Microwave and RADAR (22535)

Unit-I (14 Marks)

Fundamentals of Microwave communication and Waveguides

1. Draw & explain TEM wave.

Ans: TEM mode has E field and H field components at right angles to the Z
direction. Figure 3a shows an example of an electromagnetic wave propagating
through space in TEM mode while Figure 3b shows how TEM mode works in a
cross-section of a coax cable.
TEM Mode or Principal Mode (Ez = 0 and Hz = 0)
 In this mode, both the E and H fields are transverse to the direction of
wave propagation, and this is known as the transverse electromagnetic
(TEM) mode. Due to Ez = 0 and Hz = 0 in this mode, all field components
are reduced to zero, so that there is no field component along the direction
of propagation. Thus, from the result, a rectangular waveguide cannot
support the TEM mode.

Figure 3a. Example of an electromagnetic wave propagating through space

in TEM mode
 2. Differentiate between waveguide and two transmission line.
Ans:
Waveguide Transmission Line

The waveguide is a hollow metallic

structure through which electric The transmission line is a conductor which is used to
and magnetic fields are transmitted. carry electrical signal over a long range.

It has simple to manufactured. It has complex to manufactured.

In waveguide the power handling is In transmission line the power handling is low as
high as compared to transmission line. compared to waveguide.

The Operating modes are TE or TM

mode. The operating mode are TEM or quasi TEM mode.

In waveguide high power is

transmitted. In transmission line low power is transmitted.

In waveguide the electromagnetic

signal is transmitted. In transmission line the electrical signal is transmitted.

The operating frequency is 3 GHZ to

100 GHZ in waveguide. The operating frequency is up to 18 GHz.

3. Define a) cut off frequency b) group velocity c) cut off wavelength d) phase velocity of
waveguide.
Ans:
a) Cut-off frequency(fc): It is the frequency of the signal above which propagation
of waves occur.
b)Group velocity (Vg)
 Group velocity is the velocity with which the wave propagates inside the
waveguide.
 If the transmitted carrier is modulated, then the velocity of the modulation
envelope is somewhat less as compared to the carrier signal.
 This velocity of the envelope is termed group velocity. It is represented by Vg.
c)Cut-off wavelength (λc)
 It is the maximum signal wavelength of the transmitted signal that can be propagated
within the waveguide without any attenuation. It is denoted by λc.
d)Phase velocity (Vp)
 It is the velocity with which the transmitted wave changes its phase during
propagation. It is the velocity of a particular phase of the propagating wave. It is
denoted by Vp.

4. Sketch the field pattern of TE10, TE20 and TE11 modes of rectangular waveguide.
Ans:
The TE mode is subdivided further into the following modes.
1. TE10 Mode
1.TE10 Mode
In the TE10 mode, the figure indicates the number of half wavelengths (λ/2) across the broad
dimension of the electric field. The second figure indicates that the length of the narrow
dimension is less than (λ/2) of the magnetic field.
The TE10 means that during propagation through the waveguide, the electric field is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. It is equal to λ/2 across the broad dimension
and the magnetic field is less than λ/2.
2. TE11 mode-

TE11 Mode
In the TE11 mode, the first figure indicates the number of half-wave lengths (λ/2) across the
broad dimension of the electric field. The second figure indicates the length of the narrow
dimension (λ/2) of the magnetic field.
The TE11 means that during propagation through the waveguide, the electric field and
magnetic field are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. It is λ/2 across the broad
dimension and the magnetic field is also λ/2 across the narrow dimension.

3.TE20 Mode-
 In the TE20 mode, the first figure shows the number of full wave length λ across the broad
detention of the electric the second figure indicates that the length of the narrow dimension is
less than the λ of the magnetic field. The TE20 means that the electric field is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation.
When the propagation takes place through the waveguide in TM mode, the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation and an electric field is in the direction of
propagation and electric field is in the direction of propagation. In TM mode it is also called
that magnetic flux is transversed to the direction of propagation.

5. Compare rectangular and circular waveguide.

Ans:

Parameter Rectangular waveguide Circular waveguide

Definition It is a hallow metallic tube of It is a hallow metallic tube of circular cross section to carry
rectangular cross section to
carry microwave signal from microwave signal from one point to another.
one point to another.

Construction A hallow metallic tube is made up of brass or copper.

A hallow metallic tube is

made up of brass or
copper. The inner walls are
coated with gold.
Parameter Rectangular waveguide Circular waveguide

The inner walls are coated with gold.

Application Almost in all microwave In Rotational coupling

applications rectangular
waveguides are used due to
their small size.

Field pattern
6. State two advantages and two applications of circular waveguide.
Ans:
Advantages:
[Link] circular waveguide are easier to manufacture than rectangular waveguides and are
easier to join.
[Link] TM01 modes are rotationally symmetrical and hence rotation of polarization can be
overcome.
3.TE01 mode in circular for long distance waveguide transmission.
Disadvantage:
[Link] size is the primary lower frequency limitation.
[Link] is difficult to install.
Applications:
• Rotating joints in radars to connect the horn antenna feeding a paraboloid reflector (which
must rotate for tracking).
• TE01 mode is suitable for long distance waveguide transmission above 10GHz.
• Short and medium distance broad band communication (cold replace/share coaxial and
microwave links).
• It is used where the transmission or reception is in the range of microwave frequencies.
• It is also used for handling the high power of energy. It is mostly used in the airborne radar.

Unit-II (12M)
Microwave Passive Components

[Link] the working principle of H-plane Tee with constructional sketch.

Ans:

 H plane Tee is so called because the axis of side arm is parallel to planes of H-field of
main transmission line.
 As all three arms of H plane tee lay in the plane of magnetic field, the magnetic field
divide itself in arms this is thus the current junction.
  Since the electricity is not bent as the wave passes through a H plane junction but
merely divide between two arms ,fields of same polarity approaching the junction
from two main arms produce component of electric field that add in side arm.
 The effective valve of field leaving through the side arm is proportional to phasor sum
of entering fields.
Applications-
 Power dividers: For microwave frequencies
 Antenna-feeding networks: Distributes signals to multiple array elements
 Directional couplers: Monitors a signal without affecting the original signal
 Satellite communication: Combines and divides signals at ground stations

2. State the working principle of circulator with neat sketch and state its two
applications.
Ans:

Isolators can be connected together to form multiport devices where, depending upon their
isolation characteristics, an optical signal can leave the device at an end terminal or it can
continue to flow towards the next connected isolator.
ii. The resulting device is generally known as a circulator, taking its name from the path of
the optical signal which follows a closed loop or a circle.
iii. Such a device is shown in Figure4.21 (b) where three isolators are interconnected to form
a three-port device which does not discard the backward reflections but directs them to
another isolator.
iv. Therefore the signal continues to travel from isolator 1 to isolator 2 and finally it
terminates at the end terminal of isolator 3.
v. In order to prevent the signal going back to the input port 1, no connection is usually
permitted between port 3 and port 1.
vi. When a signal is transmitted from port 1 to port 2, however, the device simultaneously
allows another optical signal to travel from port 2 to port 3.
 Application-
1. Duplexer
2. Isolator
3. Reflection amplifier
4. Radar systems
5. Amplifier systems
6. Antenna transmitting or receiving

3. Compare with neat sketches the actions of gyrators, isolators and circulators using
ferrites. Mention their typical application.
Ans:
Points Circulator Isolator Gyrators

Definition Circulator is the ferrite device Isolator is the ferrite device The gyrator is one of the
which sends microwave which transmit microwave ferrite device used in RF and
frequencies between ports. frequencies in one direction. microwave circuit design to
obtain phase shift of about
180 degree
Uses As circulator is three or four As isolator is two port The main application of
port device, the power in device, it is used to stop gyrator is to reduce the size
circulator is taken away from input side equipment to and cost of a system by
any port and it is transmitted deliver power to the output removing the heavy, bulky,
to the next port in that current side. and expensive inductors.
rotation.

Working A circulator, according to Isolator sends unidirectional The gyrator is basically a

Principle situation terminates one of its frequencies directly from phase shifter with 180 degree
three or four ports with a one port to second port phase shift.
power load. This terminated without terminating any
port will absorb the power as port. At the same time this
soon as power enters in it. port will absorb the power
reaching at the second port.

Number of three-port optical TWO-port optical Isolator two-port optical Gyrators

ports circulator,four-port optical
circulator
Applicatio 1. Duplexer 1. RF Testing and  A gyrator can be used
ns- 2. Isolator Measurement: to transform load into
3. Reflection amplifier 2. Signal Routing in an inductance.
4. Radar systems Radar Systems:
5. Amplifier systems 3. Microwave Systems  The main application
6. Antenna transmitting and of gyrator is to reduce
or receiving Telecommunications: the size and cost of a
4. Medical Equipment and system by removing
Magnetic Resonance the heavy, bulky, and
Imaging (MRI): expensive inductors.
Diagram

4. Draw neat sketches and give one use of following Waveguide Accessories: (i) Bends
(ii) Corners.
Ans:

An H-plane bend (shown in Figure 10-22a) is a piece of waveguide smoothly bent in a plane
parallel to the magnetic field for the dominant mode (hence the name). In order to keep the
reflections in the bend small, its length is made several wavelengths. If this is undesirable
because of size, or if the bend must be sharp, it is possible to minimize reflections by making
the mean length of the bend an integral number of guide wavelengths. In that case some
cancellation of reflections takes place. It must be noted that the sharper the bend, the greater
the mismatch introduced

For the larger wavelengths a bend is rather clumsy, and a corner may be used instead.
Because such a corner would introduce intolerable reflections if it were simply a 90° corner, a
part of it is cut, and the corner is then said to be mitered, as in Figure 10-23b. The dimension
c depends on wavelength, but if it is correctly chosen, reflections will be almost completely
eliminated. An H-plane corner is shown. With an E-plane corner, there is a risk
of voltage breakdown across the distance c, which would naturally be fairly small in such a
corner. Thus if a change of direction in the E plane is required, a double-mitered corner is
used (as in Figure 10-23c). In this both the inside and outside corner surfaces are cut, and the
thickness of the corner is the same as that of the straight portion of Waveguide Coupling.
mismatch introduced.

5. Write any two applications of corners and twist section of waveguide.

Ans: Applications-

[Link]

 Directional Control: Bends and corners in waveguides help control the direction of
microwave signals. They are used to guide the microwave energy through the desired
path while minimizing signal loss and distortion.
 Frequency Band Management: The design of bends in waveguides is critical for
operating at specific frequency bands and ensuring efficient transmission of
microwaves within those bands.

2. Microwave Circuits

 Microstrip Lines: Bends and corners in microstrip lines (a type of transmission line
used on PCBs) help route microwave signals while maintaining impedance matching
and minimizing signal reflection.
 Transmission Lines: In microwave circuits, bends are carefully designed to manage
the electrical characteristics, such as impedance and signal phase, to ensure proper
circuit operation.

3. Antenna Design

 Antenna Feed Systems: Bends and corners in feed systems direct microwave energy
from the source to the antenna. Proper design ensures efficient energy transfer and
reduces losses.
 Reflector Antennas: Corners and bends are used in the design of reflector antennas
(like parabolic dishes) to focus microwave signals and improve directivity.
4. Testing and Measurement
Test Fixtures: Bends and corners are used in test fixtures and measurement setups to route
microwave signals to and from test devices while maintaining accuracy and minimizing
signal loss.

Directional Couplers: Twisted Couplers: Twist sections in couplers can be used to enhance
coupling efficiency and manage signal routing between different ports.

6. Describe operating principle of Directional Coupler and give two applications.

Ans:

When an input signal travels from port 1 to port 2, a part of this signal is coupled to port 3.
The portion of the power coupled to port 3 depends on the coupling value of the coupler
being used.
Port 4 of the directional coupler is known as the isolated port. In an ideal directional coupler,
no signal should appear at the isolated port, however practically, a small amount of power
called back power is obtained at Port 4.
The directional coupler as the name suggests operates in a single direction i.e its ports cannot
be interchanged.

Application :
1. Directional couplers are used to measure incident or reflected powers, standing wave
ratio values.
[Link] coupler provides a single path to receiver .

Unit— III
 Microwave Active Components (20M)
______________________________________________________
[Link] the working principle of Reflex Klystron and explain Applegate diagram.
Ans:

Operating Principle of Two-cavity Klystron

 As we have already discussed in the introduction that Klystron is based on the
principle of velocity modulation. Thus two-cavity klystron amplifier utilizes the
kinetic energy of moving electron beam for signal amplification.
 The variation in the velocity of electrons while moving inside the tube is known as
velocity modulation. This velocity modulation permits bunching of electrons while
propagation. So, the combined energy of bunched electrons is transferred at the output
thereby providing an amplified signal
Applegate Diagram

The figure below shows the Applegate diagram that represents the bunching of electrons
moving with different velocities:
The electron travelling inside the tube under the absence of external fields acts as the
bunching centre. Also, the electrons moving due to the influence of the positive half cycle of
the signal reaches faster. While the movement due to the negative half cycle is retarded. Thus
the figure represents the bunching process at a certain point and at a specific distance inside
the tube.
[Link] the bunching process of two cavity klystron with help of Apple gate diagram
and state its two applications.
Ans:
Let us now understand in detail how this increase and decrease in velocity causes bunching of
electrons:When the negative half of the RF signal is provided as input to the buncher cavity
then the moving electrons experience a repulsive force due to the presence of a negative
charge at the entering plate of the buncher cavity.

Or we can say, that due to the negative half of the input the generated field will be in a
direction opposite to the direction of the movement of electrons. So, because of the
opposition offered by the field, the moving velocity of electrons gets reduced.

1. Further when the positive half of the RF signal is provided then the positive potential at
the first plate of the cavity applies attractive force to the moving electrons. More simply,
for the positive half cycle of input, the generated electric field will be in a direction similar
to the direction of electron movement.

2. So, this leads to an increase in the moving velocity of the electrons.

Thus, combinedly when we consider both the cases then the electrons that were emitted
earlier by the gun will be decelerated. While the electrons emitted later will be accelerated.
Thus all the electrons while moving with different velocities get bunched in the drift
space. This change in the velocity of electrons while moving due to RF input is known as
velocity modulation. Once the electron bunching is done then the catcher cavity present at
another end of the tube absorbs the beam energy.
It is to be noted that to find the position of the catcher cavity transit time of the bunches
must be considered. This is so because the catcher cavity must be present at a sufficient
distance from the buncher cavity so that bunching can be attained in the drift space. Further,
once the energy is transferred to the catcher cavity then electrons (now with low energy) gets
collected at the collector.
Applegate Diagram

The figure below shows the Applegate diagram that represents the bunching of electrons
moving with different velocities:
The electron travelling inside the tube under the absence of external fields acts as the
bunching centre. Also, the electrons moving due to the influence of the positive half cycle of
the signal reaches faster. While the movement due to the negative half cycle is retarded. Thus
the figure represents the bunching process at a certain point and at a specific distance inside
the tube.

Applications-
The two-cavity Klystron finds application in satellite communication, UHF TV transmitters
as well as radar systems, wideband high power communication and troposphere scatter
transmitters etc.

3. Draw construction diagram of magnetron and label it. Give two applications.
Ans:
Operating Principle
 A magnetron is basically a vacuum tube of high power having multiple cavities. It is
also known as cavity magnetron because of the presence of anode in the resonant
cavity of the tube.
 The operating principle of a magnetron is such that when electrons interact with
electric and magnetic field in the cavity then high power oscillations get generated.
 Magnetrons are majorly used in radar as being the only high power source of RF
signal as a power oscillator despite a power amplifier. It was invented in the
year 1921 by Albert Hull.

Advantages
 Magnetrons are a highly efficient device used for generation of the high power
microwave signal.
 The use of magnetrons in radar can produce radar system of better quality for tracking
purpose.
 It is usually small in size thus less bulky.
Disadvantages
 It is quite expensive.
 Despite producing a wide range of frequency, there exists a drawback in
controllability of the generated frequency.
 It offers average power of around 1 to 2 kilowatts.
 Magnetrons are quite noisy.
Applications of Magnetron
 A major application of magnetron is present in a pulsed radar system in order to
produce a high-power microwave signal.
 Magnetrons are also used in heating appliances likes microwave ovens so as to
produce fixed frequency oscillations.
 Tunable magnetrons find their applications in sweep oscillators.

4. Draw and explain working principle of TWT. Also state its two advantages and two
applications.
Ans:
 Working of Travelling Wave Tube
 The applied RF signal produces an electric field inside the tube. Due to the applied
positive half, the moving electron beam experiences accelerative force. However, the
negative half of the input applies a de-accelerative force on the moving electrons.
 This is said to be velocity modulation because the electrons of the beam are
experiencing different velocity inside the tube.
 However, the slowly travelling wave inside the tube exhibits continuous interaction
with the electron beam.
 Due to the continuous interaction, the electrons moving with high velocity transfer
their energy to the wave inside the tube and thus slow down. So with the rise in the
amplitude of the wave, the velocity of electrons reduces and this causes bunching of
electrons inside the tube.
 The growing amplitude of the wave resultantly causes more bunching of electrons
while reaching the end from the beginning. Thereby causing further amplification of
the RF wave inside the tube.
 The positive potential provided at the other end causes collection of electron bunch at
the collector.
 The magnetic field inside the tube restricts the spreading of the beam as the electrons
possess repulsive nature.
Advantages of TWT:
➨It is wideband device due to use of non-resonant wave circuits. It operates from 300 MHz
to 50 GHz range.
➨It is low noise device.
➨It provides higher gain. The gain levels upto 40 dB can be achieved with single device.
➨It delivers moderate peak power and average peak power.
Applications of TWT
1. Travelling wave tubes are highly used in continuous wave radar systems.
2. These amplifying tubes also find application in broadband receivers for RF amplification.
3. TWT’s are also used to get high power output in satellite transponders.

5. Compare the performance of Klystron, Magnetron and TWT.

Ans:
TWT Klystron Magnetron

Interaction between EM field and Interaction in klystron occurs

beam of electrons in TWT is only at the gaps of resonant
continuous over the entire length. cavities. It can only be used as oscillator.

In coupled cavity TWT, coupling In klystron each cavity Application: It is used in microwave ovens, operat
effect takes place between operates independently and
cavities. there is no mutual coupling. It is also used for RF heating when operating at 90

TWT does not have resonant

cavity. It uses helix structure. Klystron has resonant cavities.

TWT has wider bandwidth of Klystron has smaller

operation. bandwidth of operation.

TWT operates on lower Klystron has comparatively

efficiency. high efficiency.

There are two types viz. Two

There are two types viz. helix and or Multi-cavity , reflex
coupled cavity. klystrons

Frequency of operation is from Frequency of operation is from

300 MHz to 50 GHz 4 to 200 GHz

Handles power of 1 mW to 2.5

Handles CW power upto 200Watt W

6. Describe the operation with construction diagram. IMPATT Diode. State its two
applications.
Ans:

Working of IMPATT Diode

 As we have already discussed that these diodes operate on the principle of avalanche
breakdown and transit time delay.
 So let’s first understand what is Avalanche Condition(breakdown).
 An action that causes an abrupt increase in the junction current in reverse biased
condition of pn junction diode leading to junction breakdown is known as avalanche
breakdown.
 We know that in reverse biased condition the width of the depletion region becomes
extremely thick. Due to which only minority carriers drift across the junction. In the
presence of a high electric field, the mobile charge carriers move with greater velocity.
 During their movement, the high-velocity carriers collide with other atoms in the crystal
and generates electron-hole pairs. This causes multiplication of charge carriers inside the
crystal structure.
 Thus the moving charges generate high current inside the device. This is known
as avalanche condition or impact ionization and is utilized in IMPATT diodes.
It is to be noted here that the overall external field provided to the diode is the summation of RF
ac signal and dc voltage.
  Initially when ac voltage is 0 then due to applied low dc voltage, a very small amount of
current flows through the diode. This current is generally known as pre-breakdown
current.
 But as the applied potential increases then the electric field inside the diode increases.
And as we have already discussed that with an increase in the electric field there will be
an increase in the number of generated electron-hole pairs due to impact ionization.
 Applications
 IMPATT diodes find applications in microwave oscillators, parametric amplifiers and
microwave generators. Along with these, other uses involve presence in intruder alarm
systems, telecommunication transmitters and receivers etc.

7. Draw construction details and state principle of operation of PIN diode. Explain any one
application circuit of PIN diode with suitable schematic diagram.
Ans:

Operation:
Zero bias:
 At zero bias the diffusion of the holes and electrons across the junction causes space
charge region of thickness inversely proportional to the impurity concentration.
 An ideal ‘i’ layer has no depletion region i.e. p layer has a fixed negative charge and n
layer has a fixed positive charge.
Reverse bias:
 As reverse bias is applied the space charge regions in the p and n layers will become
thicker.
 The reverse resistance will be very high and almost constant.
Forward bias:
 With forward bias carrier will be injected into the I layer and p and n space charge
regions will become thinner.
 So the electrons and holes are injected into the i layer from p and n layers respectively.
This increases the carrier concentration in the I layer above equilibrium. Thus resistivity
decreases as increase in forward bias. Therefore low resistance is offered in the forward
direction
Applications of PIN diode
1. As a Photodetector: A PIN diode can change the absorbed light into electrical energy.
The placement of intrinsic region between the p and n region increases the region for
radiation absorption.
With the increased radiation absorption region, the efficiency of the device to produce
electrical energy also increases. Thus, it can be used as a photodiode.
 By exposing the diode to the light, electrons from the valence band excite and jump to
the conduction band. And thermally electron-hole pairs are generated. As the current carriers
increase the reverse current also increases. It causes the photodiodes to operate in reverse
bias. The reverse current of the diode strongly depends upon the light hitting the PN Junction
through the transparent opening. A dark current is when no light hits the PN junction, a small
current is flowing in reverse bias.
2. As a radio frequency switch: The intrinsic region isolates the p and n region of the
diode due to which capacitance decreases. The capacitance of the device should almost
negligible in order to operate it as a switch.
3. As a voltage rectifier: PIN diode is able to bear high reverse voltage due to the intrinsic
layer. This leads to an increase in the breakdown voltage of the diode. Hence, due to this,
the device allows the rectification of high input voltage.

8. Explain tunnel diode with neat sketch.

Ans:
Definition: A heavily doped two-terminal semiconductor device through which electric
current flows because of tunneling ( or tunnelling) of electrons is known as Tunnel Diode. It
possesses the negative resistance characteristic in which current decreases even when the
applied voltage is increased.
Working principle of Tunnel Diode
As we have already discussed that the doping concentration in case of tunnel diode is very
high. Due to this, the reduced width of the depletion region causes the penetration of charge
carriers across the junction even when the carriers do not have enough energy to jump across
it.
Let us understand the working of a tunnel diode by considering some conditions.
In a zero biased condition, the highly doped diode is not provided with any input voltage.
So, in no biased condition, an overlapping is noticed between the conduction band of n
region and valence band of p region.

As the tunneling is equal for both the carriers thus no current is noticed in case of zero
biased condition
[Link], when a certain forward voltage is applied to the diode, no any current will flow
due to this applied potential. As this forward voltage is less than the barrier potential of
the depletion region.
 1. The velocity of punching of these electrons is somewhat similar to the velocity of
light. Hence, this punching generates a forward current through the device.
Now, when the applied forward voltage is increased further. So, in this case, a large current
starts to flow through the device. The electrons that have sufficient energy moves across the
junction. But those which has less energy will also penetrate the junction due to thin
depletion width.
Application:
1)Tunnel diode maybe used as a mixers.
2)Being high speed device ,tunnel diodes also used for high speed switching and logic
operations as flip flop gates
3)They are used s oscillators upto 100 Ghz.

Unit —IV (12M)

RADAR Fundamentals
________________________________________________________________
1. Draw the block diagram of Pulsed RADAR explains it.
Ans:

2. Explain dif Let us now see the function of each block of Pulse Radar −

 Pulse Modulator − It produces a pulse-modulated signal and it is applied to the

Transmitter.
 Transmitter − It transmits the pulse-modulated signal, which is a train of repetitive
pulses.
 Duplexer − It is a microwave switch, which connects the Antenna to both transmitter
section and receiver section alternately. Antenna transmits the pulse-modulated
 signal, when the duplexer connects the Antenna to the transmitter. Similarly, the
signal, which is received by Antenna will be given to Low Noise RF Amplifier, when
the duplexer connects the Antenna to Low Noise RF Amplifier.
 Low Noise RF Amplifier − It amplifies the weak RF signal, which is received by
Antenna. The output of this amplifier is connected to Mixer.
 Local Oscillator − It produces a signal having stable frequency. The output of Local
Oscillator is connected to Mixer.
 Mixer − We know that Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies
that are applied to it. Among which, the difference of the frequencies will be of
Intermediate Frequency (IF) type.
 IF Amplifier − IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal. The IF
amplifier shown in the figure allows only the Intermediate Frequency, which is
obtained from Mixer and amplifies it. It improves the Signal to Noise Ratio at output.
 Detector − It demodulates the signal, which is obtained at the output of the IF
Amplifier.
 Video Amplifier − As the name suggests, it amplifies the video signal, which is
obtained at the output of detector.
 Display − In general, it displays the amplified video signal on CRT screen.

Applications
Pulse radars are designed mainly for long distances. The main application is still the military
area. Other applications include air traffic control, weather observation (especially
precipitation radar) as well as the satellite-based remote sensing of the earth’s surface.

Different Antenna scanning methods with neat diagram explain spiral scanning.
Ans:
[Link] Bidirectional Sector Scans
[Link] Bidirectional Sector Scans-
[Link] Scan-
[Link] Scan-
A spiral scan is a special case of conical scan. The axis of the radar beam varies its angle with
respect to the antenna boresight axis in either a sawtooth manner or sinusoidal manner. After
completing a full rotation, the angle between the beam and the fixed axis is increased.
Starting from the center, the beam spirals outward until it reaches a maximum desired angle
and then rotates back to the center. See figure 1-19. The spiral scan is used by older airborne
radars for target acquisition and fire-control radars. When the target is acquired, the system
switches to a conical scan. If the target is lost while in a conical scan, the system may
automatically switch back to a spiral scan to reacquire the target.
The spiral and helical scans can be confused, but they are different in the following ways:
 Spiral Scan. Describes a cone in space with the signal source at the point of the cone.
Decreases (and increases) the angle smoothly and continuously. Used by airborne
radars.
 Helical Scan. Describes a cylinder in space with the signal source in the bottom center
of the cylinder. Changes elevation in steps. Used by ground-based radars.
The scan rate, often called the framing rate, is measured in Hz, the same as in conical
scanning. A spiral scan usually has a scan period of 1 to 5 seconds with a concur.
3. Give RADAR range equation. Discuss the factors influencing maximum range.
Ans:
The factors influencing maximum range are as follows :
1. Transmitted power (Pt): if the radar range is to be doubled we have to increase a
transmitted power by 16 times.
2. Frequency(f) : Increase in frequency increase the range
3. Target cross sectional area: Radar cross sectional area of the target is not a
controllable factor.
4. Minimum received signal : A decrease in minimum receivable power will have the
same effect has raising the transmuting power.

4. Draw block diagram of Radar system and explain it.

Ans:
  The diagram shows basic radar system which consist of transmitter receiver and
antenna which act as both transmitting and receiving antenna.
 The main function of the duplexer is to connect the transmitter to these antenna, when
the pulses are to transmitted and connect the antenna to these receivers, when echo –
pulses are received.
 Pulse modulated Magnetrons, Klystrons, and Travelling Wave tubes (TWT) or
Crossed-field amplifier (CFA) are used as transmitter output tubes. In the receiver for
first stages usually a diode mixer is used. The antenna generally uses a parabolic
reflector.
 Antenna can scan continuously the scanning speed of antenna is mechanically is
higher part, it issmall in comparison with the time taken by pulses to return from.

5. Discuss the use of RADAR tracking antennas and explain any one type of tracking
antenna.
Ans:
Types of antenna tracking methods are:
[Link] lobing
[Link] scan
3. mono pulse
[Link] lobing
A lobe-switching scan uses two or more overlapping beams of equal amplitude to scan an
area. See figure 1-20. The system switches between elements at a fast rate. Normal switching
rates are 4 to 50 Hz. Target information is gained by comparing the amplitude of the target
return at each antenna/element. This system keeps the radar centered on the target by
comparing the strength of target returns from each beam. When four overlapping beams are
used, the technique is called four-way lobe-switching.
Four-way lobe switching gives angular accuracy in both the horizontal and vertical planes at
the same time. It is considered a precision radar and is usually used for such applications as
fire-control and airborne intercept.
If the receiving site is in the exact center of either a two-way or four-way lobe-switching
radar, there would be no amplitude change and the scan would appear as steady
When the target being on the LOS
When the target being off the LOS
 Unit —V (12M)
RADAR System

1. Define Doppler effect. Draw block diagram and explain principle operation of
CW doppler Radar.
Ans: Doppler effect If the target is not stationary, then there will be a change
in the frequency of the signal that
is transmitted from the Radar and that is received by the Radar. This effect is
known as the Doppler effect .with the help of Doppler effect it is possible to
determine the relative speed
(Vr) between the RADAR unit and the observed object .
Vr
= Fd λ/2
Where Vr
= relative speed between the two objects (m/s)
Fd = Doppler frequency (Hz)
λ = wavelength of transmitted signal (m)

It is possible to detect moving targets by radiating unmodulated continuous wave (CW)

energy instead of radiating in the form of pulses. Continuous wave (CW) radar makes use of
the Doppler effect for target speed measurements.
In CW system the carrier frequency f is transmitted and the received signal is at
frequency f±fdf±fd. The + or - ve sign is depending upon movement toward the radar or
away from it. The frequency modulated CW radar is used for obtaining range as well as the
velocity of the target.
A small portion of transmitted frequency and output of local oscillator are mixed in
transmitter mixer and the sum (ft+fi)(ft+fi) is fed to receiver mixer. The receiver mixer also
receives the Doppler shifted signal from the receiver antenna, this produces an output
difference frequency i.e. 30 MHz ± Doppler frequency.
The output of this receiver is amplified and demodulated again and the signal from the
second detector is simply Doppler frequency without a ± sign preceding it so it is not possible
to conclude that whether the target is approaching or moving away. For a common
transmitting and receiving antenna, the circulator which provides the isolation up to 30-40 dB
is used to provide necessary isolation between transmitter and receiver.
Advantages of CW Doppler

1. CW Doppler radar has no blind speed.

2. CW Doppler radar is capable of giving accurate measurements of relative
velocities.
3. CW Doppler radars are always on, they need low power and arc compact in size.
4. They can be used for small to large range with high degree of efficiency and
accuracy.
5. The performance of radar is not affected by stationary object.
Disadvantages of CW Doppler Radar

1. The maximum range of CW Doppler radar is limited by the power that radar can
radiate.
2. The target range cannot be calculated by CW Doppler radar.
3. There is possibility of ambiguous results when number of targets are more.
Applications of CW Doppler Radar

1. CW Doppler radars are used where only velocity information is of interest and
actual range is not needed e.g. in police radar for catching cars travelling above the
speed limit.
2. Measuring motion of waves on water level.
3. Traffic counters.
4. Intrusion alarm.
5. Runway monitors.
6. Cricket ball speed measurement.

2. Draw block diagram of MTI RADAR and explain function of each block.
Ans:
Explanation :
 The echo pulse from the target is received by MTI radar antenna. If echo is
due to moving target, the echo pulse undergoes a Doppler frequency.
 The received echo pulses then pass through mixer 1 of the receiver. Mixer 1
heterodynes the received signal of frequency (Fo+Fc) with the output of the
stalo at Fo. Mixer 1 produces a difference frequency Fc at its output.
 This difference frequency signal is amplified by an IF amplifier. Amplifies
output is given to phase detector. The detector compares to IF amplifier with
reference signal from the COHO oscillator
 The frequency produced by COHO is same as IF frequency so called coherent
[Link] detector provides an output which depends upon the phase
difference between the two
 signals.
 Since all received signal pulses will have a phase difference compared with
the transmitted pulse. The phase detector gives output for both fixed and also
moving targets. Phase difference is constant for all fixed targets but varies for
moving targets
 .  Doppler frequency shift causes this variation in the phase difference. A
change of half
 cycle in Doppler shift would cause an output of opposite polarity in the phase
detector output.
 The output of phase detector will have an output different in magnitude and
polarity from Successive pulse in case of moving targets. And for fixed target
magnitude and polarity of output will remain the same as shown in figure.
 3. State working principle of Sonar system and list four applications.
Ans:

SONAR
SONAR stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging. SONAR is a process of
communicating or detecting objects underwater. It is generally used by ships, submarines to
detect underwater objects like rocks, icebergs which causes serious risk to the ships.
Submarines also communicate with the help of SONAR and during wars military ships and
submarines and detect underwater torpedo and missile attack with the help of SONAR. So,
it serves for plenty of uses but let’s first understand the working of SONAR.

Working of the SONAR

SONAR works using ultrasonic waves. A transmitter and receiver are used in SONAR
techniques. The whole device has been loaded into the ship. Ultrasonic waves or ultrasound
are generated by the transmitter. These waves travel across water. Waves pass through
water and hit objects submerged or on the seabed. These waves are reflected by objects or
the seabed after they strike. As a result, the receiver collects these waves. The ultrasonic
waves are then converted into electrical signals, which are studied to determine underwater
conditions and obstacles.
 Representation of the working of SONAR

Below defined are the terms related to the working of the SONAR:
• Emitter & Transmitter: An emitter or transmitter is a device that produces ultrasonic
sound waves and sends them to different directions of the ship or submarines.
• Receiver: A receiver, sometimes also called a detector is a device that detects and
receives the echo coming from the transmitted waves coming from different objects and
analyses them to find the distance of the objects and many more such things.
• Ultrasonic Waves: Ultrasonic waves or ultrasound are those sound waves that have a
frequency greater than 20kHz (or 20,000 Hz).

Uses of SONAR
Sonar technology is primarily used to calculate the depth, range, and direction of presence
of objects. Below are some uses of sonar technology:
 For underwater communications, ships and submarines use special sonars.
 Sonar is used in medical imaging to detect cysts and cancer cells, and this
process is known as sonogram.
 It is used by the military to track enemy warships and submarines.
 Sonar is often used to monitor pipelines that transport oil and gas in order to
detect potential damage.
 It is used for many scientific sea researches to measure features like depth of the
sea at point.
 It is used by fisherman to locate the shoals of fishes.

4. Describe with relevant sketch the working principle of A-Scope display method
used in RADAR system.
Ans: Diagram for A-scope display
 A-scope Display :
 A beam is made to scan the CRT screen horizontally by applying a linear saw
tooth voltageto the horizontal deflection plates in synchronism with the
transmitted pulses.
 The demodulated echo signals from the receiver is applied to the vertical
deflection plates so as to cause vertical deflections from the horizontal lines.
 In the absence of any echo signal, the display is simply a horizontal line(as in a
ordinary CRO)
 As indicated in the diagram, A-scope displays range v/s amplitude of the received
echo signals.
 The first ‘blip’ is due to the transmitted pulse, part of which is deliberately
applied to the CRT for reference.
In addition to this there are blips corresponding to:
i. Ground clutter i.e., echoes from various fixed objects near the transmitter and from
the ground.
ii. Grass noise i.e., an almost constant amplitude and continuous receiver noise.
iii. Actual targets. These blips are usually large.

5. Describe with neat sketch the RADAR used for automatic target detection.
Ans:
Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging and automatic target recognition (ATR) of
moving targets pose a significant challenge due to the inherent difficulty of
focusing moving targets. As a result, ATR of moving targets has received
increased interest. High range resolution (HRR) radar mode offers an approach
for recognizing moving targets by forming focused HRR profiles with significantly
enhanced target-to-(clutter+noise) (T/(C+N)) via Doppler filtering and/or clutter
cancellation.

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