The interval between
each cell division which is comparatively long is called interphase.
▪ The process of mitosis together with interphase period constitutes the
cell cycle. The cycle is extremely short in the case of intestinal
epithelium and very long in adult hepatic cell.
Prophase:
 During the stage of prophase each chromosome looks as a
pair of long entwined filamentous structures throughout
the nucleus due to coiling of DNA molecules.
 They gradually shorten and thicken and become darker.
The two centrioles with microtubules forming asters move
to the opposite side. Spindle (group of tubules) becomes
visible.
 At the end of prophase nuclear membrane and nucleolus
disappear. The chromosomes separate from each other and
become prominent.
09/09/2024 83
Meta phase
▪ In the stage of metaphase, the chromosomes assemble at the
equator of spindle fibres.
▪ Chromosomes appear as if suspended by microtubules (spindle
filaments) in a single plane midway between two asters.
▪ Two chromatids are formed from each chromosome by
longitudinal splitting.
Anaphase
 During anaphase the separated chromatids which form the
chromosome of the daughter cell move towards the opposite
poles of the cell.
 Newly separated chromatids now are new chromosomes.
Telophase
 In the stage of telophase, a gradually elongating nuclear membrane due to uncoiling of
DNA molecules is formed around two groups of chromosomes. Spindle fibres disappear.
 Formation of nucleolus completes the process of cell division and two identical daughter
cells after cytokinesis are usually formed from one parent cell.
 The different cytoplasmic organoids of the parent cell are distributed between the two
daughter cells.
lnterphase
 This is a period between end of telophase of one cell division and beginning of prophase
of next division.
 Chromosomes become elongated and too thin to be visible as such but chromatin
granules are visible.
 Each chromosome duplicates (duplication of DNA molecules) forming two chromatids
attached at centromere. Two newly formed cells grow.
a. Passive transport
1. Diffusion: Simple and facilitated diffusion
2. Osmosis.
b. Active transport
1. Primary active transport
2. Secondary active transport: Sodium co-transport and
counter-transport.
c. Transport of macromolecules
1. Pinocytosis
2. Phagocytosis
A. Active Transport (or Primary Active Transport)
Active transport is a process in which a solute is moved against a
concentration or electrochemical gradient using ATP as source of energy.
Thus, the key features of primary active transport are:
1. Move substrates against concentration gradient
2. Uses carrier proteins (just like carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion)
3. Requires energy, such as ATP
B. Secondary Active Transport
It is also known as co-transport or coupled transport mechanism. The
secondary active transport use stored energy in ion gradients to actively
transport molecules across membranes. The co-transport mechanism is
classified as uniport, antiport and symport.
The passive transport mechanisms are diffusion and osmosis.
Diffusion: It is a passive process by which molecules moves
from area of higher concentration gradient to that of lower
concentration gradient and does not require energy for the
process.
The diffusion is of two types:
➢ Simple diffusion and
➢ Facilitated diffusion.
✓ The organism's ability to keep a constant internal environment was
termed as homeostasis.
✓ The composition of ions, electrolytes, water, etc. varies between
intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid.
✓ The extracellular fluid contains more amount of nutrients such as
glucose, fatty acid, amino acids and ions such as sodium, chloride,
bicarbonate while intracellular fluid contains higher amount of
potassium, phosphate and magnesium.
✓ Inorder to keep a stable internal environment there is constant
adjustments of chemical composites of extracellular and intracellular
content which is aided by various transport mechanisms.
✓ Homeostasis is a state of dynamic equilibrium rather than a constant,
unchanging State.
✓ Any Biochemistry Book

✓ Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function 3rd ED

-By Saladin

✓ Understanding Human Anatomy and Physiology 5th Ed

-By Mader

✓ Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems 9th Ed

-By Lauralee Sherwood
09/09/2024 95
09/09/2024 96
(i) Prophase
▪ Prophase is the first stage of cell division in both mitosis and meiosis.
▪ It begins after interphase where DNA has already been
replicated (duplicated with identical copies of sister
chromatids; 46 chromosome with 92 chromatids ).
▪ The chromatin begin to coil and compact, resulting in the
formation of visible chromosomes of X shape.
▪ Centrosomes (duplicated in S-phase) start to move to
opposite poles of cells and spindle fibres begin to form.
▪ Spindle fibre (microtubules) begins to form
▪ Nucleolus disappears
 ▪ Prometaphase is not always presented as a distinct
part of mitosis. It is the phase to late prophase and
early metaphase.

▪ Nuclear membrane breaks apart into numerous

"membrane vesicles”
▪ The kinetochore assembles on the centromere and
links the chromosome to microtubule
(iii) Metaphase
▪ The centromeres of the chromosomes convene
themselves on the metaphase plate, an imaginary line
that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles.
▪ The even alignment at metaphase plate is due to the
counterbalance of the pulling powers generated by
the opposing kinetochore microtubules.
▪ Unattached or improperly attached kinetochores (if any) generate a signal to prevent
premature progression to anaphase, even if most of kinetochores have been
attached and most of the chromosomes have been aligned. Such a signal creates the
mitotic spindle checkpoint.
▪ Metaphase is the crucial part in cell division as all of the genetic material should be
perfectly connected to kinetochore to ensure exact copy of chromatid moves to
opposite poles.
99
(iv) Anaphase
▪ Anaphase is the stage after metaphase, when
kinetochore-connected chromatids are moved
to opposite poles of the cell.
▪ Anaphase starts when the ‘anaphase
promoting complex’ destroys the enzyme
known as ‘Securin’.
▪ The destruction of Securin unleashes the
protease enzyme ‘Separase’.
▪ Inactivation of of Seperase causes breakdown
of ‘Cohesin’, a protein responsible for holding
sister chromatids together.
 (v) Telophase
▪ Telophase is the final stage in both meiosis
and mitosis
▪ At this stage, the nucleolus reappear and
nuclear membrane is reassembled (during
prophase and prometaphase it was
disintegrated into membrane vesicles).

▪ Chromosomes begin to decondense back into the expanded chromatin that is

present during interphase.
▪ The mitotic spindle is disassembled and remaining spindle microtubules are
depolymerized.
Cytokinesis

▪ Cytokinesis completes the cell cycle,

and usually overlaps with the final
stage (telophase) of mitosis.
▪ Cytokinesis involves in the physical separation of the cytoplasm and its components
into daughter cells.
▪ A cleavage furrow separates the daughter cells
▪ Some eukaryotic cells may omit cytokinesis producing multinucleated cells. For
example: hepatocytes and skeletal muscle cells.