ELEC 4146

Electrical Systems

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
The University of Hong Kong

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-1

 Topics
I. Safety in Utilization of Electrical Energy

II. Electricity Transmission and Distribution in Hong Kong

III. Three-phase Four-wire System

IV. Electrical Earthing Systems

V. Open Neutral

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-2

 Safety First
• Always remember that it is the Engineer’s responsibility to provide a technical
function without compromising safety.

• Safety is the first priority when dealing with an electrical installation.

• Specifically, always ask the following questions:
(a) Before the installation: Is the design safe ?
(b) During the installation: Is the material, workmanship and practice safe ?
(c) After the installation: Is the system safe ?

Do not just ask if the system is functional.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-3

 Safety in Utilization of Electrical Energy
Consider the following three circuit arrangements.
Each of them is apparently functional. But, are they safe ?

AC A LOAD AC B LOAD AC C LOAD

Circuit A, B: No earthing at source and load => “floating” ground

Circuit C: Slightly better than A or B because there is earthing at source.

Conclusion: These circuits are NOT safe.

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 Safety in Utilization of Electrical Energy (cont’d)

AC C LOAD AC D LOAD

Can this switch prevent electric shock

when a human being touches the load ?
Why is this better ?
Provision of safety and reference at the source side
e.g. earth at source Yet, it is still not completely safe.
Can you think of a reason ?
But, why is it still not safe ?

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-5

 Safety in Utilization of Electrical Energy (cont’d)

AC D LOAD E LOAD
AC

xo ↑
Circuit E is much better than circuit D because of the provision of additional safety means
(e.g. earth at load side, the addition of mechanical protection, access barrier, etc.) and the
provision of protective devices (e.g. fuse, circuit breaker, etc.).
&
ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-6
 Safety in Utilization of Electrical Energy (cont’d)

E LOAD AC
F LOAD
AC

2-pole breaker

Circuit F offers additional protection due to the use of the 2-pole breaker to disconnect
both live and neutral. Such a breaker must be designed as a “common trip” breaker.

trip at the
same time
ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-7
 Transmission System of CLP

E
back up
power station

[Link]

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 Electricity Transmission in Hong Kong
Simplified Diagram

istep) (step down transformer

• In practice, we use high voltage (HV) for transmission and low voltage (LV) for distribution to the main
switchboard in a building. Step-down transformers at individual floors are therefore unnecessary.

• Prevention of electric shock may also be achieved by ELV (extra-low-voltage). ELV is mainly used for
small power applications.

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 Typical Distribution Arrangement
①

outlet
Building. -> socket
⑳

8
HW -

↓ home, appartment
feeder
&
A2
1-

• Both radial and ring arrangements are common in HV distribution. In Hong Kong, radial arrangement
is more common in buildings, except for socket outlet circuits.
• Basically, most of the circuits in building services are in&
radial form. In Hong Kong, ring is recommended
for socket outlets only.
• In engineering, it is common to use a single line to represent a circuit. Such a diagram is called a Single-
Line Schematic Wiring Diagram. One copy of the schematic wiring diagram must be placed at an obvious
location (usually beside the entrance) inside the main switch room.

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 Definitions of ELV, LV and HV
According to CoP (2020 Edition), ELV, LV and HV are defined as follows.

ELV (Extra Low Voltage) means a voltage normally not exceeding 50 V (RMS) alternating current (AC) -or-
120 V direct current (DC), between conductors or between a conductor and earth.

LV (Low Voltage) means a voltage normally exceeding ELV but normally not exceeding:
(a) Between conductors: 1000 V RMS AC -or- 1500 V (1.5 kV) DC; DC (V)
ACCRMS) (v)
(b) Between a conductor and earth: 600 V RMS AC -or- 900 V DC.
ELV 158 (120

HV (High Voltage) means a voltage normally exceeding low voltage.

between
conductors 50-1000 120 -

1500
LV between

conductor and earth 50 -

600 120 -
900

HV >600 >908

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 Electricity Supply to Buildings in Hong Kong
• The common transmission voltages in Hong Kong are 132 kV, 275 kV or 400 kV.
• Since the transmission voltage is very high, for safety and practical reasons, the voltage is
stepped down and distributed by the distributed system when the cables get close to the
populated areas.
clp
• The distribution voltages are 11 kV, 22 kV or 380 V (three-phase) for HEC and 11 kV, 33 kV
or 380 V (three-phase) for CLP.
• The stepping down of the distribution voltage is done by transformers in the substations.
• Virtually every building in Hong Kong receives three-phase electric power being delivered by a
380/220 V 50 Hz, 3-phase 4-wire AC system. Most of the high voltage users are supplied by a
3-phase 3-wire 11 kV system.
• Electricity is supplied to individual households at 220 V 50 Hz AC (single-phase) for the mains
supply and 380 V (three-phase) for industrial use.

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 Three-Phase, Four-Wire System
What do we mean by a three-phase, four-wire system ?
In this system, the current will pass through three wires, and there will be one neutral
wire for returning the fault current to the earth. In a balanced three-phase system, the sum of
the line currents is equal to zero, and their phase difference is 120°. V
P1 P2 P3
Three-phase four-wire system
P1

120° 120°

Three-phase Three-phase
Generator P2 Load
P3
N

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 Three-Phase, Four-Wire System (cont’d)
• Consists of three phase (line) conductors [represented by L1 (Brown), L2 (Black) and L3 (Grey)]
and one neutral conductor [represented by N (Blue)].
• Two configurations: Wye(Y) vs. Delta( ). (Note: Wye is also known as star configuration.)

• Constant power output (vector sum of three phases), compared to (sine-wave) pulsating power
in single phase.
W Wye(Y) Connection Delta( ) Connection
L1 L3

-
L2 220 V
0° N
220 V L1
220 V 120°
0° N 220 V
220 V 220 V
240° 120°
240°
L3 L2

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 Advantages of a Three-Phase Four-Wire System
• The three phases share a common neutral, which becomes their return current path.
⑪
-
Hence, only four wires are required for three complete circuit loops, thus reducing the cost of
-
the conductor material.
• Neutral is generally treated as a point of zero reference potential.
⑧
• Voltage flexibility: Either 220 V (line-to-neutral voltage) or 380 V (line-to-line voltage).
In short, line-to-neutral voltage is also called phase voltage and line-to-line voltage is also
called line voltage, where VL 3V p .
Question: Why VL 3V p ?
③ I
V0
220

• Increased robustness: Suppose you lose one phase for some reason.
=

380
In a 3-wire system, the entire system fails. However, in a 4 wire ·
system, the remaining two phases continue to operate except
now there is a larger current in the neutral conductor.
=> Easy fault detection and phase balance.

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 Three-Phase Neutral Current Calculation (Balanced Loads)
Ideally, the loads in all three phases are identical (i.e. balanced loads) and without triplen harmonics,
the neutral current is zero. Consider the following example.
120°
Phase 3 30 A
3- source 120°
Phase 1
0°
30 A
Phase 1
30 A
Phase 2 Phase 2
240°
30 A
Phase 3 Phase
30 A Phase Angle X-component Y-component
Current (A)
30 A 1 0° 30 X1 = 30 cos(0) = 30 Y1 = 30 sin(0) = 0
Neutral
X2 = 30 cos( 120) Y2 = 30 sin( 120)
2 120° 30
= 30 0.5 = 15 = 25.98
X3 = 30 cos(120) Y3 = 30 sin(120)
3 120° 30
= 30 0.5 = 15 = 25.98

Neutral N.A. 0 0 0

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 Positive Phase Sequence vs. Negative Phase Sequence

Positive Phase Sequence (123) Negative Phase Sequence (132)

hor
Phase 3 Lero
x+
Phase 2
120° 120°

120° L 120°
0° Phase 1 0° Phase 1

clockwise clockwise
240° 240°
120
6
Phase 3 2-120
-

Phase 2 S

Phase 1 -> Phase 2 -> Phase 3 Phase 1 -> Phase 3 -> Phase 2

Typically, Phase 1 serves as the reference for the other two phases (i.e., it has a phase angle of zero).

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 v,)20-
VI
IV21= Vin-Van
&
↓
- > VI
Example (1) =
VIn -
Vin [120

-220/esf2a) -jsint:
=20030+ jsino)
V2 (240
+

22021) 220) = j)
Question: Show that V12 3 V1n for a balanced 3-phase 4-wire system
= +
-

Note: V12 is the line-to-line voltage between Phase 1 and Phase 2. =220(1 j2) +
+

V1n is the line-to-neutral voltage (or phase voltage) for Phase 1. =220(2 j) +

(0)
53 (Vin) 53120 381,0530
=
=

=
38).
V12 = V1n V2 n V23 = V2n V3n V31= V3n V1n
V3n -V2n Let 12 be the phase angle of V12
V12
By using phasor representation, we can write
12
V1n V12 =V1n 0 V2 n 120
2n
&*
V12 = 220 cos(0 ) j sin(0 ) 220 cos( 120 ) j sin( 120 )
V2n
Emolet = 330 + j190.5256 V

A V V1n V2n = V3n 220 V

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 Example (1) (cont’d)
Nes)=Ven-Vsa sin(a)

V12 = 330 + j190.5256 V (from previous slide)

=23-120+jsintic)-z2o(coslatj
jE) 20(1 j5)
+

=220) 1a
- - -

V12 = 381.051
=381,052-90
Hence, V12 = 3 V1n , where V1n 220 (assuming balanced load).

190.5256 Isi) Wei-Vin R20(oso -jsa)

=

20(smo-jsinia)
1
tan 30
-

12
330
=

jz) 220(1)
=220(
+
-

2150
381.05
Exercise: Derive the magnitude and phase angle of V23 and V31.
=

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 Example (1) (cont’d)
Exercise: Derive the magnitude and phase angle of V23.
Solutions:
V23 = V2n V3n
Let 23 be the phase angle of V23

E855 Gumcalfest
By using phasor representation, we can write
V23=V2n 120 V3n 120 ->
= 220 cos( 120 )
-

j sin( 120 ) 220 cos(120 ) j sin(120 ) j381.051 V

e
V23 = 381.051

23 90
V23 381 90 V

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 Example (1) (cont’d)
Exercise: Derive the magnitude and phase angle of V31.
Solutions:

V31= V3n V1n

Let 31 be the phase angle of V31
By using phasor representation, we can write
V31=V3n 120 V1n 0
= 220 cos(120 ) j sin(120 ) 220 cos(0 ) j sin(0 ) 330 j190.5256 V

V31 = 381.051

31 150

V31 381 150 V

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 Positive Phase Sequence for a Balanced System
Line-to-Neutral Voltage Line-to-Line Voltage
magnitude of V1n V 0 V12 3V 30
Phase voltage =

magnitude of V2n V 120 V23 3V W90

Line to neutral voltage
V3n V 120 V31 3V W
150
1 + V1n Phasor Diagram
_ + Phase y Phase
lead
V12 V3n lead
V2n Z1 V31 V12
_ 30°
V31 _ 2 + Z2 _ N 30°
x
+ V1n
V23 Z3 30°
V2n
V V1n V2n = V3n 220 + _ 3+ V3n V23

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 Negative Phase Sequence for a Balanced System
Line-to-Neutral Voltage Line-to-Line Voltage
V1n V 0
⑳V12 3V 30

V2n V 120 V23 3V 90

V3n V 120 V31 3V 150

1 + V1n Phasor Diagram
_ + y
V2n V23
V12 V2n Z1 30°
_
V31 _ 2 + Z2 _ N
V1n
x
+ 30° Phase
30° lag
V23 Z3 V31 V12
V3n
V V1n V2n = V3n 220 V + _ 3+ V3n Phase
lag

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 Line-to-Line Voltage for Positive or Negative Phase Sequence
Phase
limete top sign for positive sequence

A V12
--
3V 30
bottom sign for negative sequence
top sign for positive sequence
V23 3V 90
bottom sign for negative sequence
top sign for positive sequence
V31 3V 150
bottom sign for negative sequence

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 Example (2)
Question: In a positive phase sequence circuit, the voltage between Phase 2 and N (neutral) is
-

given by 220 60°. Find V23.

Va3 53 vg <-900
-

Approach #1: <-128

Van Vy
=

(1) Linc
V2 n 220 60 vo:
Van
-90
5
=

(Ven(120)
V23 3V 90 (2) V2z
[30:
=53Ven

We just learned that V2 n V 120 V V2 n 120 (3)

L30"
53(220260)
-

By substituting equation (3) into (2), we have

384(90
=

V23 3V2 n 120 90 3V2 n 30 (4)

Finally, by plugging in the value of V2n from (1) into (4), we have
V23 3 220 60 30 381.05 90 V

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 Example (2) (cont’d)
Question: In a positive phase sequence circuit, the voltage between Phase 2 and N (neutral) is
given by 220 60°. Find V23.
Approach #2:

From the phasor diagram, we can write

& V23 3V2 n 30

Since V2 n 220 60 ,
&-
Ise V23 3 220 60 30 381.05 90 V

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 Nonlinear loads in Three-Phase System
• Theoretically, the more the system is balanced, the less current is in the neutral. Ideally,
for perfectly balanced loads, the neutral current is zero.
• In the past, people tend to think that balanced loads would be the general case. Hence, a
smaller neutral wire seems to be an advantage of a three-phase system.
• Nowadays, with an increasing number of nonlinear electrical loads, there are significant
triplen harmonic components in the neutral current, as shown below.
Third harmonic current
P1

Fundamental currents of P2
the three phases are Neutral current contains no fundamental component,
balanced => sum to zero but the third harmonic is 300% of the phase current.
Third harmonic N
current
But, third harmonic currents of
the three phases coincide P3
Third harmonic current

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 I
New and Old Colour Codes
** I
• For identification purposes, different colours are used to distinguish between conductors carrying
electricity of different phase angles. Engineers must follow the color code.

[Link]

• Be aware of the fact that some of the older installations are still using the old colour code.
For the safety of yourself and others, we must be conversant with both the new and old
colour codes.

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 Electrical Distribution Box
• The conductor connects to the earth (ground) for protective function is
called the protective conductor. It must be colour-coded as green-yellow.

*An
• Even though it is called a 3-phase 4-wire system, we actually have a total
of 5 conductors, including the protective conductor.
• For safety and identification purposes, electrical
circuits and equipment must be clearly labeled
with sequence and warning. Refer to Code 4D
in the CoP for more details.
• Despite the earth has zero potential, yet electrical
currents in neutral. Hence, both neutral and phase
conductors are live conductors whenever the
control switch of the circuit is ON.

Inside view of an electrical distribution board

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-29

 A Advantages of a High-voltage System
④
↑

Compared with a low-voltage system serving the same kVA electrical load, a high-voltage system
carries the following advantages:
I
Power loss: F
Recall: P = V I
⑦• Smaller current to deliver the same amount of power => allowing the use of smaller conductors which
reduces cost and weight.

a
⑳ • Smaller IR (voltage) drop across transmission lines (important for energy delivery and utilization).
③ • Reduced power losses across transmission lines => higher conducting efficiency.

③• Reduced heating effect and lower fire risk due to overheating.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-30

 Purpose of Earthing
Provide direct connections to earth (by using protective conductors and earth electrode).

Supply side Load side

Supply Load (Exposed conductive parts of
(e.g. generator or transformer)
equipment & conductor)
1. Give a reference voltage for the supply.
1. Ensure that the enclosures (casing) of
2. Provide a return path for earth leakage the equipment are at earth potential.
and fault currents in order to activate the 2. Lower the potential of the exposed
current-operated protective devices. conductive parts (enclosures) when the
line conductor touches the enclosures
(earth fault).
3. Provide a path for the earth fault currents
when an earth fault occurs.

The main objective of earthing is safety.

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 Importance
nee
of Earthing
Electric • Normal condition:
cooker When the electric cooker is operating normally, no electricity
flows through the earth wire.
Earth Wire Connected
to the metal case • Fault condition:
Live
Neutral If the live wire becomes loose and touches the metal case of
Earth the electric cooker, a very large fault current will flow to earth.
IF It causes the protective device (e.g. circuit breaker or fuse) to
switch OFF the electric current.

Earthing is used to protect a user from an electric shock.

It provides a path for a fault current to flow to earth.
- -

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 Types of Electrical Earthing Systems
International standard IEC 60364 (Electrical Installations for Buildings) defines three families of
earthing arrangements by using the two-letter codes (TN, TT, and IT).

The first letter denotes the earthing arrangement at the source of energy (supply side).
T = direct connection of one or more points to earth
I = all live parts isolated from earth or one point connected to earth through an impedance

The second letter denotes the relationship of the exposed conductive parts of the installation to
earth (load side).
T = direct electrical connection of the exposed conductive parts to earth, independently of the
earthing of any point of the source of energy (independent earth)
N = direct electrical connection of the exposed conductive parts to the earthed point of the
source of energy. For AC, it is usually the neutral point (dependent earth)

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 Types of Electrical Earthing Systems (cont’d)

Sometimes, a third and/or fourth letter are/is designated to each TN system to identify the
relationship of the electrical earth connection with neutral and protective conductors.

S = neutral and protective functions provided by separate conductors

C = neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor

Examples: TN S
TN C
TN C S

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 Types of Electrical Earthing Systems (cont’d)
There are five major types of electrical systems, namely, TT, IT, TN-S, TN-C, and TN-C-S.
-

= E
TT System
1 I
Evs
·
II
• Both HEC and CLP recommend the use of TT system for their low voltage supply.
In addition, C.O.P. also recommends the use of TN-S system under certain condition.
• In principle, the loads will draw the same current regardless of the types of systems.
However, the behavior of these systems under an earth fault can be significantly different.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-35

 Examples of Electrical Earthing Systems
-
**
#

TN-S TN-C IT

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 Earth Fault Current in TT System
Suppose the following - TT system experiences ane earth fault.
What is the path of the earth fault current (IEF) ?
IEF
-

-No

-
-
I
,
...

IEF

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-37

 TT System (cont’d)
• The magnitude of the earth fault current depends on the phase voltage and the actual earth fault loop
impedance, which is the sum of all the impedances along its path.
-

IEF
- -
Zsource Zline
V phase
I EF
Z loop
O
• The complete path is called the earth fault loop. Thus,
the impedance of the path is called the earth fault loop
impedance (Zloop).
earth source Zprotective
• Note that Zs in CoP is equivalent to Zloop. impedance

• Zloop is also known as earth loop impedance. ZERS ZERL

IEF Yearth return loss
• Zloop (for TT system) = ZERS + Zsource + Zline + Zprotective + ZERL.

• Locate ZERS, Zsource, Zline, Zprotective and ZERL in the loop.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-38

 Characteristics of TT System in Low Voltage Installations in Hong Kong

• 3 phase 4-wire (3p4w) and 1 phase 2 wire (1p2w)

⑥
S • Colour code of the 4 wire is brown-black-grey-blue
• Colour code of the protective conductor is green-yellow
• 380 / 220 V
&

-
i are ene

-
• Supply is earthed at the neutral point

• Load is earthed at metal enclosure (exposed conductive part)

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-39

 Additional Requirement of TT System
Code 12 EARTHING ARRANGEMENT
12B Bonding Connections to the Point of Supply
(1) Supply by transformer

2018-
Where the supply is taken directly from the electricity supplier’s transformer(s) within the premises in
which the installation is situated, the main earthing terminal of the installation should be bonded by a
conductor or through a common conductor to a bonding terminal provided by the electricity supplier at
the point of supply, for example, near the transit block or the main cable terminations on the incoming
circuit breakers.

(2) Supply by underground cable

Where the supply is taken from the electricity supplier’s underground cable(s) having exposed conductive
parts, such as metallic cable endbox, metallic cable glands, cable armour or metallic sheath etc., at the

ne
cable termination at the point of supply, the main earthing terminal of the installation should be bonded to
these exposed conductive parts via bonding terminal(s) provided by the electricity supplier.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-40

 Additional Requirement of TT System (cont’d)
Code 12B in CoP requires the provision of a bonding conductor between the earth at the
supply side and the earth at the load side, as illustrated below.
additional
bonding temp. elec

trogen
sonductor
↑
#

EtFN-2
I
1

Fi
! -
*8

I -
*bonding
terminal.

By including the bonding conductor, the T-T system essentially acts like a T-N-S System.
(Ironically, some people still call it a T-T System).

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-41

 TN-S System
TN-S system is stipulated for generator set used for temporary electricity supply.
CoP 26K (3)(f) and 26Q (3)(f)
Supply from generator set
Where the electricity supply is obtained from a generator set, the TN-S earthing system should be used.

suppliers
metering

suppliers
neintral -> cut out

earth. -> Separate neutral and earth conductors

Simply put, for generator used for temporary supply, only a single Earth is used for both supply and load.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-42

 e
Zine

TN-S System (cont’d) I

t
bonds
itwith

Iphrase Ame
-

Z
loop

Bonding conductor Bonding conductor

&
• The connection between the -
bonding conductor.
exposed
- -
conductive part and the supply earth is called

• Under normal operation, there is no current flowing across the bonding conductor, but
there could be unbalanced current on the neutral (N) wire (also known as working zero line).

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-43

 Earth Fault Current in TN-S System

T
between
Difference
and INS

I
TT tant ->
is
there
-> when thr
currant
-> large earth (TT]
(IN-3)
true
currenthe
conductor
->
large bending

IEF

Although the earth fault behavior in a TN-S is similar to that of a TT system, a substantial amount
of current flows through the bonding conductor (instead of through the true earth).

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-44

 Earth Fault Current in TN-S System (cont’d)
Define Zloop as the earth fault loop impedance. Zsource Zline

---
&
For TN-S system: Zloop,TN-S = Zsource + Zline + Zprotective

Recall: For TT system:

# ⑤
Zloop,TT = ZERS + Zsource + Zline + Zprotective + ZERL Zprotective

Assume Zprotective,TN-S Zprotective,TT,

=> Zloop,TN-S < Zloop,TT ↑1
Iphase p
-

smaller
-

Any same
⑧ IEF

Why ERs/ZE
Iphese:
z
loop bigger

V phase TNS
-
bigger no

Since I EF , IEF,TN-S > IEF,TT Iphase Ay

=

same

Z loop Eloup smaller

no earthing
return

path
I protective alw
In other words, TN-S leads to a larger earth fault current. represent
the fault

me current return,
nord to consider I

between source and

fault locati
-
-
BEERS
ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-45
 Earth Fault Current in TN-S System (cont’d)
A
-
Is Zprotective,TN-S Zprotective,TT a valid assumption ?
In practice, the bonding conductor -
&
-
may not be long since the supply earth in the transformer room may be

&
- >
in close proximity to the switch room of a building.
-
Transformer Switch
Room Room

Bonding conductor is
only a few meters long

20
The protective bonding conductor (as recommended by CoP) between the two earths is short and has a much lower
- O
impedance than an earth resistance. Hence, this bonding conductor in TN-S lowers the overall earth fault loop impedance.
-

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-46

 pros and achs of
A TT vs. TN-S same as
carts

time
faster response C... larger
nex
·
the earth
against

perfe
TT System TN-S System

• Contrary to our intuition, a large earth fault current in TN-S is not necessarily a bad thing because a larger
fault current enables faster response of the protective devices (e.g. RCD, earth fault relays).

• The regulations governing the earth fault protection requirements between TT and TN-S are not identical.
In general, TT requirements are tougher (e.g. many RCDs are required). Yet, these additional safety measures
make TT systems safer and more robust against earth leakage protection.
• In short, there are pros and cons of TT and TNS.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-47

*Advantages and Disadvantages of TT over TN-S
A
Advantages:
• The electricity distributors do not need to provide means of earthing for consumers. This implies lower
operating and maintenance cost for the distributors.
-
Fast d
-

0
-

• Earth fault has a higher power factor (closer to one) due to low inductance along the earth fault loop.
-
No long cables and/or bonding conductors are used. cost by
->

free
• Lower cost due to savings in bonding conductor materials. cas

Disadvantages:
tougher, regulation
a
• Earth fault relays and RCDs are frequently required. ->

-
• Separate earth at the load side incurs higher cost for consumers.

>
• TT may create step voltage. Step voltage is the voltage between
-

the feet of a person standing near an energized ground object.

--
This can present hazards for people getting near the grounding system.
[Link]

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-48

 TT and TN-S (Single-Phase)

TT TN-S
• Exposed conductive parts of the load are connected to earth, i.e., a direct connection to the earth (in TT) or
an indirect connection to the direct connection to the earth at the source side (in TN-S).
E4
• In a building, non-electrical metal parts within&two meters are known as extraneous conductive parts
e.g. main water pipes, gas installation pipes, exposed metallic parts of structural framework, etc.
-
• Equipotential bonding is an electrical connection maintaining various exposed
Equipotential bonding

conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts at substantially the same potential.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-49

 t
IT System
IT System in Normal Condition

In IT system, the supply is not earthed (i.e., isolated neutral), capacitive currents are present
in all installations. These capacitive currents are usually insignificant (compared to large
earth fault currents in TT and TN-S) unless the cables are very long.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-50

 Earth Fault in IT System
#FC same potential
A reverse
I yu
ut
think,
EF L
⑰
~

&
• When earth fault occurs (say at L1), due to the presence of the capacitances, there are capacitive leakage
currents between line (or neutral) and earth.

- &
• Excessive heat and arcing ground may occur, especially in high voltage systems. This can pose serious

&
fire hazards.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-51

 In phase=
?i,
1322010
I 30a
=

-
a
phase
v Iz
(220 120
=

->

(5000)
↓
v I
=

228 15cca
=

1:0,044 A 12
44mA (per phase)
=

220
LI2C

a otE- Eloop:
304j/02,49902
I
Lovor
-

"I
-

I
Wantthelost
onz

.
-

have
rector.
t IEF
=

IEF(50,9902)
4.31 A
=
I

13 V=22020

& ->
V2 220 120
=

I v 3 220(120

↓
=

A Iilie I
t
12 -
Vain: proc
->
source

12 (stje 2 e

V Iz
V Iz
=

a
=

I Uph IEF
=

(6tj)

44-j76.2)
=
55
55
j95,26
=
-

- +
-
=

22

& -> L
UNN =

-j76.2755 +;95.26
1.15

↓ =44.

11-55-595.
12
V 1z
=
Fit
(8,
vi 220 =
L0

U2 220L120 =
1, =
=55 I

US (0-120
=

-22+ j38.11
12 4
=
=

I1 2120
=
-
-

55-95.26
 ⑦
e
A n e
E
 Earth Fault in IT System (cont’d)
A
IT System before earth fault IT System at earth fault

L2

Un
L3

neutral
Line voltage = Phase to earth voltage
carth.

line voltage earth

L1

Due to the earth fault, L1

- and earth are now at the same potential.
-

Line voltage may appear ne between phase and earth.

-
ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-52
 TN-C System
TN-C System before earth fault
-
-
TN-C System at earth fault
7
>

r
W
L C L

Question: Draw the path of the earth fault current in TN-C System.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-53

 TN-C System

Due TN-C System at earth fault

IEF

Earth fault loop

IEF
Ox

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-54

 Millman’s Theorem Revisited
Consider parallel branches of a circuit where each branch contains a series resistance and a voltage source
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Norton Equivalent Circuit

Z1 Z2 Z3
I1 Z1 I2 Z2 I3 Z3

V1 V2 V3

V1 V2 V3 Millman’s Formula
I total I1 I 2 I 3

0
V1 V2 V3
Z1 Z 2 Z3
Z1 Z2 Z3 V1Y1 V2Y2 V3Y3 I1 I 2 I 3
1 Vtotal I total Z total
Z total 1 1 1 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y1 Y2 Y3
1 1 1 Z1 Z2 Z3
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 1
Note: Z , where Y is the admittance.
Y

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-55

 Open Neutral
• Before the neutral is open (broken), the voltage at the neutral is
e
ideally at zero volts (neglecting voltage drop along the neutral
open neutral wire and also along all phase conductors).

↑
A ↓
&
• When the neutral is broken, the voltage of the neutral at the load
relative to earth (VN’N) is no longer zero. It is given by the
Millman’s equation.

E
VL1N Y1 VL 2 N Y2 VL 3 N Y3 I L1 I L 2 I L 3
VN ' N
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y1 Y2 Y3
millian
2/23 parallel of
where VL1N 220 0o ,VL 2 N 220 120o ,VL 3 N 220 120 o

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-56

 Vasi VI Open Neutral (cont’d)
=

By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), we have

- UN
VN ' N VN ' L1 VL1N => VL1N ' VL1N VN ' N
open neutral
VN ' N VN ' L 2 VL 2 N => VL 2 N ' VL 2 N VN ' N New phase voltage

VN ' N VN ' L 3 VL 3 N => VL 3 N ' VL 3 N VN ' N

Voltage
areas:VisN-Vir
- I L1N ' VL1N 'Y1

D I L2N ' VL 2 N 'Y2 New phase current

A
Common risks of open neutral include:
1. Higher voltages in some phases increase stress on the cables,
I L3 N ' VL 3 N 'Y3
mean
i
thereby degrading their insulation;
2. Higher currents in those phases overload !
equipment, which may cause overheating and even start a fire; I
↑
-

3. In TN-C and TN-C-S, users can potentially experience an electric shock because it lacks a safe path to earth.
-

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-57

 Open Neutral in TN-C
7 When there is an open neutral, the three-phase currents

!
are unbalanced. A non-zero potential at the neutral point
on the load side is developed, which is given by
VL1N Y1 VL 2 N Y2 VL 3 N Y3 I L1 I L 2 I L 3
O
-safe)
VN ' N
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y1 Y2 Y3
=human
open neutral
body In TN-C system, this voltage (VN’N) may appear at the
safel
exposed conductive part.
Note that this phenomenon does not appear in other systems.

.
S
ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-58
 A
Example (3) I = 11: 118:
--xe44,98.39-14637'
line place In
24j
poltage voltage 195.56/16587
Question:
↓ -
W 13
8
=

& volts. The three loads are

In a three-phase four-wire symmetrical supply system, the voltages are 380/220
* -

connected in a star configuration and their impedances are measured to be 2 Ω, (2 + j) Ω, and (1 j) Ω in -

-

Phase 1, Phase 2, and Phase 3, respectively. If the neutral conductor (NN’) is open circuited, determine
-

the following (assuming positive phase sequence): -

b) YN
e395146.37462165
&
=

(a) Load current in each of the three phases before the open circuit; I 2j ij + +

-
-> total voltage.
(b) Potential of the load start-point relative to the earth;
-
- -
- -
--
- 123. 14-173.49
(c) New voltages across the loads; and
- --
c) Viro:VIN #UnY
-12.095
(d) New load currents in the three phases. Vie-azeL8 =86. (174.42:W
305.71218.437
d)
--

ri:
A 2201-120

200.382837-
=

Usi:-220(120
183,796 83.379 S
= --

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-59

 Example (3) (cont’d)

*
(a)
Given Z1 = 2, Z2 = 2+j, and Z3 = 1 j.
VL1 = 220 0°; VL2 = 220 120°; VL3 = 220 +120°;

VL1 = 220;
VL2 = 220[cos( 120°)+j sin( 120°)]= 110 j 190.525588;
VL3 = 220[cos(120°)+j sin(120°)]= 110 + j 190.525588;
It is recommended to use more significant figures in the early part
IL1 = VL1/Z1 =220/2 = 110 A of the calculations in order to obtain more accurate results.

IL2 = VL2/Z2 = ( 110 j190.525588)/(2+j) 82.105 j 54.210 A

IL3 = VL3/Z3 = ( 110 + j190.525588)/(1 j) 150.263 + j 40.263 A

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-60

 Example (3) (cont’d)
Potential of 10.. start point relation to the earther
-
:

(b)
VN’N = (IL1+IL2+IL3)/(Y1+Y2+Y3) => Millman formula
IL1+IL2+IL3 = 110 + ( 82.105 j 54.210) + ( 150.263+j 40.263)
= 122.368 j 13.947

(j)
Y1 = 1/Z1 =1/2
=

Y2 = 1/Z2 =1/(2+j) reatine.

Y3 = 1/Z3 =1/(1 j)
Y1+Y2+Y3 = 1/2 + 1/(2+j) + 1/(1 j) =(9 j)/2(3 j)

Hence, VN’N =( 122.368 j 13.947)/[(9 j)/(6 2j)] 85.61 + j 8.38 V

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-61

 (c)
- Example (3) (cont’d)

VL1N’ = VL1N VN’N = 305.6 j 8.4 V IVial --

expense en

VL2N’ = VL2N VN’N = 24.4 j 198.9 V some phase - high voltage

VL3N’ = VL3N VN’N = 24.4 + j 182.1 V

(d)
IL1’ = VL1N’ Y1 = 152.8 j 4.2 A

IL2’ = VL2N’ Y2 = 49.5 j 74.7 A

IL3’ = VL3N’ Y3 = 103.3 j 78.9 A

The values of the phase voltages (currents) have changed because of the open neutral.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-62

 Advantages and Disadvantages of TT over TN-S

Advantages: TT System TN-S System

③
8
• Electricity distributors do not need to provide means of earthing for consumers. Hence, they incur
lower operating and maintenance cost.
• Earth fault has a- higher power factor (closer to one) due tow
low inductance along the earth fault loop.
me e are
• The cost of bonding conductor material is reduced since no long cables
and/or protective bonding conductors are needed.
↓
im
Disadvantages: bending-
conductor?)
⑧
• Earth fault relays and RCDs are frequently required.
A
Ag
• Separate earth at the load side incurs higher cost for consumers.
• TT may create step voltage. Step voltage is the voltage between
the feet of a person standing near an energized ground object.
This can present hazards for people standing near the grounding system.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-63

 Advantages and Disadvantages of IT over TT

Advantages: G
me
↓
IT System

u
~Post TT System

• Provides inherent protection against touch voltages (except for AC systems with very high system
leakage capacitances and asymmetric loads). No closed circuit path exists for earth faults.
• Undesirable service interruptions can be avoided. In the event of an earth or insulation fault,
shutdown is not necessary. This is especially important for life-supporting equipment
(e.g. in intensive care units).
Disadvantages:
• In the event of an earth fault, the phase-to-earth voltage could be as high as the line voltage.
mine -
• Arcing ground may result from an earth fault.
-

• Current operated devices are unable to detect (or differentiate) the first occurrence of an earth fault.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-64

-
 Various Types of Electrical Earthing Systems
generator set
electricity
low voltage for temporary
of
↑ ↑

TT System TN-S System IT System

TN-C System TN-C-S System

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-65

 Comparison of Electrical Earthing Systems
A sending conductor for ↑
hospital generator
set

for temporary
supply
elea

·I
Parameter TT IT TN-S TN-C TN-C-S
Safety HA Safe Less Safe Safest
e Least Safe Safe
Need earth electrode at installation? Yes Yes No No No
3Cost of protective earth (PE) conductor Low Low Highest Least High

⑧ Risk of broken neutral

open neutral
No No No Highest High
Earth fault loop impedance High Highest Low Low Low
⑤
12 ⑳
Benefits Safe and
reliable
Continuity of
operation, low cost
0
Safest Low cost Safe and low
cost

-en
V, 770 L0 220

Is:51905Vi
V Iz
=
=

+190.53
y
=
-110
V2 220(120
=

=
V3 220-120
= =
-110 -j190.52, 11
Z
13
55
=55;95,272:
, Y1
=
t
=

=
-
:

Eess.c
4

Y2 5
=

12 =
↓
Z
Y3 I
1953 2-1538,106
=

64.48(-11)
= -

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-66

 Summary
I. Safety in Utilization of Electrical Energy
What are the measures that need to be taken to increase safety ?
What is earthing and why is it important to us ?

II. Electricity Transmission and Distribution in Hong Kong

Common transmission and distribution voltages.
In HK, electricity will be supplied using the Alternating Current (A.C.) system at a
frequency of 50 Hz. The following voltages are available at the discretion of the two
main providers of electricity:
(a) Single phase: 220 V.
(b) Three phase: (i) 220/380 V (3-phase 4-wire); (ii) 11 kV; (iii) 22 kV; and
(iv) 132 kV.
ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-67
 Summary (cont’d)
III. Three-phase Four-wire (3p4w) System
What do we mean by three-phase four-wire and what are the benefits ?
What are the advantages of high voltage transmission ?
Understand the behavior of 3p4w system with balanced loads.
Learn how to do the conversion from line-to-phase voltage to line-to-line voltage.

IV. Electrical Earthing Systems

Know the major types of electrical earthing systems: TT, TN-S, IT, TN-C, TN-C-S, etc.
Study the earth fault currents in each of the major earthing systems.
How to determine the earth fault loop impedance ?
How to determine the earth fault current ?

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-68

 Summary (cont’d)
V. Open Neutral
What do we mean by open (broken) neutral ?
Revisit the Millman’s theorem.
Determine the voltage of the open neutral relative to the earth on the load side.
Determine the new phase voltage and the new phase current.
Be aware of the potential risks of open neutral.

VI. Comparison of Electrical Earthing Systems

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages between TT and TN-S (also, IT versus TT).
From the comparison table, TNS is seen to be the safest. TNS is also the most
expensive system due to the addition of a separate protective earth (PE) conductor.

ELEC4146 Building Services Electrical Installations Electrical Systems-69