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Introduction to Breathing and Exchange of

Gases
Breathing, also known as respiration, is the process of exchange of oxygen (O2)
from the atmosphere with carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the cells. This process
is essential for the survival of living organisms.

Respiratory Organs
The respiratory organs vary among different groups of animals, depending on their
habitats and levels of organization. The main respiratory organs are:

Gills: used by aquatic arthropods and molluscs for branchial respiration

Lungs: used by terrestrial forms for pulmonary respiration
Tracheal tubes: used by insects for gas exchange
Moist cuticle: used by earthworms for gas exchange
Skin: used by amphibians like frogs for cutaneous respiration

Human Respiratory System

The human respiratory system consists of:

External nostrils: opening out above the upper lips

Nasal chamber: leads to the pharynx, a common passage for food and air
Larynx: a cartilaginous box that helps in sound production
Trachea: a straight tube that divides into primary bronchi
Bronchi: divide into secondary and tertiary bronchi and bronchioles
Alveoli: thin, irregular-walled and vascularized bag-like structures where gas
exchange occurs

The human respiratory system can be divided into two parts:

Conducting part: transports atmospheric air to the alveoli, clears it from foreign
particles, humidifies and brings it to body temperature
Exchange part: the site of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and
atmospheric air

Mechanism of Breathing

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Breathing involves two stages: inspiration and expiration. The movement of air into
and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a pressure gradient between the lungs
and the atmosphere.

The pressure gradient is created by the contraction and relaxation of the

diaphragm and intercostal muscles, which increases and decreases the
volume of the thoracic chamber.

The steps involved in respiration are:

Breathing or pulmonary ventilation: atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 rich

alveolar air is released out
Diffusion of gases: O2 and CO2 diffuse across the alveolar membrane
Transport of gases: O2 and CO2 are transported by the blood
Diffusion of O2 and CO2: between blood and tissues
Utilization of O2: by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of
CO2

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

The following table summarizes the different respiratory volumes and capacities:

Average
Volume/Capacity Definition
Value

Volume of air inspired or expired during a

Tidal Volume (TV) 500 mL
normal respiration
Inspiratory Reserve Additional volume of air that can be 2500-3000
Volume (IRV) inspired by a forcible inspiration mL
Expiratory Reserve Additional volume of air that can be expired 1000-1100
Volume (ERV) by a forcible expiration mL
Volume of air remaining in the lungs even 1100-1200
Residual Volume (RV)
after a forcible expiration mL
Total volume of air that can be inspired
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) TV + IRV
after a normal expiration
Total volume of air that can be expired after
Expiratory Capacity (EC) TV + ERV
a normal inspiration

Key Concepts

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Alveoli: the site of gas exchange between blood and atmospheric air
Diaphragm: a muscular sheet that separates the chest cavity from the
abdominal cavity and helps in breathing
Intercostal muscles: muscles between the ribs that help in breathing
Larynx: a cartilaginous box that helps in sound production
Pharynx: a common passage for food and air
Trachea: a straight tube that divides into primary bronchi## Respiratory
Volumes The respiratory system has several volumes that are important to
understand:
Tidal Volume (TV): the volume of air inhaled or exhaled during normal
breathing
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): the additional volume of air that can be
exhaled after normal expiration
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): the additional volume of air that can be
inhaled after normal inspiration
Residual Volume (RV): the volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum
expiration

These volumes can be combined to form other important measures:

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): the volume of air remaining in the lungs
after normal expiration, equal to ERV + RV
Vital Capacity (VC): the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after
maximum inspiration, equal to TV + ERV + IRV
Total Lung Capacity (TLC): the total volume of air in the lungs after maximum
inspiration, equal to RV + ERV + TV + IRV

Exchange of Gases
The exchange of gases occurs in the alveoli, the primary sites of gas exchange.

The exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood, and between
the blood and the tissues, occurs by simple diffusion, which is the
movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration.

The rate of diffusion is affected by several factors, including:

Partial pressure gradient: the difference in pressure between the two areas
Solubility: the ability of the gas to dissolve in the blood
Thickness of the diffusion surface: the distance between the two areas

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The partial pressures of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmospheric
air, alveoli, blood, and tissues are shown in the following table:

Location pO2 (mmHg) pCO2 (mmHg)

Atmospheric air 159 0.3

Alveoli 104 40
Deoxygenated blood 40 45
Oxygenated blood 95 40
Tissues 40 45

Transport of Gases
Blood is the medium of transport for oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

Oxygen is transported by:

Haemoglobin: a protein in red blood cells that binds to oxygen
Dissolved in plasma: a small amount of oxygen dissolves in the blood plasma
Carbon dioxide is transported by:
Haemoglobin: binds to carbon dioxide to form carbaminohaemoglobin
Bicarbonate: carbon dioxide reacts with water to form bicarbonate, which is
transported in the blood
Dissolved in plasma: a small amount of carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood
plasma

The oxygen dissociation curve shows the relationship between the partial pressure
of oxygen and the saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen. The carbonic anhydrase
enzyme facilitates the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form
bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.

Regulation of Respiration
The respiratory rhythm centre in the medulla region of the brain regulates
breathing. The pneumotaxic centre in the pons region of the brain moderates the
functions of the respiratory rhythm centre. The chemosensitive area adjacent to the
rhythm centre is sensitive to carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions and can activate the
rhythm centre to make adjustments in breathing.

Disorders of the Respiratory System

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Some common disorders of the respiratory system include:

Asthma: a difficulty in breathing caused by inflammation of the bronchi and

bronchioles
Emphysema: a chronic disorder in which the alveolar walls are damaged,
reducing the respiratory surface area
Occupational respiratory disorders: disorders caused by inhalation of dust or
other substances in the workplace, such as fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous
tissue) and lung damage.## Transport of Gases The transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide occurs through the process of diffusion. In the alveoli, oxygen
diffuses into the deoxyhemoglobin in the blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses
out of the blood and into the alveoli.

Factors Affecting Diffusion

The factors that affect the diffusion of gases are:

Partial pressure of the gas: The higher the partial pressure, the faster the
diffusion rate.
Concentration of the gas: The higher the concentration, the faster the diffusion
rate.
Surface area of the alveoli: The larger the surface area, the faster the diffusion
rate.

Transport of Oxygen
Oxygen is transported mainly as oxyhemoglobin. In the alveoli, where the partial
pressure of oxygen is higher, oxygen binds to hemoglobin, which is easily
dissociated at the tissues where the partial pressure of oxygen is low and the
partial pressure of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion concentration are high.

Transport of Carbon Dioxide

Nearly 70% of carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-) with the help
of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. 20-25% of carbon dioxide is carried by
hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin.

Regulation of Respiration

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The respiratory rhythm is maintained by the respiratory center in the medulla

region of the brain. A pneumotaxic center in the pons region of the brain and a
chemosensitive area in the medulla can alter the respiratory mechanism.

Respiratory Volumes
The following table summarizes the different respiratory volumes:

Volume Description

The volume of air inhaled or exhaled during normal

Tidal Volume
breathing
Inspiratory Reserve The volume of air that can be inhaled above the tidal
Volume (IRV) volume
Expiratory Reserve The volume of air that can be exhaled below the tidal
Volume (ERV) volume
The maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after
Vital Capacity
maximum inhalation
The total volume of air in the lungs after maximum
Total Lung Capacity
inhalation

Oxygen Dissociation Curve

The oxygen dissociation curve is a graph that shows the relationship
between the partial pressure of oxygen and the saturation of hemoglobin
with oxygen. The curve is sigmoidal in shape, meaning that it has a slow
increase at low partial pressures, a rapid increase at medium partial
pressures, and a slow increase at high partial pressures.

Effect of Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide on

Oxygen Transport
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide affects the transport of oxygen by binding to
hemoglobin and forming carbaminohemoglobin, which reduces the amount of
oxyhemoglobin available to transport oxygen.

Comparison of Partial Pressures

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The following table compares the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
atmospheric air and alveolar air:

Location Partial Pressure of Oxygen Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide

Atmospheric Air Higher Lower

Alveolar Air Lower Higher
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