Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education(2008)

Introduction

Education is a human experience gained through interaction with

social or physical environment. Education enables a country to
develop its human and material capitals that facilitate economic,
social and political development. Educated man power is believed to
be the corner stone for overall development of a given country.
Based on the above facts our student teachers need to know not only
how to teach in the classroom but also how the education system
developed since the period of its formal beginning. Because it helps
them to identify and use strength of the past and to inform them to
rebut past mistakes.
Tecs- 111 (Fundamentals of Education and TDP) is one of the courses
offered to diploma program trainees to make them understand
educational situations of a country by studying historical trend.
This module contains five units. The first unit deals with the meaning,
forms and purpose of education. The second unit presents foundations
of education. In the preceding three units current educational
thought, history and development of education in Ethiopia and
teacher professional development will be discussed respectively.
Besides the module contains several activities and exercises to let
students learn not only through teacher’s presentation but also
through discussion to achieve objectives stated for each unit in the
module.

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education(2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
 Define the meaning of education
 Give reasons why there are different definitions of education
 Describe the characteristics of education
 Identify the different forms of education
 Discuss that learning occurs not only in the schools, but also in
other settings
 Understand the functions( significance) of education
 Discuss that society, culture, and education are interrelated and
interdependent.

Content out line

The major topics included under this unit are:
 Definition and meaning of education
 Forms of education
 Purpose (significance) of education

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

1. What is education?
A diamond looks to have different colors when seen from different
angels. Likewise, education appears to have different meanings when
it is defined from different philosophical perspectives. This is because
of life it is natural that they advocate different aims of education.

That is, educational aims are correlative to the ideals of life. As long
as there are divergent ideals ( philosophies) of life so educational aims
fail to agree. And, the inconsistency in the aims of education
advocated by different schools of thought would result in divergent
definitions of education. It is for this reason that people, having
different philosophical orientation, have come up with different
definitions of education. In spite of all these inconsistencies, however,
it is possible to give an operational definition of education that
accords a definite purpose.

Activity 1
Write down the definition of education and compare your
definition with the definition given below. Trace the
similarities and differences between the two definitions and
explain why you conceived the term education the way you did.

Accordingly, the definition of education given in the dictionary of

education( by carter Good) has been used as an operational definition
in this course. Good(1983) defined education as follows.

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Education is the aggregate of all the processes by means of

which a person develops abilities, attitudes and other forms of
behaviors of positive value in the society in which he lives.
A thorough analysis of the definition given above helps to acquire a
clear picture of the term education.
First, the definition stresses that education is a deliberate activity that
results in socially a desirable behavioral change. In this sense
education is different from learning.

Learning can be deliberate or incidental, where as, education is a

conscious and purposeful activity that brings about socially desirable
behavioral change in the learner. The educator is fully aware of the
fact that his aim is to guide the development of the personality of the
child along definite lines towards a definite end. Education is
purposeful or intentional in the sense that if always results in a
socially desirable behavioral change in the learner. Any instance of
learning or instruction or adaptation that tries to bring about socially
undesirable behavior is not education. If, for example, democracy is
the best form of society, a system that adapts the young to it will be
an educational system. Conversely, if despotism is a bad form of
society, a system that adapts the young to it will not be an education
system.

Second, Education is exclusively a human enterprise. Animals can

learn ( be trained) to do some thing. But they can never be educated.
This is mainly because animal’s behaviors are governed by instincts.
Man is a rational being. His actions and decisions are governed more
by reason or rational thinking than biological instincts. This is
because education curbs the animal instincts in man through the

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

development of his intellectual power to think, analyse, forecast ,

select, rationalize, decide, etc. . .

2. Forms Of Education
Education is a life-long and universal practice engaged in by societies
at all stages of development. However, it sees appropriate to raise
here the question” how can education be life-long and universal in the
world where billions of people have never gone to school throughout
their life?” This confusion arises because of the conception that
equates education with schooling. Education represents the sum total
of all the processes of human learning by which knowledge is
imparted , facilities trained and skills developed. Schooling is only
one form in which education is provided. In this regard, there are
three major forms of education . these are informal, non-formal and
formal. The experiences from which one learns vary. Some are
systematic and controlled while others are uncontrolled totally.

As long as these three modes exist within the society they function
interactively. They form a continuum, each merging into the next ,
with no clear line of demarcation among them. This means that all
individuals at all times can be engaged in one or more of them, there
by learning from planned compulsory, and international activities to
unplanned voluntary, and incidental activities. All the three modes of
education will have a combined effect in the preparation of the
individual for life in his or her environmental context .

What follows is a detail description of each delivery system?

Activity 2

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Before you study the different forms of education, read the

following information carefully and answer the questions that
follow. Then discuss your answer with the group.
Suppose there are three persons in your village who have learned
about the nature of fertilizers and how to use them in the farm.

Abebech: has learned about fertilizes in sodo technical

school
Kemal: a farmer who has learned about fertilizers in the
training programs offered every Saturday by the Community
skill development center established in the village.
Kussiya: has never been in school but has learned a lot about
fertilizers from experienced farmers and also from the radio.

Based on the information given above, answer the following

questions.
1. What form of education did each of the above persons receive?
Why?
2. Compare the forms of education received by the three persons
in terms of :
 The time-table for learning
 The nature of the agency for learning
 The level of organization of the contents of being learned.
 How intentional was the incidence of learning in each case
 The purpose of learning.
A. Formal education
Formal education is a form of education, which is consciously and
deliberately planned to bring about specific influence in the learner.
In formal education context learning is carried out in specifically built
5

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

institutions such as schools and colleges. What is taught in these is

carefully structured by means of syllabuses and time-tables and the
teaching provided is usually carefully supervised by and external
administrative body. The achievements of those who learn in formal
education are often recognized by the award of certificates. The
beneficiaries are most of the time, children and youth attending
schools on full time basis.

The essential characteristics of formal education could probably be

summarized as follows:
 It involves a combination of registered enrolment and work to a
syllabus which leads to some sort of certificate
 It is limited to a period being taught
 It uses some how rigid time-table scheduled for various subjects
which are taught during regular school hours, days and months.
 It has a fixed point of entry and exit time
 It has fixed concepts and contents in its curricula.

B. Non-formal Education (NFE)

Non-formal education is any organized learning activity outside the
structure of the formal education system that is consciously aimed at
meeting specific learning needs of particular groups of children ,
youth or adults in the community.

NFE came into existence, because of the inability of the formal

education system to respond effectively to the demands of different
social groups in the society.

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The essential purpose of NFE is to serve as an alternative for those

who con not go to formal schooling, and also for those who want to
supplement the schooling they already received.

Different countries employ various types of NFE programs depending

on specific needs and situations. Basically NFE includes:
 School equivalency programs to provide a second chance to
those who have missed school or dropped out early.
 Training in occupational skills and on-the –job training
 Agricultural extension and farmer training programs
 Adolescent and adult literacy programs
 Community education and community programs of instruction in
health, nutrition, family planning etc.
In NFE, what is learned is structured, but not so obviously as in the
case of formal education. This is an arrangement where in flexibility
is the key feature. The system is an open one with respect to various
aspects of education such as admission, curriculum, place of
instruction, modes of delivery, time-table, graduation requirement etc.
The characteristics of NFE could probably be summarized as follows:
 NFE is more integrated with life and work. It is more life –
oriented or practice-oriented. There fore
- NFE programs usually have better relevance of the
educational needs and aspirations of the target groups.
 NFE is a process of enabling an individual understands his own
needs, environment and social goals
 NFE has flexible point of entry and exit; re-entry and re-exit are
allowed.
 NFE programs have better capacity to adjust to the time
constraints and related circumstances of the participants,
especially women and the disadvantaged.
7

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 NFE programs are mostly short and discrete. They are

designed to meet certain learning needs and once these needs
are met, they may be discontinued.
 The purpose of learning, the curricula, the instructors, the
target groups, the place and time of learning etc, are varied in
NFE.
 NFE uses diverse curricula, reaches wide and diverse target
groups, utilizes instructors drawn from different sources, and is
flexible in its use of time and place.
 NFE applies to many fields, and activities, many audiences ,
financed by various agents, public or private, and offered in
varied forms, deals with every thing from literacy campaign to
computer technology.

C. Informal Education

Informal education is regarded as a process that foes on through life

during which each individual acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes
from daily experiences and exposure to the environment. It learning
through day-to-day living. This type of learning (i.e., informal
education) includes all indirect influences of the home, the society,
the press, libraries, films, etc, on individuals.

In formal education, there is no attempt at structuring it. Much of the

learning that goes on is almost unconscious, as with those things the
child learns from his family, friends, experience and environment. In
this form of education learning tends to come unintentionally and
accidentally as learners are engaged in their daily routines as moving
about to meet people, solving problems, listening to the radio
broadcast watching television, etc.
8

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Informal education is more haphazard than the other forms of

learning and it is not associated with the award of certificates. But its
effects tend to be more permanent because, unlike formal and non-
formal education which are confined to learning experiences that are
planned in a specific context for a particular time, informal education
pursues its own course at its own pace, by its own means throughout
each person’s life.
Characteristics of informal education include:
 Absence of any form of planning
 Absence of stated goal, purpose or objectives
 Learning program is accidental by nature
 It is a life-long experience
 Lack of awareness
Activity: [Link] the argument that while learning is a common activity
for both
animals and human beings, education is exclusively human.
2. Compare the three forms of education based on the criteria
given in the
following table
No Criteria for comparison Forms of Education
formal Non-formal Informal

1 The nature of the curriculum

2 Purpose or intention
3 Principal beneficiaries
4 Agencies or institutions
5 Delivery system
6 Level of organization
7 Time -table

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The range of the three different forms of education is shown in the following table
Type Characteristics Means /source of Learning
of Education
Completely unstructured Home
learning which individuals are Peer groups
Informal free to follow according to their Mass media
own interests
Religious groups
Societies and
Learning organized by
associations
established bodies in order to
Non-formal Co-operatives
further their aims and interests
Extension services
Rural development programs
Loosely structured programs in
which the public is free to
Government information

participate or not as they wish units

Formal
Correspondence schools
Moderately structured learning Teachers centers
programs conducted by
institutions which may have Literacy programmes
only tenuous links with the
students
Quranic schools
Experimental schools
Moderately structured program Special schools
Government primary schools
With prescriptive content to Government secondary schools
Colleges
the curriculum and some Universities
flexibility in method

Highly structured program

with prescriptive content to
the curriculum

10

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Activity:
1. Justify the argument that while learning is a common activity for
both animals and human beings, education is exclusively human.
2. Compare the three forms of education based on the criteria written in the
following table
N Criteria for comparison Forms of Education
o Formal Non formal Informal
1 The nature of the curriculum
2 Principal agencies or
institutions
3 Purpose or intention
4 Level of organization
5 The mode of delivery of the
content
6 Time table
7 Principal beneficiaries

A. The purposes of Education

The purposes that society holds for education will in turn define the
main functions of its schools.
Activity: what do schools teach?
Education takes significant role and responsibility in every society and
the school has a unique function to carry out. Education is acquired
through many ways. There are various channels through which
education can be imparted.
Home: the home is one of the channels
School: Children learn more about behaviors; acquire certain habits
through their surrounding or their environment. A school is one such
environment. It is a miniature society. A school has a lot of duties to
perform in character molding and personality development of child.
11

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The school is society’s instrument for molding the young, transmitting

the cultural heritage for inculcating values, ideas and modes of
behavior. They are the places for transmitting effectively the best of
mankind’s cultural heritage to the younger/new/generation. Schools
are social institutions for the transmission of cultural patterns and
heritages form generation to generation, Culture means a way of life
or sum total way of life of a given society. Cultural heritage refers to
the ocean wide body of knowledge, skills, and attitudes which have
been accumulated by mankind since the time immemorial or
unknown.

Elements of culture include

 All sources of human practices
 Knowledge , skills attitude, techniques, tools, instruments,
machines
 All sources of things produce, cities towns building bridges
 Political and religious practices or beliefs
 Ideas and customs
 Tradition
 Languages
 Institution. . . etc
These cultural elements are inherited from the past several
generations. Cultural reproduction or transmission of culture is done
by education. Therefore, education transmits culture of one
generation to another. It is also a constructive agency for improving
our society. As a result society needs education. Society is a whole
system. Education is a sub-system. Education is operated in the
society. There is no education with out society and no society with
out education and education & society are inseparable.

12

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

They influence one another. In other words society establishes and

runs schools and educational agencies

Aspects of society affecting or influencing education are:

 Economic nature of a society e.g Types of economy ( i.e
Industrial or commercial) and level of development
 Political nature e.g. Democratic states of society, Aristocratic
states of society or Communist states of society
 Nature and types of institutions in the society e.g family,
Religious institutions or Civic society, professional
associations
 Level of development of the various bodies of organized
knowledge i.e science
 World out looks and philosophies such as pragmatism,
essentialism, progressivism.
 Stages of development in language used & others. Aspects of
Education that can be influenced by society.
 The nature and the type of education e.g Organization,
control and support of educational institutions, quality,
quantity and variety of schools to be built, class size,
qualification and kind of preparation given to teachers, the
quality of curricula developed. Aim of education, content of
education, Methods of education, materials and equipment.
Influence of Education on society: society harvests from education.
Education is an instrument in nation building i.e. education is base for
development . Education prepares citizens who take responsibilities
in the various spheres in a society. Education provides society with
trained manpower.
To summarize the functions assigned to education can be divided in to
four categories. These are (1) Developing the intellect (2)
13

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Preserving society (3) reconstruction of society (4) Meeting the needs

of both the individual and society

Activity: give at least three arguments to prove the assertion that

“society, culture, and education are interrelated and interdependent
and , thus, none of them exists in the absence of the others”

UNIT TWO

2. FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

To understand more about education it is necessary to examine its

foundation. Foundation of education referred as the sources or
determinants of education. The precise areas included in foundation
of education are still disputed by specialists, this unit deals with the
most common foundations of education, which include the following
knowledge areas:- i) philosophical foundations
ii) psychological foundations iii) sociological foundations iv) historical
foundations

General Objectives
After learning this unit, students will be able to:
- Discuss the relationship between philosophy and education
- Identify the principles, teacher’s role and teaching methods of:
idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism
- Define foundations of psychology

14

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- Identify the essential characteristics of the different theories of

psychology
of learning.

2.2. Philosophical Foundation of Education

2.2.1 What is Philosophy?
The word philosophy is made up of two roots:-
 Phillo- means “ love ”
 Sophos- means “ Wisdom”
Philosophy is the love or pursuit of wisdom. Philosophy endeavors to
understand all that comes with in the bound of human experience. It
aims at fundamental understanding of things such as:
 The problem of human conduct
 The assumptions & the underline religious or scientific beliefs
 The tools and methods of thinking
Generally, we can define philosophy and philosophical foundation as:

Philosophy is: a search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt

at
universal explanation of the nature of thing.
Philosophical foundation: refers to the philosophies, values, ideals,
and
ideologies; because they represent points

Philosophy is the way we perceive the world around us and how we

define what is important to us. It helps us to understand who we are,
why we are and where we are going

15

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Activity: 1. Based on the above point, give your own definition for the
term
Philosophy?
2. Do you think that philosophy has contribution for
education?
Philosophy gives meaning to all that is done in an educational process.
It is the main guide we have to look at points of conflicts in education
endeavor. The aim of life is always dependent on the philosophy that
the individual has at a particular time.
Philosophy is a technique for thinking, and is especially concerned
with examining our assumptions and defining our concepts. Social
philosophy and the philosophy of education are concerned with the
assumptions we make and the concepts we use in thinking about
society and education.
2.2.2 Social philosophies
The social philosophy advocated by a given society determines the
objectives and contents of that society. The major social philosophies
are Idealism, Realism Pragmatism and Existentialism

A) Idealism
 Idealism is one of the older organized social philosophies. It had
its beginnings in the writings of Plato. Socrates, Plato,
Descartes, Berkeley, Hegel, Hume, Kant etc are chief
representatives of idealist philosophy.
 The idealist assumes that truth exists apart from the individual
or the society in which he lives
Truth must be discovered and considered to be absolute
Emphasize on the intellectual aspect of life
Stress the priority of mind and self

16

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 For idealist- to know is to rethink the latent ideas that are

already present in the mind
The reality is spiritual or thought
Only that is real which exists in the absolute mind
What they know in the world is created and projected by
the mind itself
Activity:-
1. Discuss how idealists perceive reality or truth?
2. Summarize the philosophical principles of idealism in
education and reflect or present it to the whole class.

∙ Idealism and Education

= Under idealism:-
The purpose of education is to transmit the cultural heritage
It is thought that the student moves nearer the ideal through
the emulation of his/her teacher and through following his
teacher in the discussion of ideas.
The aim of education is to discover and develop each
individual’s abilities in order to serve society

 Idealism and Curriculum

The idealist educator prefers subject matter curriculum that relates

ideas and concepts to each other. The curriculum is hierarchical and
constitutes the cultural heritage of human kind. At the top of this
hierarchy are the most general and abstract subjects such as
philosophy and theology which apply to a wide range of situations and

17

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

experiences mathematics, history and literature also rank high natural

and physical sciences rank low.
 Idealist Teachers and Method of Teaching

The idealist teachers find their spiritual growth in helping pupils.

They don’t believe in telling rather believe in asking questions and in
leading students to find the truth for themselves. For them education
means inner spiritual growth.
The idealists’ emphasize on experience rather than nature. The
method of teaching is not based on logic of facts. The main objective
is to help students to obtain a deeper insight than what they already
posses and to realize that behind their experiences there are
attractive depth which leads them to further insights. They rely more
on discussion method
Activities?
1. According to the philosophy of idealism, which
subjects are especially important in stimulating
thinking and identifying with the cultural heritage?
Why are these subjects useful?
2. What are the roles of the teacher under idealism?
3. What types of teaching methods are encouraged
under idealism?
B. Realism
Realism is a philosophical approach, which is developed as a reaction
to idealism. Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, pestalozzim Harry Broudy and
John wild are the leading realists.

- The realists:
 View the world in terms of objects and matter
18

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 Believe reality exists independent of human mind

 Believe reality is the world of physical object or what we
observe and people can come to know the world through
their senses and reason.
 Regard the personal wants and feelings as subjective or
subordinate.
Activity: - -Explain the philosophical principles of realism
in
education.
Realism and Education
Under realism the purposes of education are:-
 To induct the learner in to the culture
 To help the learner understand and adjust to the natural
order of things
 To develop the understandings necessary to make proper
choices for the good life.
The above knowledge’s are transmitted to the learners through the
school.
For realist, the aim of education is to give the pupil a complete
knowledge and understanding of human society, human nature &
motives. Education must explain to pupils how they are related to the
world to enable them to adjust themselves in the environment they live.
 The curriculum under realism consists primarily of physical and
social science that explain natural phenomena and also consists of
organized content and knowledge that classifies objects acquiring
of subject matter (facts) is encouraged. For instance, more
emphasis given to mathematics because it’s essential to accurate
description of the universe.
 In realistic classrooms, the teacher’s primary responsibility is to
teach some skill; such as reading, writing or disciplined knowledge
19

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

such as history, mathematics or science. Although they appreciate

their students as rational persons and help them to think rationally
based on Socratic method, oral exposition, explicit teaching

C. Pragmatism:
Charles Warm in (1859) and John Dewey (1959- 1952) are proponents
of
pragmatism

The term ‘Pragmatism’ comes from a Greek word “ Pragma” meaning

“work”, Pragmatism is also referred to as experimentalism. It
encourages processes that allow individual to do those things that
lead to desired ends.

Pragmatists agree with realists that a physical world exists in its own
right, not as merely a projection of the mind. However, unlike the
realists, they neither believe that this world is permanent nor that it
exists independent of human mind

They are based on the view that only those things that are
experienced are real. For them reality is constantly changing and that
we learn best through applying our experiences. Every thing is tested
on the touchstone of experiences. They consider learning occurs as a
person engages in problem solving which transfer to a wide variety of
subjects and situations.

Pragmatism and Education

 In pragmatism, education is a means for recreating, controlling
and directing experience. The goal of education is to aid the
learner to solve his/her problems. To pragmatism, education is not
20

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

to impart knowledge to pupils for its own sake rather to help

children to meet their needs in biological and social environment.
 With regard to curriculum pragmatism does not presuppose a body
of knowledge that must be mastered by each student rather used in
relation to needs and interest of the learner at time when it can
make contribution to his/her experience in solving problems. Thus ,
in the curriculum, it is the child who is emphasized but not the
book, the subject, or the teacher
 Pragmatism suggests that the role of the teacher is providing an
atmosphere where the learner can identify problems and seek
solutions to them and of arranging the environment to provide
experiences for learners.
 For pragmatist, teaching is more exploratory than explanatory.
The method is more important than the subject matter. Learning
takes places in an active way as learners solve problems
individually, in groups, project and experimenting
Activity:
1. What are the educational principles of pragmatist
position?
2. List the instructional approaches that are consistent
with the pragmatist position?
3. What is the role of the teacher in pragmatism?

D. Existentialism
Maxine Greene, van Cleve Morris and George Kneller are well known
existentialists.

Existentialism is the youngest philosophy; the nature of reality for

existentialist is subject and lies with in the individual. For them reality
is lived existence, reality begins with being aware of one’s own
21

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

existence, it is human reality. It is not a state of being but a process of

becoming. The existentialist author Jean-Paul Sartre (1905- 1980)
stated that “Existence precedes Essence”. This means human beings
are born and enter the world with out being consulted.

Existentialism and Education

In existentialism, the root to knowledge is personal. Thus education
should help the individual find the meaning of his or her own
existence. Education’s most significant goal is to awaken human
consciousness and contribute to our authenticity. The school must be
an environment in which the full exercise of spontaneous human-self
is the avenue to authenticity as a person. Additionally, for
existentialist the school is where individuals meet to pursue
discussion about their own lives and choices. In the school both the
students and the teachers should have the chance to ask questions,
suggest answers, and engage in the dialogue.

The educational implication of existentialism holds the following

points:
 The primary aim of education is making human being
(person) as one who lives and makes decision about what he will
do and be.
 The school should provide an environment where the
individual find security, encouragement and acceptance by the
teacher.
 All school subjects and activities should present
situations for the development for human beings.
 The teacher should facilitate development or
originality and creativity by providing necessary material and
equipment.
22

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 With regards to curriculum, existentialists want to

bring children in to close contact with the external world. In
other words, various subjects of arts, sciences, and humanities
may be thought to students, but the purpose of this teaching
should be to enable them to acquire subjective knowledge with
the help of the objective existentialism wants the curriculum of
the entire humanity as represented in an individual . Moreover,
the subject matter should not be focused on objective
knowledge, but on the individual’s predicament. The goal should
be self- development and self- fulfillment. The leaner would
choose the knowledge they wish to possess.
- According to existentialism, the teacher is the main pillar of the
entire educational process. Existentialism teachers have to:
 Help students realizing themselves
 Help students to experience them selves
 Be introvert in order that they may change the objective in
to subjective
 Encourage students to philosophize, question and
participate in dialogue about the meaning of life, love and
death.
Activity:-
1. What are the major educational principles of the existentialism?
2. Discus, in pair, the teacher’s role which are consistent with the
existentialist position?
3. Describe some of the common instructional approaches that
encouraged under existentialism?

2.1.3. Major Educational Philosophies

23

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Philosophers ask questions about knowledge, truth and education

where as educators develop the idea of philosophers in to specific
theories of teaching and learning. Educational philosophies such as
perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism.
Each of these four philosophies of education has roots in one or more
of the four major philosophical traditions. For example, perennialism
is rooted in realism, essentialism is rooted in idealism and realism and
progressivism and reconstructionism stem from pragmatism. Each
educational philosophy deals with curricular focus, methodology and
the role of the teacher.
[Link]. Perennialism

This is the oldest and the most conservative educational philosophy. It

is rooted in realism. Perennialists stress the permanence of time
honored ideas, the great works of the intellectual past, and the human
ability to reason. They attempt to develop both intellectual and
spiritual in students through the study of traditional disciplines of
history, language, mathematics, logic, and literature, which survive
from one generation to the next.

 Perennialism believes that:

Truth is universal and does not depend on circumstances
of places, time or person.
A good education involves a search for and understanding
of the truth.
Education is a liberal exercise that develops intellectual
For perennlalists, the educational goals are searching for and
disseminating truth, and teaching an everlasting idea, seeking
enduring truths which are constant. Since they believe that truth is

24

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

universal and unchanging, a genuine education is also universal and

constant.

The curriculum of perennialists is subject- centered. The curriculum

includes history, language, mathematics, logic, literature, the
humanities and science. Mastering these subjects is regarded as
essential for training the intellectual.

Perennialists expect teachers to use Socratic method, oral exposition,

lecture and questioning. Students are coached to recite information
correctly. To stimulate students’ intellects, teachers must be liberally
educated people who have a love of truth and a desire to lead a life
based on it

[Link]. Essentialism

Essentialism, traditional and conservative educational philosophy, is

rooted in idealism and realism. It is surfaced in the 1930’s as a
reaction to progressivism. The essentialists believe that there is a
certain basic facts’ having permanent value, that all students must
know. Thus, the school should transmit these facts and of a common
culture.

Essentialism emphasizes an academic subject matter curriculum, it is

not rooted in the past but is more concerned with the contemporary
scene reading writing, & arithmetic and subject matter disciplines
such as English, mathematics, history, science & geography are
encouraged.
To transmit, the basic skills and knowledge in the
cultural heritage
25

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

To emphasize skills and subjects that can lead

learners to higher- order skills and knowledge
To use education as a civilization agency that
emphasizes continuity between the knowledge and
values of the past and the requirements of the
present
For essentialists, education involves learning the basic skills, arts and
sciences that sustain civilization. Mastering these skills and subjects
prepares students to function effectively as members of civilized
society. Both perennialists and essentialists share many ideas about
knowledge, education, schooling and instruction. For them knowledge
lies in the cultural heritage that testes wisdom of the human race
accumulated over time .
They differ in that perennialists see wisdom originating with human
rationality and essentialists see it coming from tested human
experience
There are four basic principles of essentialist:
1. Learning, by its very nature, requires hard work and
often unwilling application
2. The initiative toward education lies with the teacher, not
with the student
3. The students’ absorption of the prescribed subject
matter is the heart as the education process
4. The school should employ traditional methods of mental
discipline
There fore, the teacher must be the central classroom author in terms
of discipline, motivation and curriculum.

[Link]. Progressivism

26

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Progressivism, developed from pragmatic philosophy, is the counter

point to both essentialism and perennialism. According to progressive
educator, the child should be the focal point of the school.
Progressivist believes that children learn how to think by solving
problems and experimenting. There fore, they espouse the scientific
method of learning rather than the more directed teaching for
mastery of essential knowledge and skills of the essentialists. This
philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by
experimentation .Learning is based on individual experience
progressivism placed heavy emphasis on how to think not what to
think .Because reality is constantly changing.
According to the progressivists, the school is a microcosm of society,
and learning experiences should occur in the school as they do in
society. The curriculum focused on the child as the learner rather
than on the subject. It emphasized activities and experiences rather
than competitive individualized lesson learning. The content is
derived from student’s interest and questions.
According to the progressivism thought, the skills and tools of
learning include problem solving methods and scientific inquiry. The
role of the teacher was unique when operating under progressive
thinking. The teacher serves as a guide for students in their problem-
solving and scientific projects.

[Link]. Reconstuctionism

Reconstructionism was developed in reaction against too much

emphasis on child centered education that mainly serves the
individual child and the middle class. However, reconstructionists
give more emphasis on society- centered education that took into

27

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

consideration the needs of society (not the individual) and all classes
(not only the middle classes)

Reconstructionists argue that education should reconstruct society by

integrating new technological and scientific developments with those
parts of the culture that remain variable. For them the goal of
education is to create a world order in which people control their own
destiny by applying their practical intelligence. They seek a
curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism and internationalism.
Students are taught to appreciate life in a world of many nations a
global village with many alternatives for the future. The curriculum
should be transformed to coincide with a new socio- economic-
political education society is always changing and hence the
curriculum has to be changed always.

Reconstructionists urge teachers to lead their students on a searching

examination of culture and society, both domestically and globally.
Teachers encourage students to diagnose the major problems
confronting human beings on planet Earth, Population of the
environment, warfare, famine, terrorism and violence and the spread
of HIV/AIDS etc. Reconstructionist want to be committed to solve
these problems for human betterment
Activity ?
1. What are some of the common themes represented in the
essentialist perspective?
2. Explain the basic similarity between perennialism and
essentialism in terms of knowledge, education, instruction?
3. What are the features of social reconstructionist program of
education ?

28

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

4. write the concepts encouraged under the following educational

philosophies in terms of their basic assumption, curriculum, role
of the teacher and teaching methods :
a. Perennialism
b. Essentialism
c. Progressivism
d. Reconstructionism

2.3. Psychological Foundations of Education

Psychology is concerned with how people to learn. It provides a basis

for understanding teaching and learning process. Teaching and
learning are interrelated and psychology comments the relationship.
It forms the basis for the methods, materials and activities of learning.
Psychological foundation consists of the accumulated knowledge
which guides the learning process and allows the teacher to make
intelligent decisions regarding the behavior of the learner. Different
experts have formulated different theories of learning that explain the
process of learning from different perspectives for the purpose of
discussing the development of psychological foundations, we will
focus on the following major categories of leaning theories:
a. Mental discipline
b. Behavioral view of learning
c. Cognitive of leaning
d. Gestalt theory of learning
The first two theoretical approaches can be thought of as tans missive
in that information is given to learners. The second two approaches
are constructivist in that the learner has to make meaning from
experiences in the world.

29

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

2.3.1. Mental Discipline

Mental discipline is a theory of learning, which is also known as

faculty psychology. According to this theory the mind was made up of
series of faculties each of which was related to a particular function or
ability of the mind. Learning is sought to be the exercising of the
various faculties. In this theory the focus is on the processing of a
relatively fixed body of knowledge and how it is attended to, received
in the mind, processed, stored and retrieved from memory. More over,
the theory is focus on the individual rather than the social aspects of
thinking and learning. The mind is a symbolic process or that stores
information in schemas or hierarchically arranged structures.
Curriculum content was often chosen on the basis of how well it
would discipline and exercise the mind rather than its value in the life
of the student. The curriculum designed to meet the mental discipline
theory of learning was often composed of subjects such as foreign
languages and mathematics. The teacher’s job is to help students to
develop strategies for thinking and remembering.

2.3.2. Behavioral View of Learning

Behavioral theorists believe that learning occurs as a result of

stimulus- response associations. The theory considers behavior is
shaped deliberately by the forces in the environment and that the type
of person. In other words, behavior is determined by others rather
than by our own free will, by carefully shaping behavior, morality and
information is learned. Learner will acquire and remember responses
that lead to satisfying after effects. Behavioral theories emphasize
30

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

observable behaviors, seek laws to govern all organisms and provide

explanations which focus on consequences. Change in behavior must
be observable, internal thought processes are not considered. In
behaviorist theory learning is explained as a conditioned response.
There is much concern for reinforcement, association and habit
formation repetition of a meaningful connection results in learning. If
the student is ready for the connection, learning is enhanced, if not,
learning is inhibited.
Ivan Pavlov’s research, on using the reinforcement of a bell sound,
when food was presented to a dog and finding the sound would make
a dog salivate after several presentations of the conditioned stimulus,
was the beginning of behaviorist approach. Learning occurs as a
result of responses to stimuli in the environment that are reinforced
by adults and others, as well as from feedback from actions and
objects. The teacher can help students learn by conditioning them
through identifying the desired behaviors in measurable, observable
terms, recording these behaviors and their frequencies, identifying
appropriate rein forcers for each desired behavior, and providing the
reinforce as soon as the student displays the behavior. For example,
if children are supposed to raise hands to get called on, we might
reinforce a child who raises his/her hand by using praise, “Thank you
for raising your hand”.
Drive remained a prominent method of teaching and experiences
selected were such as produce conditioned response

2.3.3. Cognitive View of Learning

Cognitive theorists (constructivists) believe that learning is the result

of our attempts to make senses of world. To do this, we use all the
31

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

mental tools at our disposal. Cognitive theorists explain that the ways
we think about situations, along with our knowledge, expectations,
feelings, and interactions with other, influence how and what we
learn.

Cognitive view sees people as active learners who initiate

experiences, seek out information to solve problems and recognize
what they already know to achieve new insights.

Behaviorists place their focus on the task and the stimulus- Response
model. The cognitive theorists, in contrast, place their focus on the
students and how they gain and organize their knowledge. Students
actively construct his or her own understanding of reality through
interaction with objects, events, and people in the environment and
reflecting on these interactions. For instance, if you have a class of
forty students, they probably have forth slightly different
understandings. Students must be thought how to analyze a problem
and how to think for themselves in order to be independent learners.
This implies teaching a lot of factual information is unproductive since
the learner forgets most of it in a relatively short time.

2. 3.4. Gestalt Theory of Learning

Gestalt comes from the German for pattern or structure. As opposed

to behaviorists, Gestalt concerned with a series instrumental action,
Gestalts are interested in the overall perspective. In other words the
whole is greater the sum of the individual parts. According to
Gestalts, understanding is based on insight. Learning is the
organization of parts in to meaningful whole. A learning situation is
taken as a problem situation. The learner perceives the problem as
32

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

the focuses his experiential background up on the problem situation.

In viewing the learning situation, the learner perceives a likely
solution and tries that solution.

Gestalt theory leads to the development of a curriculum that offers the

learner an opportunity to discover processes and relationships.
Emphasis is placed up on perceiving a whole in order to understand
the importance of a specific. Generalities and principles are
emphasized in preference to isolated facts and meaningless drill.
2.3.5 The Humanists

The humanists’ school of psychology was developed as a reaction

against behaviourism because its proponents saw behaviourism as
reducing the concept of human being. The humanist considers the
education of the whole person more important than the subject
matter. As to them, the person was seen as being worthy of dignity
and teachers needed to develop qualities of worth. Both Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers contributed to humanistic psychology. For
instance, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is well known and is a feature
of many books. He states that needs must be satisfied before effective
learning can take place. If a student is tired, cold and angry, then the
learning will not be qualified. So the teachers task is to create
conducive learning environment in which students feel part of a
group. Rogers thinking is also similar to Maslow’s in that the need to
the student at the centre of the learning process through active self-
discovery rather than having to respond to stimuli.

2.4 Sociological Foundation of Education

33

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Sociological concepts can be traced back to the ideas of Manu,

Yagvalkya, and Kautilya in India, Confoucius in China and Aristotle
and Plato in Greece.
Sociological foundations (sociology of education) are defined as the
concepts and theories of the way that groups manifest themselves in
their culture. Socil foundation of education is the area of study which
analysise the relationship of individuals , groups, and institutions
which have existed in the culture and through which human activity
has been conducted. The social foundation of education encompasses
the systematic study of groups and institutions in the culture with
reference to their contribution to the process and growth of the
educational system.

Moore and Cole describes sociology as a “study of plural behaviour".

Morris Ginsherng views that , “sociology is the study of the human
interaction and inter-relation, their conditions and responses.”
Robbins lays stress on the fact that sociology deals with the whole
man in relation to all the cultural , social and biophysical
backgrounds.

From the above definition of sociology, it is clear that the central

theme in sociology is “social interaction”. Social interaction includes
interaction with cultural and other institutions, such as family, the
play and peer group, religious, economic and educational institution.

Educational Sociology and the Aim of Education

- To prepare an individual for democratic living

- To enable the individual to live as a member of his society

34

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- To bring a change not only in the amount of knowledge gained

but in the ability to do, to think, and to acquire habits, skills,
interests and attitudes which characterize a person who is socially
accepted, personally adjusted and socially responsible.

Educational Sociology and Curriculum

Brown, More and Cole point out the following principles of
constructing curriculum from the view point of educational sociology.
- Curriculum should be based on the conditions, problems and
needs of society.
- It should be based on the real concerns and problems of pupils.
- It should reflect the basic cultural values the society it serves.
- It should be an agent in the transmission of the highest values of
the
culture.
-It should provide educational programmes and activities that give
them
wholesome participating roles in society. This participation is
conducive to the development of responsible citizenship.
-It must be functional in its relation to adult living and concurrently
be adapted to the level of development of the child.
-It should develop health attitudes regarding human relation
-It should prepare the child for the world society.
-It should prepare socially efficient individuals.
-It should be flexible and changeable for the effective realization of
socially
determined objectives.
-It should lead to the development of genuine feeling; “a feeling
that the
student belongs and has the spirit of social interaction.”
35

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Educational Sociology and Method of Teaching

Regarding methods of teaching Moore and Cole point out “…it is

group relationships (which are encouraged in socialized methods) that
an individual becomes aware of what it means to work with a
purpose”. The following are the chief characteristics of the methods:-
-The method of teaching should enable the pupil to acquire skills
and knowledge, in the classroom, which are helpful to him/her
adjustment of social situations.
-The methods should develop problem-solving and constructive
thinking.
-The socialized techniques, the project and group methods, by and
large
should replace the lecture and recitation methods.
Educational Sociology and the Role of the Teacher

The teacher must become conscious of his/her role towards society.

The followings are the main roles of the teacher:-
-The teacher’s behaviour should indicate his/her attempt to do
his/her job
properly .
-The teacher must be exposed to freedom, dignity of the individual,
rights and
duties, etc, so that he/she may transmit the same to the younger
generation.
Activities:-
1. What do you understand by sociological foundations of
education?

36

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

2. What are the aims of education in accordance with the

sociology of
education?

Review Questions
1. What is pragmatism? Which aspects of the present Ethiopian
education may ascribed to the influence of pragmatism?
2. Estimate the contribution of pragmatism to education. How far
they are practicable in our schools?
3. Compare and contrast Existentialism and Realism as
philosophies of education.
4. How does progressivism conceive the role of a teacher?
5. Bring out the significance of idealism with reference to teacher-
pupil relationship?
6. State the term “knowledge” from the point of view of idealists.
7. What is the underlying concept of pernnialism against
pragmatism?
8. According to the pragmatism philosophy of education, what is
the role of the teacher?
9. What are the differences between idealism, realism, pragmatism
and existentialism in terms of knowledge?
10. What are the differences between
pernnialism,essentialism,progressivism and reconstructionism
in terms of contents and methods?

2.5. HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

The development of education is directly attached to the development

of society and the study of educational development must be
integrated with the study of the past history of human. Historical
foundations refer to a systematic analysis of education during a given
period of time. Historical foundations are treated by giving
chronological sketch of the major influences leading to the current
37

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

school program beginning with prehistoric times and ending with the
20thC.
2.5.1 MAHOR HISTORICAL PERIODS

The discussion below examines the key periods in Educational History From Primitive
Times To The Present. Major history of education in the world are shown below:-
1 Education in the prehistoric times 4000B.C
2 Education in Ancient times 4000B.C – 1000 A.D
3 Education in classical time 1000 A.D – 500A.D
4 Education in the Middle ages 500A.D – 13thC.A.D
5 Education in Renaissance period 14thC A.D – 16thC A.D
6 Education in Reformation period 16thC A.D – 17thC A.D
7 Education in enlightenment period 18thC A.D
8 Education in the modern times 19thC-20thC

[Link]. Education in prehistoric times

In this time civilization and culture have continuously developed. As it
is expressed by Good “Civilization and education are based up on
three characteristics which distinguish man from animals.
- the power of articulate speech
- the power of connected thought
- the power of inventing and making tools, weapons ,
clothing and shelter”
During this period the formal curriculum was not started but the
curriculum consisted of the informal passing of folk ways. Problems,
and potential solutions from the old young.

[Link]. Education in the Ancient Time

38

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

At this time history began to be recorded . It is the time of

civilization. For example, culture becomes a civilization of civilization.
For example, urban centers, formal education, political, legal,
organizations , social –classes etc developed. The formal type of
education appeared from 4th-3rd millennia B.C in Mesopotamia and
Egypt and from 3rd-2nd millennia B.C in India and China.

 Characteristic features of ancient civilizations

- discovery and use of fire
- Diversification of occupations i.e specialized jobs
- Craftsmanship such as wearing & black smith were
grown.
- Emergence of division of labor
- Civic and military administrations & occupations were
practiced
- Emergence of social classes such as slaves and slave –
owners
- Formation of state
The educational practices:- Informal education was inadequate to
fulfill the growing educational needs of the society. Consequently
formal education was introduced which marked by the establishment
of schools in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China.
Nature of Education
- It was based on class character
- The formal education was introduced for the ruling classes
only.
- The informal education was for all classes

The aim of Education

39

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- To prepare the ruling bureaucrats & religious leaders

- To develop the virtue of obedience of respect for leaders
(kings), religious, leaders, parents, elders etc.

The contents of Education

Writing, reading, Literature, art, religion, Law, medicine, astronomy,
math’s, science etc.
The Methods of Instruction
Drill, rote memorization (learning by heart), lecture, copying of
models, comprehension.
Activity: - 1. What makes education in the ancient time class
character? Describe
its peculiarities?
1. Do you appreciate or claim educators in framing aim,
contents & methods of education in the ancient time?
Support your view by justifying logical reasons.

[Link]. Education in the classical Times

Brainstorm: - 1. Explain the important elements that made the
education
system of classical time was the time of
excellence?
This is the time of highest quality or excellence of education an the
time when the centers of civilization were replaced by new centers of
civilization Greek, (Sparta, Athens) & Rome
Socio-Economic conditions

The aristocrats ( the ruling classes) were rulers and property owners
of the society. The free citizens ( middle classes ) such as Trades,

40

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

small land owners, manufactures and slaves have some economic

right but no political rights.

The Institutions

There were states which protect the interest (benefit ) of the ruling
classes. The Spartan state, doesn’t care for disabled children or
infants, was military ( dictator) state. The Athenian, high concern for
children at individual and family level. In both state aristocrats
controlled the military leadership.
Occupation:-
- The most important occupations were civic and military
administration ( rulers)
- Trade and commerce were developed in town
- There was high craftsman ship.
Educational practice:-
_ It had class character in Sparta and Athens.
- Formal education was only for the children of Aristocrats.
- The ruling class children get formal ( After 7 years age) &
informal (before 7 years age) education

Aims of Education

In Sparta the aims were:-

- to produce healthy, strong & skilful soldiers
- To develop the virtues of endurance, coverage patriotism,
obedience to the law and authority.
In Athens:-
- To produce aristocratic through the harmonious ( all rounded)
41

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

development of the individual

Contents of Education
In Sparta the contents of education were:-
Running, jumping, throwing the Javelin, boxing, fighting, military etc.
They do not give emphasis for intellectual education .

In Athens:- There were two levels

Lower level:- the contents were writing, arithmetic, literature, singing
, dancing, children’s games, jumping, running, writing throwing the
Javelin & discuss, boxing, swimming, riding, hunting, fencing etc.

Higher level:- the contents were 7 libere Arts i.e grammar. Rhetoric
( art public speech) logic, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music.

Instructional Methods
In Sparta:- demonstration method was the main
In Athens:- Imitation ( copying) , rote memorization (learning by
heart) and lectures at the higher level.
[Link]. Education in the Middle Ages
It is the period between the decine of roman civilization and the rise
of the Greek and roman learning during the period of Renaissance
( 14thC.A.D ) . It had two sub-periods,
1. The early Middle Age:- It was the time of war , terror and
lawlessness, invasion by German and Slavic barbarians and
intellectual decay ( the decine of the classical culture, economy

42

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

and education. The civilization of Greece and Romans were

destroyed. Generally the period was regarded as a Dark age.
2. Later Middle Age:- It was the time of creation of central
government Maintenance of peace & stability , the advancement
in distance trade & low level of technology , the rise of towns
and town stats and the formation of merchants craftsmen known
as “Guilds” . Generally the period was regarded as High middle
age.

Socio-Economic conditions: - Feudalism was the predominant

social system. The known social classes in this age were:-
- The land owning class ( landlords) consisting nobility and the
church clergy man
- The middle classes:- Merchants and craftsmen the lower
classes:- serfs or un free tenants and small artisans ( skilled
manual workers or craftsmen)
Occupation:-
The early middle age was dominated by rural life i.e agriculture,
artisanship, trade & had experience “town life” with developed trade
& crafts man ship.
Institutions
- there was state in the form of
Barbarian state
National state
Town state or governments
- Merchants and craftsman associations
- The Christian church organization was dominant having
political and economic power.
Educational practices
- It had Aristocratic nature i.e. class nature
43

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- There was no opportunity of learning for all but there was

limited chance for middle class and poor children
- There were formal and informal education. Formal education
was dominant and it was controlled by different institutions
such as church, state, town government & guilds.
1. The church control education
- Church has dominated or monopolized education as a whole in
the middle ages in Europe. There were 3 types of church schools.
A. Monastic schools- here schools attached to monasteries.
Those schools had two stage:-
- the primary monastic schools – prepare boys to become
monks
- The secondary monastic schools - teach theology in depth
to
prepare religious
leaders of the
church.

B. Cathedral- were schools attached to major churches in

towns the cathedrals could open schools up to university
stage.
C. The parish (song) school- were schools attached to the local
churches in the rural areas mostly.

2. The state control of education

- The place schools, which had primary and secondary stages
were opened by kings to the sons of royal family.
3. Town control of education:-
- These were secular schools in nature and opened for children
of the middle class.
44

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

4. The guilds control of education

- The guilds schools, established by the association of merchant
or craftsmen, were form the children of guide members.
5. Philanthropic control of Education
- The chantry (vernacular) schools for the poor children
Aims of Education
- To prepare the learner for the service of churches
- To produce the religious leaders
- To promote monasticism
- To develop the virtues of piety, Justice, Obedience etc.
- To prepare state leaders

Contents of Education
There were 3 levels of education
a) Contents of primary level education
- Writing, reading and arithmetic
- Manastice schools were giving church music & rules of
conduct
- Guide elementary schools were giving subject
bookkeeping .
b) contents of secondary Education
- The monastic and cathedral schools were giving religious
subjects such as reading ( the New & old testament s)
mass prayers, rules of church, prescription of church
service, lives of saints and church music.
- The secular schools were giving the subject like grammar,
rhetoric, Law & medicine.

Instructional methods
45

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- Dictation, oral repetition, memorization, lectures( at higher

levels).

Activity:- what makes the aim , the organization of content and

teaching method of middle age education different from
that of ancient and classical times?
[Link]. Education in the Renaissance period

Renaissance is a French word, which means Rebirth or Revival. It was

a kind of movement advocating for the rebirth or revival of the
classical Greek and Roman culture. In this period there was a strong
and continuous movement to search (rediscover), collect, study, teach,
practice and improve the ideas and works of the great classical
scholars. Scholars such as Leonardo Da. Vinci ( 1452-1519) who was
artist, sculptor architect, engineer, poet. . . and Michelangelo ( 1475-
1564) were famous in this period for the revival of the classical
culture.

Socio-Economic conditions
- Feudalism remained to be the dominant social system
- The class structures were the same as in the middle ages
- The major classes were:-
1. The upper classes- Aristocratic , nobility, clergymen
(Church leaders)
2. The middle classes_ consists upper middle classes ( rich
merchants and manufacturers, bankers or bourgeoisie)
and lower middle class ( small merchants and craftsmen)
3. The lower classes- consists peasantry /Freed tenants ,
small farmers, hired laborers/

46

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Institutions:-
- the national state (central government )
- the church
- Town government
- Philanthropic groups
Two world out looks

In the renaissance period the two world out looks were humanism and
Christian theology (Theism or Monasticism)
Humanism- opposes monasticism and based up on secular views,
which favors worldly affairs.
- It gives emphasis to the worldly life and work of the
individual
- Development of well rounded personality of the individual
was the famous doctrine or motto for humanists in the
renaissance period

Christian theology (theism) :- Gives emphasis on religion and church

for all, salvation of the soul and one-sided development – spiritual
development .

Educational practices:-
- In the Renaissance period education was for the youth of the
upper and wealthier classes/ aristocratic in nature). But to some
extent there were some elements of democracy in education.
Aims of Education
- Except for the church, the other agencies in the Renaissance
period favored the aim” well rounded development of the
individual”
- More specifically the aims were:-
47

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 To develop scholars and clergy for future leadership in the

church.
 To develop loyalty for basic Christian’
 To prepare trained and loyal youth
 To prepare individuals for every day activities of business,
commerce manufacturing and law courts.
Contents of Education
- Vernacular schools:- elementary writing and reading in mother
tongue or local language), Arithmetic and Computation .
- Classical grammar schools:- Elementary and secondary languages
i.e Greek, Latin and Hebrew latten and Greek grammar,
composition, literature, poetry, Oratory, arithmetic,

Instructional methods- Imitation and memorization

Activity: - The aim of education in the Renaissance period favored by
educational agencies was aimed at “ well rounded
development of individual”. Describe the aspects of well
rounded development of individual during this period by
citing vivid evidences?

[Link]. Education in Reformation Period

In the reformation period education was organized in two track

system. These were the lower-Track (elementary level) which was
called vernacular elementary education and the upper –
Track(secondary level) which was represented as the classical
secondary school. In this period elementary instruction was given in
48

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

vernacular language and except for the catholic church, almost all
agencies found classical secondary education. Further more pupil
were classified according to age and grade level.

In the reformation period a number of schools were opened and

maintained by different agencies. For instance; Municipality
vernacular (elementary) , philanthropic, Catholic, Monasitc and
cathedral, protestant vernacular (elementary), courtly academies and
classical (secondary schools were opened.

Aims of Education
- to develop the spirit of nationalism and inculcate loyalty to the
nation.
- To train leader for the state and church
- To prepare youth to become good Christians and devoted
Catholics
- To help the individual arrive at a true knowledge of God’s law &
commandments ( catholic and protestant)
- To fit children for the active involvement in business and
commercial life
- To help the youth know God and live and imitate him for the
purpose of salvation
- To bring about individuals development in all rounded personality
( Humanistic aim)
- To develop the power of reason and mind ( Rationalist aim)
- To develop knowledge of the physical world( Scientific and
naturalistic)

Contents of Education
49

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- More practical kind of education was given in the courtly

academics. For example sword and pistol, riding guanery and
fortification, music, heraldry, geography, history, mathematics ,
sciences, vernacular languages. . . etc
- Grammar , rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy,
music, literature, ethics, metaphysics, natural sciences, letter
writing were given in catholic classical secondary schools.
- Secretaries , clerks, book keeping , trade were in vocational
schools.
- Writing, Reading and Arithmetic were in vernacular elementary
schools.
- Reading of the Bible, writing, Arithmetic and Religion, music,
History, physical education in the protestant vernacular
elementary schools.
Methods of Teaching
- reading and memorization, recitation , Learning by observation,
and practical methods

[Link]. Education in the Enlightment period

Enlightenment refers the emancipation of the human mind from
superstition( faith) , from ignorance, form oppression and exploitation.
It is the period when the different kinds of movements and
revolutional were made in Europe and North America. Generally it
represented:-
- A protest against the absolute power of the kings and movement
to set constitutional government,
- Protest against the rigid social strafification, inequality between
the rich and the poor by the assistance of new democratic .
- Ideology of humanitarianism

50

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

-A protest against unscientific world views passably by

expanding scientific knowledge about natural laws and human
nature.
- A protes against classical languages by raising modern language
i.e vernacular language s( Spanish, English, and French )
contesting with Latin.
Politics:- Power was transferred from the individual rulers (kings) to
the parliament i.e representative form of government. Supreme
power was taken from the hands of the parliament. The bourgeoisie
and the middle class had more seats in the parliament. Power
become divided between three agencies of government, namely
Legislative (formulates law and decrease), Judiciary (interprets laws
and employ punishment for crimes) and Executive (enforce laws and
decisions). New world outlooks were also seen. These were
Materialism, Humanism, Science, the democratic ideology of
Humanitarianism.

Religion:- In this period new religious organizations and churches

came in to being and separation of church and state become possible.

Educational practices
In the enlightment period more people had the opportunity to go to
schools. Because more schools were opened than at any previous time
in history, schools, for poor , the orphans, and girls were opened. And
calls for a universal, Free , compulsory and secular education were
grown. Despite such achievements enlightment education remained
to be aristocratic in nature.

51

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

In terms of educational organization, national system of education

was being intensified and ministries of education were established in
many countries. The Ministry of education took some steps to:-
- control education by building school and paying salary for
school masters and teachers
- set standards for curriculum and organization of schools
- Make compulsory for parents to send their children
- Prescribe definite school hours
- Require teachers to obtain teaching license.

Aims of Education
- the aims of education in this period was similar with the aims of
reformation period. The religious and humanistic aims
continued to dominate educational practices in this period.
Religious aims include:
- to prepare God fearing and loving individuals
- to prepare individuals for salvation
- to spread the gospel and humanistic aims
Middle class aims were :-
- to prepare individual for business usefulness( various trades and
occupations
National political aims
- to prepare individuals to serve the state properly in civic and
national institutes

Contents of ESducation
In elementary schools
- Teaching of reading and writing ( in the vernaculars) and arithmetic
In secondary schools
52

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- In secular schools- realistic, practical and scientific studies were

given. These include natural sciences and social sciences.
Instruction was begun to be given in a vernacular languages.

Methods of Instruction
- Memorization, reading , Lectures, recitations, rigid assignments
and drive methods were used in all schools. Lecture and
seminaries were also used in universities.

Review Questions
PART-I- Write true if the statement is correct and false if the
statement is incorrect
-----------1. During pre-historic time formal curriculum was not
started
-----------2. During the ancient time informal education was adequate
and introduced for ruling classes
-----------3. The educational practice in the middle age offered more
opportunity for the higher class children
----------- 4. Humanism, during renaissance period, agrees the motto or
doctrine and special emphasis of theism or Christian
theology
------------5. Political power during enlightenment period was on the
hands of individual rulers (kings)
PART II – Match the descriptions listed under Column “A” with
historical period listed under Column “B”
N.B. Items under column “B” can be chosen once, more than
once or not at all
“A” “B”
53

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

--------1. More schools were opened than A. Education in Prehistoric time

Previous time
--------2. Movement to study and B. Education in Classical time
rediscover
--------[Link] and Urban settlements C. Education in Ancient time
developed
--------4. Many new religious churches D. Education in Middle ages
Came into being
--------5. Civilization and culture have E. Education in Renaissance
continuously developed based Period
on inventing and making tools,
clothing and shelter
-------- 6. The time of higher qualified education F. Education in Enlightenment
Period
--------7. Formal education is dominate than G. Education in the Modern time
Informal education
UNIT THREE
3. Multicultural Education

Objectives of the unit

At the end of this unit students will be able to:-
- understand the role of education for national integration
- Know the concept of multiculturalism and multicultural
education
- Describe the function of education for international
education
- Recognize the role of education for development

3.1. Education for National Integration

Brainstorm:- Briefly explain the role of education for National
integration
in your own words based on hints you have had so far?
54

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

It is feelings of oneness which may be transcend all groups or cultural

differences and synthesis the different social group, linguistic and
religious communities emotional in to a compact whole. It is that
connoting force that binds the citizens of a country in unity. National
integration is the development of a mental climate that would help to
react in terms of oneness. It is remedy to separatist and disruptive
forces, narrow tendencies that would possibly, to eat the vitals of
national unity. It is very essential that people of different faiths,
creeds etc thinking in terms of nationalism and place the welfare of
the country above narrow considerations.

Education plays a vital role in strengthening national integration.

Education should not only aim at imparting knowledge but also
develop all aspects of student’s personality. It should broaden the
outlook, foster a feeling of oneness and nationalism.

3.2. The concept of multiculturalism

The concept of multiculturalism embodies a new orientation towards

the future. Unfortunately, in all the heated discussions around the
term multiculturalism, no clear definition has yet emerged. People are
thus left to read into the term what ever their biases & self interest
dictate. Since it is difficult to find statements concerning the specific
meaning of multiculturalism interms of what it means in guiding
policy, practices of institutions and social relationships among
individuals and groups, some scholar use a standard to define the
meaning of multiculturalism focusing on principles deal with so
55

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

different aspects of multiculturalism. These aspects are diversity,

harmony, equality, over coming barriers and resource.
Diversity: is essential to multiculturalism, in that without diversity
there might be little need for the remaining principles.
Harmony: Without harmony, diversity could lead in a direction of
distrust, suspicion, and conflict. It is a guiding principle for
constructing positive social relationships and forms of social
interaction in a society.
Equality: Even with harmony in a diverse society, there might be some
left out and some who are treated unequally. That is a seeming
harmony could exist even in a slave society, if those who are slaves
accept their lot & do little to challenge it. Equality can mean many
different things, and multiculturalism does not promise equality in
terms of what social scientists some times refer to as equality of
condition. That is, there could be many economic& social inequalities
in a society with equal opportunity. The primary emphasis is on
equality of opportunity & providing for the possibility of equitable
participation.
Overcoming barriers: One way to deal with inequalities would be to
identify barriers such as discrimination, racism, lack of resources, etc.
and attempt to overcome them.
Resource: Here the references are to the past, present, and future.
It is also possible to put forth an operational definition of
multiculturalism as a starting point to better clarify our human
interactions
Multiculturalism is a system of beliefs and behaviors that recognizes
and respects the presence of all diverse groups in an organization or
society, acknowledges and values their socio- cultural differences, and
encourages and enables their continued contribution within an

56

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

inclusive cultural context which empowers all within the organization

or society.

Let’s take it apart. There are the four pairs of action phrases that give
substance to the definition: “beliefs and behaviors”, “recognizes and
respects,” “acknowledges and values,” “encourages and enables,” and
a fifth one,” empowers,” Multiculturalism is a 3
system, 2
a set of
interrelated parts ‘in this case, beliefs and behaviors ‘ which make up
the whole of how human experience today’s world. It includes what
people believe about others, their basic paradigms, and how this
impact, and are impacted by, behavior. The out come of this
framework of beliefs/behaviors are seen important actions.

The first is recognition of the rich diversity in a given society or

organization. For the longest time racial/ethnic minorities. The
physically disabled, and women have not been given the same
recognition as others. The one- sided approach to history and
education has been a testimony to that fact.

With recognition should also comes respect. Respect and recognition

are not the same, since recognizing the existence of a group does not
necessarily elicit respect for the group. In a slave economy, for
example, the presence of slaves was recognized but their humanity
was not respected. The presence of American, Indians in the Western
expansion of the continent was constantly recognized by whites, but
their environmentally conscious cultures were never respected. The
contribution of women has usually been relegated to a footnote status.
Our nation has a long history of not respecting the rights of the
powerless.

57

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Multiculturalism also entails acknowledging the validity of the

cultural expressions and contributions of the various groups. This is
not to imply that all should be tolerated some cultural practices are
better than others for the overall betterment of society. These cultural
expressions and contributions that differ from those of the dominant
group in society are usually only acknowledged when there is an
economic market for them, such as music fro African American, native
Indian dances for tourism or Mexican cuisine. When the business
sector wants our money, the advertising industry pictures people of
color in a positive light. But in most other cases the entertainment
media simply caricatures minority stereotypes, such as women usually
in supportive roles. Multiculturalism thus means valuing what people
have to offer, and not rejecting or belittling it simply because it differs
from what the majority, or those in power, regard as important and of
value

Multiculturalism will also encourage and enable the contribution of

the various groups to society or an organization. Women and persons
of color, for example often experience discouragement because what
they bring to the “table” for discussion is often regarded as of little
value or worth. Not everything can be utilized, however, nor is of the
same worth and value. But it does have value, even if for no other
reason than the effort invested in bringing it forward. Such efforts
must be encouraged, for who knows from where the next great idea
may come ‘from a youth, from an elderly person, from an African
America, from a single parent, from a lesbian, from a high school drop
out, from a business executive, etc. The word enable here is
important, because what lies behind it is the concept of empowerment
‘the process of enabling people to be self-critical of their own biases
so as to strengthen themselves ‘ and others to achieve and deploy
58

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

their maximum potential. People’s sense of self- worth, value and

dignity is most often determined not only by kind of support and
encouragement they receive from others, but also from how willing
they are to be self- examine negative behaviors in their own life and in
their cultural group. If I or my group is practicing self- destructive
action, all the external help will go for naught.

The essence of multiculturalism, the under girding concept of

multicultural education, is the ability to celebrate with the other in a
manner that transcends all barriers and brings about a unity in
diversity multiculturalism enables us to look upon the other,
especially the other that society has thought us to regard with distrust
and suspicion, and to be taken advantage of, not as a “potential
predator but as a profitable partner”

The Potential Problems 0f Multiculturalism in Social Practice

1. Divisive : some scholars argue that can emphasis on diversity may

lead to limited group identity, no group vision, no national goals or
dreams
2. Regressive and marginalizing: Multiculturalism may help to
maintain backward cultural practices, hinder participation, prevent
equal education and opportunity and maintain exploitation and
inequality.
Among the practices of some immigrant groups that have been
critized are patriarchal family structures, the limited role for women
in the traditional cultures, and the attempt to force children in the
group to adopt the practices of parents. That is, there may be severe
inequalities by age, sex, and marital status within the original culture,
religious practices may be forced or members, the attitudes &
59

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

practices of members of these groups are contrary to those of a

liberal, tolerant western society, and it may be difficult for members
of such a group to leave the group
3. Symbol and hoax: A policy of multiculturalism is symbolic in
expressing good ideas, but in practice such symbols may have little
substance or effect and be very limited. Resources devoted to
multiculturalism may be largely devoted to symbolic aspects of
culture, such as ethnic lifestyle, while ignoring the real problems of
racism, discrimination, and inequality faced by people in minority
cultures.
4. Impractical & Top- down: Multicultural policy or practice cannot
deal with the inequalities that result from a capitalist social structure.
In fact, these policies could become policies of containing or limiting
the demands of minority groups, rather than expressing their rights.
5. Essentializes or stereotypes: By focusing on group culture,
members of the group may be considered to lack much diversity
among themselves. That is, those outside the group develop an idea of
what the group culture might be and attribute this culture to all
members of the group. In fact, each member of the group is an
individual and there can be great diversity within the group. Such
stereotypes may easily be spread through media, by presenting
certain images of group members. The argument here is presumably
that multiculturalism, by emphasizing cultural practices, and their
maintenance and encouragement, labels individuals with these
cultural practices.
6. No Challenge to social order
This charge is specifically against government operated or official
multiculturalism. The problem here may be that multiculturalism was
a program established to help government manage the social order
ensuring that challenges to the dominant groups & elites would not
60

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

occur, this is implicit in some of the earlier problems, but is a charge

that governments have deliberately adopted a policy of
multiculturalism to weaken minority groups, ensure social order is
maintained, and keep conflicts limited and harmless to rule by
dominant elites,
7. Multiple meanings: The meaning of multiculturalism has never
been very clear because of the shifting emphases of the program. For
minority, immigrant groups, multiculturalism may have little meaning
because of limited resources to promote their culture or language.

3.3. Definitions of Multicultural Education

Brainstorm: - Discuss the terms culture, cultural diversity,
cultural pluralism and multiculturalism being in small groups
and reflect to the whole class?

Multicultural education is a field of study and an emerging discipline

whose major arm is to create equal educational opportunities for
students from diverse racial ethnic, social –class, and cultural groups.
One of its important goals is to help all students to acquire the
knowledge, attitudes, and skills need to function effectively in a
pluralistic democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and
communicate with peoples from diverse groups in order to create a
civic and moral community that works for the common good.
61

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Multicultural educations not only draw content, concepts, paradigms,

and theories from specialized interdisciplinary fields such as ethnic
studies and women studies ( and from history and social and
behavioral sciences), it also interrogates.

Challenges, and reinterprets content, concepts, and paradigms from

the established disciplines. Multicultural education applies content
from these fields and disciplines to pedagogy and curriculum
development in educational settings. Consequently, we may define
multicultural education as a field of study designed to increase
educational equity for all students that incorporates, for this purpose,
content concepts, principles, theories, and paradigms from history,
the social and behavioral sciences, and particularly from ethnic
studies and women studies.

The following are the most frequently used definitions of multicultural

education:
 An idea, an educational reform movement, and process intended
to change the structure of educational institutions so that all
students have an equal chance to achieve academic success.
 An philosophy that stresses the importance, legitimacy, and
vitality of ethnic and cultural diversity in shaping the lives of
individuals, groups, and nations
 A reform movement that changes all components of the
educational enterprise, including its underlying values,
procedural rules, curricula, instructional materials,
organizational structure, and governance policies to reflect
cultural pluralism

62

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 An ongoing process that requires long term investments of time

and effort as well as carefully planned and monitored
action( Banks & Banks, 1993)
 Institutionalizing a philosophy of cultural pluralism within the
educational system that is grounded in principles of equality,
mutual respect, acceptance and understanding, and moral
commitment to social justice ( Baptiste, 1979)
 Structuring educational priorities, commitments, and processes
to reflect the cultural pluralism of the United “States and to
ensure the survival of group heritages that make society
following American democratic ideals
( AACTE, 1973: Hunter, 1974)
 An education free of inherited biases, with freedom to explore
other perspectives and cultures, inspired by the goal of making
children sensitive to the plurality of the ways of life, different
modes of analyzing experiences and ideas, and ways lf looking
at history found throughout the world ( Paredh, 1986,PP. 2627)
 A humanistic concept based on the strength of diversity, human
rights, social justice, and alternative lifestyles for all people, it is
necessary for a quality education and includes all efforts to
make the full range of cultures available to student: it views a
culturally pluralistic society as a positive force and welcomes
differences as vehicles for better understanding the global
society ( ASCD Multicultural Education commission, in Grant,
1977b,P3)
 An approach to teaching and learning based upon democratic
values that foster cultural pluralism, in its most comprehensive
form, it is a commitment to achieving educational equality,
developing curricula that builds understanding about ethnic
groups, and combating oppressive practices ( Bennett, 1990)
63

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 A type of education that is concerned with various groups in

American society that are victims of discrimination and assaults
because of their unique cultural characteristics (ethnic, racial,
linguistic, gender, etc). It includes studying such key concepts
as prejudice, identity, conflicts, and alienation, and modifying
school practices and policies to reflect an appreciation for
ethnic diversity in the United sates( Banks, 1977)
 Acquiring knowledge about various groups and organizations
that oppose oppression and exploitation by studying the
artifacts and ideas that emanate from their efforts ( Sizemore,
1981) educational philosophy, staffing composition and
hierarchy, instructional materials, curricula, and evaluation
procedures( Frazier 1977: Grant, 1977)
 Comprehensive school reform and basic education for all
students that challenges all forms of discrimination, permeates
instruction and interpersonal relations in the classroom and
advances the democratic principles of social justice ( Nieto,
1992)

These various definitions contain several points in common. Advocates

agree that the content of multicultural education programs should
include ethnic identities, cultural pluralism, unequal distribution of
resources and opportunities, and other sociopolitical problems
stemming from long histories of oppression. They believe that, at best
multicultural education is a philosophy, a methodology for educational
reform, and a set of specific content areas within instructional
programs.
Multicultural education means learning about, preparing for and
celebrating cultural diversity, or learning to be bicultural. And it
requires changes in school programs policies, and practices.
64

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Despite a multitude of differing conceptualizations of multicultural

education (some of which will be laid out more fully below), several
shared ideals provide a basis for its understanding. While some focus
on individual students or teachers, and others are much more
“Macro” inn scope these ideals are all, at their roots about
transformation:

 Every student must have an equal opportunity to achieve to her

or his full potential
 Every student must be prepared to competently participate in
an increasingly intercultural society.
 Teachers must be prepared to effectively facilitate learning for
every individual student, no matter how culturally similar or
different form her-or himself.
 Schools must be active participants in ending oppression of all
types, first by ending oppression within their own walls, then by
producing socially and critically active and aware students.
 Education must become more active role in reexamining all
educational practices and how they affect the leaning of all
students: testing methods, teaching approaches, evaluation and
assessment, school psychology and counseling, educational
materials and textbooks, etc.
Activity: - Discuss the impact of globalization on multicultural
education. In
what aspects globalization foster or stifle multicultural
education?

65

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

3.3.1. Approaches to Multicultural Education

Advocates of multicultural education offer many different suggestions

for how it can be accomplished in school practice. Christine Bennett,
James Banks, Ricardo Gorcia, sonia Nieto, Genevo Gay, Christine
sleeter, Carl Grant, and Margaret Gibson are among the leaders in the
field who have developed models for implementing multicultural
education. These models tend to be developmental and cumulative, as
well as somewhat historical in nature. They start with the simplest
techniques and proceed to more complex ones. They also tend to
indicate how current efforts to implement multicultural education
have evolved from those that appeared when the movement began in
the late 1960s. For example Banks (1931a) identifies four approaches
to multicultural education, each increasingly more significant and
comprehensive :(1) teaching about contributions of culturally different
groups and individuals: (2) an additive approach in which
multicultural lessons and units of study are supplements or
appendages to existing curricula: ( 3) a transformation approach in
which the basic nature of curriculum and instruction are changed to
reflect the perspective and experiences of diverse cultural, ethnic,
racial, and social groups: and ( 4) a decision making and social action
approach that teaches students how to clarify their ethnic and cultural
values, and to engage in Sleeter and grant ( 1988: Grant &
Sleeter, ,1993) reviewed the published literature on multicultural
education to determine how the field was being conceptualized. Their
analysis generated four common approaches: (1) teaching culturally
different students to fit into mainstream society: (2) a human relations
approach that emphasizes diverse peoples living together
66

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

harmoniously: (3) the single group studies approach, which

concentrates on developing awareness, respect, and acceptance of
one group at a time: ( 4) focusing on prejudice reduction, providing
equal opportunities and social justice for all groups, and the effects of
inequitable power distribution on ethnic or cultural groups. To this list
they added a fifth education that is multicultural and social
reconstructions and teaches students to become analytical and critical
thinkers and social reformers who are committed to redistribution of
power and other resources among diverse groups.

Sine other proposed approaches to multicultural education are

variations on these suggestions by Banks and Grant and Sleeter, there
is no need to elaborate upon them here. However, three general
approaches can be extrapolated from these more specific approaches:
(1) teaching content about cultural pluralism :(2) teaching culturally
different students , and (3) using cultural pluralism to teach other
academic subjects and intellectual skills when necessary to increase
their accuracy and overall representation of cultural diversity.
Regardless of the particular strategy used, teaching about cultural
diversity tends to concentrate on providing more factually correct
information about ethnic and cultural groups that traditionally have
been underrepresented in U.S society and educational programs or
have been treated with prejudice and bias. Teaching the culturally
different is more process oriented than content oriented. Its center of
attention is establishing more effective instructional relationships and
rapport with students from different ethnic, cultural, and racial
backgrounds as a basis for improving educational opportunities and
outcomes. Teachers, administrators, counselors, and supervisors learn
about the cultural values and experiences of different cultural groups
to determine how they may affect attitudes and actions in teaching
67

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

learning situations. The new insights gained are then used to

determine the kinds of changes that are needed in the educational
process to make learning opportunities for ethnically different
students more comparable in kind and quality to their middleclass,
Anglo counterparts.

The underlying premise of this approach to multicultural education is

that on interactive relationship exists between culture and cognition,
education and ethnicity, and teaching learning styles and cultural
conditioning. The extent to which these concepts are made explicit in
educational decision making has a significant impact on culturally
different student’s access to equal status knowledge. Where as
teaching about cultural pluralism emphasizes materials development
and curriculum design, teaching the culturally different gives priority
to teacher education, staff development, and classroom instruction
The idea behind it is that if the attitudes, values, and knowledge
teachers have about culturally different students are improved, then
the decisions they make and actions they take in planning and
implementing program will reflect these changes. That is teachers will
be able to provide more culturally relevant instruction for students
from different ethnic, racial, and social backgrounds.

The third approach to multicultural education combines content and

process, and is often referred to as infusion. In practice, it means
using culturally pluralistic content, experiences, and perspectives in
teaching other knowledge and skills. Ethnic and cultural materials
provide the contexts for students to practice and demonstrate mastery
of more general academic and subject matter skill. For example,
ethnic novels, poetry, stories, and folklore are used in the process of
teaching various reading skills, such as comprehension, vocabulary,
68

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

and inferring meaning patterns of ethnic migration and settlement

might be used to teach geographic directions and locations. Ethnic
and gender employment trends could be used for students to practice
and demonstrate such mathematical skills as ratio, percentages,
proportions, and probabilities. Critical thinking, problem solving, and
values analysis skills might be developed as students examine issues,
events, and situations particularly germane to the historical and
contemporary experiences of different groups of color and social class
in the United States, such as their images and portrayals in mass
media, affirmative action, economic exploitation, and political
oppression. Additionally, the knowledge that teacher and other school
leaders acquire about how cultural conditioning affects behavior in
learning situations is employed in making decisions about what
instructional strategies, performance appraisal, curricular materials,
needs assessment, and learning climates are most appropriate to
maximize the educational opportunities of culturally deferent students
.

Using cultural pluralism in all teaching and learning activities as a

way to implement multicultural education is based on four major
premises: (1) using diversified means to achieve common leaning
outcomes is the best way to give culturally different students an equal
chance at comparable quality educational opportunities:( 2) cultural
diversity is a characteristic trait of American society and since a major
function of schooling is socialization into the national culture, ethnic
and cultural pluralism should be a core element of the educational
process: ( 3) it is more pedagogically sound for the study of cultural
pluralism to permeate all dimensions of the educational process,
rather than being thought as a separate and isolated entity: and (4)
effective multicultural education requires comprehensive efforts that
69

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

integrate attitudes, values, content, and actions and involve all

aspects of the education system simultaneously.

3.4. Internationalism and Education

Education should enable an individual to realize the fact that we are

all members of one world and prepare him/her mentally and
emotionally to discharge the responsibilities which such membership
implies.
The signatories to the United States charter have pledge “ to live
together in peace with one another good neighbors, to take effective
measures for the removal of areas of differences and to develop
friendly relation among nations “ Here it must be understood that
these ends cannot be achieved without education. This point is mad
explicit that in the universal declaration of human rights in which it is
declared as “ Education shall promote understanding, tolerance, and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups and shall
further the activities of the United nations in the maintenance of
peace”.

According to one of the resolution of UNESCO member states of

UNESCO in accepting its contribution have agreed that the purpose
of the organization is to contribute to peace and security by promote
in collaboration among the nations through education, science and
culture in order to promote universal respect for justice, for the rule
of law, for the human rights and fundamental freedoms”. International
understanding is the ability to observe critically and objectively and
appraise the conduct of men every where to each other, irrespective
of the nationality or culture to which they may belong. For this one
must be able to detach oneself from ones own particular cultural and
70

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

national prejudices and to observe men of all nationalities, cultures

and races on equally important varieties of human beings inhabiting
this earth.

Activity:
1. Discuss issues that could stand as barriers for promoting
internationalism?
2. Why education for internationalism?

3.5. Education and development

Society harvests from education. Education is an instrument in nation

building i.e. education is base for development. Education prepares
citizens who take responsibilities in the various spheres in a society.
Education provides society with trained manpower.

Modernization in fields of economic, industrial, and technological

areas in general by has brought improvements in all directions in all
activities of the society. In all these, it is obvious that education has a
large role to play.

There appears to be no logical limit to the expectation we have for

this single social institution- education. Education is called up on to
alleviate poverty, to serve as the vanguard in directing social and
economic change, and as the means fro individual self development.
Particularly in new nations that are attempting to merge diverse and
often competing ethnic and tribal groups in to a unified nation
education is charged with providing the young with competencies
required for productive participation in modernizing economy, with
mobilizing previously parochial populations to political consciousness,
71

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

and reforming the inequities of distribution by leveling the presently

affluent while elevating the powerless. That education can be seen as
the major institution for alleviating fundamental conflicts between
ethnic minorities, social classes, regional and linguistic groups at the
same time that it is called up on to redistribute power and status
between them is a tribute to the almost mystical efficacy we attribute
to this institution.

The appeal of education as an instrument of development could be

recognized from the fact that it offers an attractive, compelling and
logical institutional solution for the problems and conflicts of national
development. Education potentially offers the most important
institutional means fro improving the quality of human capital within
an acceptable period of time. Education is also seen as the chief social
agency for training them young for competent adult role performance
and for socializing them to the value consensus up on which society’s
stability and continuity is believed to rest.

Education is also seen as the single most important agency not only
for training the young for the relatively stable repertoire of adult roles
but more important, for socializing them to be the new competencies
required but the emergent role needs of changing societies. Education
thus becomes the central means of remedying those diagnosed
individual psychological deficits that are believed to hinder the
individual’s mobility up the linear occupational ladder and inhibit the
overall development of the nation.

The developmental interpretation also presumes that education

provides a relatively just contest mobility system where in children

72

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

from all social statuses have a fair opportunity to improve their

prospects on the basic universalistic achievement criteria.
Activity: 1. Describe the ideas of multicultural education system?
2. Define the concepts of multiculturalism?

UNIT FOUR
4. The History and Development of Education in Ethiopia

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit students will be able to:-
- Explain the features of Koran education
 Describe the aims of church education
 Describe the contents of church education at different levels
of the system
 Explain the philosophical foundations of church education
● Explain the features of Koran education
 Discuss the influences of traditional church education on the
pedagogical and sociological practices of modern schools in
Ethiopia.
 Compare the systems of modern education established at
different periods
 Discuss the nature and sources of the problems of modern
education in Ethiopia
● Understand the concept of the three major educational
reforms
4.1 Traditional education in Ethiopia
4.1.1 A church education in Ethiopia
A. Historical Background
One can observe a close resemblance in the cultural roles played by
the Orthodox Church in Ethiopia with the synagogue in Jewish society
73

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

or the mosque in Muslim society. The Orthodox Church has been

serving as the principal agent in the transmission of the nation’s
cultural heritages.

Even though the exact date when the church started offering formal
education to children is not know, it is safe to assume that its
education activities o back to the earliest days of Christianity in
Ethiopia, Abam Selam, the first Christian metropolitan of the country,
who was instrumental in the conversion of king Ezana of Axum in 330
A.D. may be referred to as a royal tutor. Maintaining a tutor in
wealthy hose holds, a common practice to this day, thus had its
beginning far back in the history of church. Moreover, regardless of
his wealth or social status, every Christian in the conversion of King
Ezana and Axum in 330 A.D., may be referred to a part –time tutor ,
for a confessor is not only a counselor on all matters pertaining to
religion but also an instructor on the virtues of the good life. By
periodic visits to the homes of those who have entrusted themselves
to his care for the salvation of their souls, the confessor makes sure
that the laws of God are followed. This is an addition to the instruction
offered from the pulpit.

In the highlands of Christian Ethiopia, as in far away European

Christendom, the church for centuries constituted the main guardian
of traditional culture, and provided the only schools in the land.

The Ethiopian church schools, which have in all probability existed for
more than a thousand years, are attached to individual churches and
monasteries. The education they have so long given is primarily
religious, and consisted in the first stages of the student’s career in
learning to read, write and recite a few Biblical texts in Geez, aptly
74

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

referred to as the “Latin of Ethiopia” in as much as it is a dead,

ecclesiastical language as well as the root of all the present day
Semitic languages of Ethiopia. This is a language, which is to be found
on stone inscriptions dating back to the first centuries of the Christian
era, was written in an alphabet, or more correctly syllabify, it is
consisting of twenty- seven basics consonants each with seven
different vowel combinations, or a total of 189 symbols. Amharic
employs and additional six basic characters or 42 symbols.
The usual age at which children begin church education is seven,
though some enter much earlier and others much later. Indeed, the
large majority of peasant children do not enter school at all, as their
parents cannot spare them from the work of the farm.

In fact there are some fathers who send their children into convents,
or elsewhere to have them instructed, but there are many who will not
do this. On this account many boys desert their parents, in order to
seek instruction for themselves. Some enter the house of a priest or
another teacher as servants during the day, and they receive
instruction at night. In any case, the vast majority of traditional
students have to go through excessive hardships. Once the student
leaves his home he is absolutely on his own, supporting himself mainly
by begging. He wears a homemade sheepskin, which has become the
symbol of the traditional student

Activity :
Visit any local church school and observe the overall education
practice. If there is no church school in the surrounding,
interview any priest or monk who used to be a teacher in the
church school. The interview should be guided by open-ended
questions developed in advance. Based on the information
obtained write a report about the similarities and differences
between church and modern education systems interims of:
 The educational aims
 The nature of the contents
75

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 Teaching-learning methodologies
 Classroom management and discipline
 Teacher-student relationships.

B. Levels of Church Education

There seems to be a similarity between the stages of church education
and the levels of modern education (primary, secondary, college, and
university education).
1. Nibab- Bet (Elementary Church Education)

Primary church school is usually a one-room building in or near the

church compound, though sometimes the only shelter is provided by a
tree. In a typical classroom one finds an old teacher, usually a priest
or “ Debtera” ( cantor) seated on a small stool with a long stick beside
him and the book of psalms in his hands, while some thirty pupils, in
groups of two or three sit on the floor before him. The more advanced
students teach the less advance ones while the teacher attends to the
former, he periodically checks on the progress of the smaller children.
Elementary education consists of learning the alphabet and
committing to memory the Acts of the Apostles and psalms of David.
Moral teaching constitutes a major part of the education of the child.
This consists of learning by heart certain prayers, which are sung at
the beginning and end of each school day. In addition, if the student
wants to pursue his education further he spends many hours each
night with his teacher learning other prayers by heart. These include
the praises of God and the Virgin Mary, the songs of the prophets and
of Solomon, etc. As part of their normal instruction children are also
required to give service to their teacher. They learn the virtues of
obedience, humility, and respect for their elders by washing the feet
of their teacher, by fetching wood and water for his household
purposes, and by running errands to the market place.
76

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Children are also expected to kiss the teacher’s feet when entering
and leaving classroom. In return they receive his blessing.

Elementary education is completed in two or three years depending

on the child’s ability and his opportunity for study at home.

2. zema- Bet (SECONDARY EDUCATION)

For all but very few the end of elementary education is the end of
formal education. In the first place, few parents can not afford the
long absence of their sons in a distant secondary school, perhaps in
another province. In the second place, the students who decides to
continue his education must be prepared to face the hardships and
long years of extreme privation

Secondary education is given in what is known as the Zema Bet or

school of Music. Church music, dancing and the beating of time
constitute the core curriculum of secondary education. Students
master the songs sung at the termination of mass (Zemare) and at
commemoration services and funerals (Mewaset) as well as the arts of
Church dancing and time-beating, also included is the study of a
collection of hymns(Deggwa) made very popular by the famous 6 th
century musician, Abuna yared.

Mainly because of poor teaching methods, it takes about fourteen

years to complete this part of church education. The use of Geez, as a
language which no student at this stage understands, presents
insurmountable difficulties. Like the elementary school child, who
shares the same difficulty, the secondary student resorts to
memorization as the only method of learning?
77

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

A secondary school is usually conducted by a Meri Geta, as the head

of a parish is called, a learned man well versed in Zema and Kene. The
standard of the school depends entirely upon the qualifications of
Meri Geta,Since the church makes no efforts to ensure uniformity of
standars in its schools, either at the elementary or secondary levels.
3. Kine- Bet (COLLEGE EDUCATION)

In spite of the fact that very few students ever reach this stage, this is
considered as the most important.
The ideal child accepts the order of his superiors without question and
dutifully conforms to the natural order of things without any desire to
change it. The child’s spirit of inquiry is stifled at home and the
process of stifling continues at school. At home the child is told all
kinds of stories about the evil consequences of curiosity, and at school
the emphasis on memory work discourages initiative and inquiry. This
is consequence of the type of curriculum accepted and followed in
traditional schools. The narrow scope of the curriculum and the
virtual absence of argumentation and criticism severely restricted the
field in which methodological and substantive innovations could be
introduced.

D-Major Characteristics of Traditional Church Education in

Ethiopia
1. A thorough investigation of traditional church education in
Ethiopia reveals the emphasis it places upon loyalty, obedience,
and absolute subservience to authority. Only blind compliance
to the dictates of parents and elders is expected of the child.
78

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Individual initiative and enquiry are considered as defects that

must be discouraged by severe punishment.
2. The second observation to be made about traditional education
especially on the higher levels concerns the emphasis it places
upon emulation as a method of teaching. The instructor
simultaneously takes the role of the parents and of the teacher.
He loves and cares for his students just as much as they love
and care for him. He is not only responsible for teaching them
what is in the books, but also helping them cultivate the
essential virtues of the good man- deep spirituality, honesty,
obedience, politeness, etc. He does this by being an example to
them. Through his daily contacts he encourages his students to
emulate him in these qualities.
3. Although the fulfillment of certain rigid academic requirements
and the passing of examinations play an important part in the
promotion of the student, there are other things that also count.
The student is being constantly assessed by his teacher for
other qualities such as honesty and personal integrity. The
educated person, according to the traditional definition, is at
once a good man who stands as an example to all those around
him and one who is competent in his field of learning.
4. A very interesting aspect of traditional education is the
emphasis placed upon learning by doing. The student acquires
the virtues of obedience to and for elders by being of practical
service to his teachers and parents( fetching wood and water
for them, cleaning their house, etc). The newcomer to the
school or the visitor is accorded a very kind reception: he is
given food, his feet are washed and he is furnished with a bed-
even if the host has to sleep on the floor. This readiness to put
into practice the moral virtues taught in school is an important
79

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

aspect of traditional moral virtues taught in school is an

important aspect
5. The traditional system of education is based on the theory that
the present state of knowledge is all that could ever be
attained. To seek for entirely new items of knowledge and
sources of knowledge is a useless waste of time and energy.
Because of such assumption, research, investigation,
experimentation, theorizing and speculation have been, at best,
actively discouraged for they might result in illusions of new
knowledge in a world where nothing is now under the sun.

E- MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Orthodox Christianity was the official religion of the successive
Ethiopian states, so church education had all opportunities to
contribute to the ancient and modern civilization of the country.

Its major contribution could be illustrated by the examples of the

major products of church education given below:
- Architect, engineers and technicians who helped in building all
the unique churches of Ethiopia,
- Doctors’ – who wrote and passed on to use the valuable books of
traditional medicine,
- Historians- who enabled us to know about the ancient
civilization of the country and the genealogy of our ancestors
- Musicians- E.g. saint yared who was the famous singer and
dancer in the 6th century, invented and composed musical
notas still useful to this preset day.

80

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

F- MAJOR LIMITATIONS:
1. There was too much of religious content in it, i,e., religion was
and is the very center of enlightenment.
2. It gives very little consideration for secular and scientific
education
3. There is little modernizing element in it, and fully resisted the
introduction of foreign culture,
4. It did not permit difference of opinion and free flow of ideas
between students and their teachers.
5. It was highly dominated by the method (practice) of
memorization.

4.1.2 - KORAN EDUCATION IN ETHIOPA

Like the church education, the time when Koran education was first
introduced in this country is not exactly known. However one can
assume that the history of Koran education dates back to the earliest
times of the introduction of Islam in Ethiopia. Islam was said to be
introduced in Ethiopia in the 7th century A.D., when the first Muslims
came to this country as refugees. They were all relatives and followers
of Mohammed the prophet. At that time, Mohammed and his followers
were persecuted by the pagans in Mecca because the pagans in
Mecca did not like the teachings of Prophet Mohammed about Allah-
God.

So while Prophet Mohammed himself escaped to the town of Medina,

he advised some of his relatives and followers to run away to Ethiopia
to save their lives.
81

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

After having learned why the Muslim refugees have come to his
country, the then Ethiopia king hosted them and told them to stay in
the country as long as they wish. It is believed, therefore, that these
same Muslim refugees saw the expansion of Islam in Ethiopia; this
marked the beginning of Koran education in Ethiopia.

In Ethiopia, Koran education, however, has a history which is much

younger than the history of church education.

Koran is the holy book for Muslim. It contains the teachings of

Mohammed the prophet. Therefore, it is the main text of Muslim
Education.

Arabic is the medium of instruction in Koran education, because the

Koran itself is written in the Arabic language.

The Muslim school is the Koran school; Koran schools are situated in
mosques. Throughout Ethiopia, wherever Muslim communities are
found, Koran schools are attached to the local mosques.
The ‘sheiks’ who have deep knowledge in Koran serve as teachers in
Koran schools.

B- LEVELES OF KORAN EDUCATION

Koran education is offered through four main levels.
1. Tehaji of mejilis
This is the lowest level similar to Nibabe- be in the church
education.
The contents are:
- Instruction in Arabic Alphabets,
82

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- Reading some chapters of the Koran i.e., recitation

of prayers.
2. Nahus:
This involves the study of Koran with special emphasis to:
- Koranic vocabularies and their usages
- Classic Arabic grammar

3. Fiqh:
The study includes:
- Islamic laws which guide religious, political and
civil life of Muslims.
The sayings of the prophet are emphasized here (Hadith).
4. Tafsir:
This is the study of the commentaries on the Koran( i.e., Koran
Alkarism). This refers to the study of the elaborated and interpreted
versions of individual Islamic laws and statements in the Koran. This
is the most important of all the studies in Koran education. The more
advanced courses are offered in a relatively few schools called
maderessa. These schools are generally found in the larger towns with
large Muslim population such as Addis Ababa, Jimma and Harar.

C- Methods of Teaching:

Methods of teaching and learning in Koran education are similar with

the methods in church education. Students learn by reading,
recitation and memorization. Dialogue and inquiry are not allowed for
the contents of instruction are not questioned and non body is

83

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

authorized (even the sheik) to change these contents. Because the

contents are understood to be God given

D- Major Limitations of Koran Education

Like church education, Koran education too:
1. Does not consider secular or scientific instruction,
2. has no modernizing element in it,
3. is dominated by the methods of rote memorization or it
does not encourage the methods of dialogue and inquiry
Activity:-
1. Describe the aims of church and Koran education in Ethiopia
2. mention at least three characteristics of traditional church and Koran education
3. Describe at least two practices of church education system which you fell to be
learned and incorporated in the modern education system of Ethiopia.

4.2 - Modern Education in Ethiopia

It is widely believed that modern education in Ethiopia has not
evolved from traditional or indigenous educational practices. It is
imported from abroad and has been influenced by different countries
at different periods. For this reason the history of modern education
in Ethiopia may be studied in terms of the period of influence imposed
upon it by different countries.

A. The period of French Influence (1908-1935)

Modern secular education introduced during the final years of Minilik
II.
Why Minilik II was interested in establishing modern education at that
particular time.

Three reasons may be mentioned here:

a) Ethiopia had come to be the target for the colonizers.
Minilik was interested to halt any colonizing movement
84

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

against his state through diplomatic lines( through

negotiations and by signing peace treaties with foreign
embassies established in Addis Ababa). To this end there
was a felt need to train young Ethiopians in Western
diplomacy, western languages and ideas so that they
could represent the nation in international diplomatic
circle.
b) The advent of a centralized government system
necessitated the training of young Ethiopians who could
run the works of the various organs of the government.
c) Minilik introduced various innovations to Ethiopia such as
national currency, telecommunication, postal service,
state bank, hospitals, hotels etc. All these innovations
required the training of skilled man power pertinent to the
demands of each of these institutions.

To this end Minilk opened the first modern government school in the
county, Minilik II School, in October 1908.

It appears that the emperor was so convinced about the importance of

modern education prior to the opening of this school. That is why he
issued the first education proclamation in 1906. This historic
proclamation reads in this part as follows:

“In other countries, not only do they learn, even more they make new
things. Hence, as of today all six-year old boys and girls should attend
school. As for parents who would not send their children to school
when the former die, their wealth, instead of passing to their children,
will be transferred to the government. My government will prepare
the schools and the teachers.”
85

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The proclamation gave modern education legitimacy through the

force of law.
Two other points are also worth noting:
a) The emperor’s interest in education was not for its own
sake but rather to use it as an instrument to make new
things
b) Traditional education was the exclusive domain of the
male. The inclusion of “ girls” in the proclamation in itself
is a step forward.

The Ethiopian Church, which up to that period had a virtual monopoly

on education, strongly opposed the establishment of a secular school.
The Ethiopian church feared the undermining potential of a state
school system managed, at least initially, by European teachers.
Emperor Minilik overcame Church opposition by giving into many of
its demands. The emperor stressed that the school would only be
engaged in the teaching of foreign languages- the proficiency of which
was essential for the maintenance of the country’s independence.
Moreover, as a clear concession to the church, the first teachers were
to be Copts from Egypt- a group who, because of their faith, were
unlikely to undermine the teachings of the Ethiopian Church.

In accordance with the then practice in Egypt the language of

instruction was French, which was also the most popular subject with
the students, who nevertheless also studied English, Italian and
Amharic, as well as Mathematics, Science, Physical training and
sports. Schooling was open to any one who could read and write

86

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Amharic. Board and lodging was entirely free, and there was no age
limit, many students being indeed married.
Activity:-
-Explain how relevant were the subjects taught in the Minilik II
school to the educational intentions of those days?

Though the emperor was keen to develop education much was not
achieved in Menelik’s reign. By the time of his death in 1931 only
three more schools were established in the provincial centers, one
each in Harar, Dessie and Ankobar. Although attendance was free the
schools attracted neither the attention of the people nor the interest
of the youth, mainly due to the influence of the clergy.

After the death of emperor Minilik, especially in the 1925, the

opposition that came from the church to the establishment of
education, as well as to the continued operation of the mission
schools, had greatly diminished. Although Minilik School remained
the only state financed institution, the scope and breadth of mission
schools increased considerably. Regent Taffari Mekonne, later called
Emperor Haile Selassie, patronizedthe activities of the missions in
general and of the Swedish and American missions in particular

The second government school in Addis Abab was established by

Regent Taffari Mekonnen in 1925. Like the minilik School, the Taffari
Mekonnen school functioned as a school for the teaching of foreign
languages with the difference that Ethiopian religion was supposed to
be taught in the latter.

87

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The Tafari Mekonnen School was more modern that the old Menelik
School, and the education given was markedly more French
orientated. The school had a succession of French head masters, and
students attended the French Legation annually to sit for the French
Government’s examination of competence in primary studies. Though
most the instruction was in French there was also a smaller stream of
students who studied in English. The curriculum included French,
Arabic, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, History, Gymnastics and
Sport.

Most of the teaching staff was made up of Frenchmen and French-

speaking Lebanese, but there were also several Ethiopians who
taught Amharic and elementary French. The poorer students were
fed and educated at the founder’s expense, a monthly allowance being
indeed later paid to each student. This was needed, not only to meet
the student’s expenses, but also to overcome the still widespread
parental opposition to education. To meet this and other expenditure
the first education tax, 6 percent tax on all imports and exports, was
introduced in 1926.
Activity:
-Based on what you have learned so far write your views about
the assertion that” traditional church education was not
antecedent to( foundation for the emergence of ) modern
secular education in Ethiopia”
The development of Ethiopian education was further accelerated after
Emperor Haile Sellassie’s coronation in 1930. The new Emperor,
whose principal objective was the creation of modern government,
established a Minstery of education and Fine Arts in the same year,
the first Minister being Blattengetta Sahle Tsedalu, a graduate of the
Menelik school. The ministry was allocated two percent of the

88

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Treasury’s revenue in addition to the afore-mentioned education tax.

The Emperor gave orders at about the same time that soldiers should
learn to read and write, and that the priests should busy themselves
by instructing the youth. An education adviser, Professor Ernest work
formerly of Musk Ingham college in the United States, was appointed,
and in due course drew up a report envisaging a system of six years
of primary, six years of secondary, and four years of university
educatorn, with special emphasis on teacher training and agriculture.
He criticized the whole education system as an “ alien baggage” and
advocated that “ Ethiopian boys and girls should be educated in their
own language” and “ about their own country. In his report submitted
to the ministry of education June 1931 he recommended:
a) Ethiopianization of the staff and text books
b) Expansion of primary schools to the rural areas
c) Establishment of at least one secondary school in
each province
d) Establishment of teacher training institutes and
university
In spite of the financial constraints and the unfavorable attitude of the
church and other conservative elements towards modern education, a
total of 17 primary schools were opened in just 7 years time between
1928 and 1935; of these 4 were located in Addis Ababa while the
other 13 schools were located in the provincial towns.

1. Empress Mennen school for girls- 1930

2. Lyce’e Gebremariam- French school- 1930
3. H.S.I. institute of Arts and Science- 1930
4. Medhane Alem school( School of balabats)-1932

89

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The remaining 13 schools opened out of the capital during this period were:
No Name of school Year Medium of instruction
1 Dessie, Sehin School 1928 French
2 Diredawa 1929 French& English
3 Gore/Teferime Mokenne 1929 English
4 Jijiga 1929 English
5 Lekempt H.S.I 1929 English
6 Makalle 1930 English
7 Asebe Teferi 1931 English
8 Ambo H.S.I 1931 English
9 Jimma 1932 English
10 Sellale 1933 English
11 Gojam 1934 English
12 Gonder 1934 English
13 Adua 1935 English

In general, just on the eve of the Italian invasion to Ethiopia there

were about 4000 students attending government and mission schools
and up to 200 Ethiopians were pursuing further education abroad
mainly in the middle East, Europe, and USA.

90

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The major problem observed in the education system was that every
thing in the schools was alien to the students and to the Ethiopian
society i. e, much of the content was not related to the life of the
student and nto the needs and culture of the Ethiopian society in
general. And little or no effort was made to modify and adapt the
school curriculum to local needs and circumstances.

Activity:
- What necessitated minilik II to introduce modern education in
Ethiopia
- Describe the aims, contents and methods of education during
the period 1908-35 and explain their relevance to the economic,
political, and international situations of the time?

The attempts made by Emperor Minilik and Emperor Haileselasie to

expand modern education were thus disrupted by the fascist Italian
invasion. The few existing schools were closed down and the few
educated Ethiopians were liquidated.

The educational policy of fascist Italy may be understood better from

the statements made by the second viceroy of Ethiopia, Duke of Aosta.
He said “ schools of all kinds established for the subject people of
Italian East Africa ought, above all, to aim at this goal: to train pulps
in the cultivation of the soil or to become qualified workers ( not
specialized) in order to cerate gradually native skilled craftsmanship
for all fields of labor where, for reasons of climate, surroundings, or
race prestige, the use of Italian.

91

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Labor is not admissible or convenient, and for the purpose of reducing

the cost of a labor and production in general, by making use of native
labour>>
Another notable evidence of the fascist’s oppressive and colonial
educational policy may be traced from the speech of festa, one of the
designers of the policy. He said that: << The education provided by
the existing didactic programmes up to the fourth grade….. is
sufficient, in may view to provide the mass with the specific
preparation suitable to the position of the native population and our
needs. The child after four years of school, is in a position to
appreciate the benefits of our civilization, he can be acquainted with
Italy, her glories, her history>>

Moreover, the Italians declared the use of local languages as a

medium of instruction. Accordingly Amharic, Tigrigna, Orominga,
Kafficho, and Somaligna were used as the medium of instruction in
different regions. It is obvious that this decision was made not for
pedagogical or cultural reasons. It was rather a clear manifestation of
the divide- and-rule policy of the colonial powers.
In general fascist Italy’s educational policy aimed at limiting the
education Ethiopian children only to 4 years (grade 4) and at
providing native education that makes Ethiopians merely loyal
servants of their Italian maters.

Activity:
Write an essay (between 3 and 5 pages) on the following issue.
The issue the: impacts of foreign intervention in the
educational system

B. The period of British Influence (1942-1950)

92

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Tight after the liberation of the country the imperial government

began to lay down education foundations from scratch.
In general the major problems in the area of education were:
1. Lack of money to invest on education, because
Ethiopian economy was ruined,
2. Lack of education personnel( teachers)
3. absence of text books and other instructional
materials
4. Shortage of school buildings and furniture…
With all these problems in view, Ethiopia had to have a fresh start of
the entire process of modern education. Hence, the period referred to
as the Reconstruction era.

As a result from 1942 until 1955, the Ethiopian government was

frantically engaged in the expansion of the education system without
sufficient consideration to its relevance. Under the leadership of Haile
Selassie, who held the portfolio of Minister of Education until 1966,
the education sector functioned without curriculum guidelines and
relevant textbooks.

The high expenditure on education in relation to the national

expenditure, as well as the geometric growth of student enrollment
were strong witnesses to the interest and commitment of the late
emperor. Expenditure on education rose from just over half a million
birr in 1942 to over 19 million by 1958-59. By 1959-60, enrollment in
government schools had reached nearly a quarter of a million pupils,
just over 50, 000 of whom were females.

93

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The schools in the country lacked textbooks at the elementary level.

Teaching at the elementary level ( the first four years) and in the
intermediate grades( grades five to eight) was virtually left up to the
teachers. Secondary teachers had relatively fewer problems in
locating teaching manuals, since they were the same as those used in
Great Britain.

On the other hand, there was an acute shortage of educated personnel

who could manage the government offices, the armed forces and the
commerce and transport services that were in the process of re-
organization. Thus the main emphasis at this stage was the creation of
an educational system that could provide for small corps of clerical,
technical and administrative personnel to run the government
machinery.

To address the problems discussed above the Ministry of education,

which was recognized in 1942, was starting to work with the British
advisors. Thus, as a partner in the liberation of the country, the
British started to impose its influence upon Ethiopian education. For
instance the structure of the educational system was a hybrid derived
from Great Britain. A three tier system (4+4+4) was followed
whereby the first four years were designated as primary, the next four
years as middle or intermediate, and the third four-year period as
secondary. From mid-1940 and throughout the 1950’ and throughout
the 1950’ students were expected to sit for the General School leaving
Certificates Examination of Great Britain.

The major aim of education during this period was to prepare

technicians and semi- professionals. And, the contents of the
curriculum in the elementary schools included Amharic, English, and
94

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arithmetic, science, and Geography, History, Mussic, Physical and

moral education.

Major achievements
1. The ministry of Education and fine Arts was re- established,
though poorly staffed
2. the primary schools which were closed down were re- opened
3. the primary schools started Academic Secondary sections in 1948
E.g.
1. English school
2. Teferi Mekonnen
3. Lyce’e Gebremariam ( French school)
4. Medhanealem school( Addis Ababa)
5. Medhanealem school( Harar)
6. Empress Mennen Girls school
7. [Link]. school reopened its secondary section in 1947/48
4. Two purely Academic secondary schools were newly opened in
Addis Ababa,
namely,
1. H.S.I. secondary school-1943
2. General Wingate secondary school- 1948
5. A number of technical, vocational and cadet schools were opened:
1. Technical school( Addis Ababa)
2. commercial school ( Addis Ababa)
3. Teacher Training section in [Link]. school)
4. Jimma Agricultureal school
5. Ambo agricultural school
6. Cadet schools for the Air Force, police, Army and Navy

95

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

 Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

6. A uniform elementary curriculum was designed for the first time

( 1948), though this was merely in the form of course outline.

After world war II. (1945) contact with other foreign countries such as
the U.S.A., Canada, India and Sweden became easier. Eventually,
teachers who came from different countries introduced different
curricula in various schools and caused absolute lack of uniformity
especially in the secondary activities. During this period there was no
clearly stated educational policy.

Activity
● Compare the educational practices of the French, Italian, and
British periods
based on the criteria stated in the first column of the following
table

N.B the task requires you to study thoroughly the textual materials as
well as the reference materials indicated at the end of this unit.

N Criteria for The period The period The period of

o comparison of French of Italian British influence
influence occupation
1 The aims of education
2 The contents of the
curriculum
3 Principal methods of
teaching
4 The relevance of the
aims and contents of
education to solve the
96

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

 Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

actual problems of the

country
5 The source of education
finance
6 The major sources of
teaching staff
7 Degree of foreign
influence ( high,
moderate, low)
8 Major achievements
9 Major achievements
10 What should have been
done to promote the
education system of
those days

C- The period of American Influence (1950- 1974)

The influence of Americans on Ethiopian education began to be felt in

the mid- 1940s (1946) when the Ethiopian government decided to hire
teachers from various countries including the U.S.A However, the
arrival of the ‘point IV’ educational advisory group in 1953 marked
the official beginning of the more direct influence of Americans on
Ethiopian education. More specifically, as part of the aid package
deal, the Americans began to shape the Ethiopian educational policy
through an education advisory Group assimilated into “ the Long
Term planning Committee” under the Vice Minister of Education.

In its final report the Long Term planning committee recommended

the introduction of community schools for basic education. The
97

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

committee also recommended that the curriculum be designed to fit

the student for better living in his home community and environment.
It further advocated that educational objectives be geared to the
quickest possible spread of universal fundamental education.
Moreover, the committee called for the schools to teach students
effective command of Amharic.

Unlike the other periods, the American influence was more

comprehensive, though its influence on the actual contents of the
school subjects was not significant.
Activity:
During the American period, Ethiopian education system was said to have been
aggravating
1. What does the educated unemployed mean?
2. What were the chief sources of the problem
3. What were the social, economic, and educational consequences of the problem of
the educated- unemployed in the 1970s.
If you were a policy maker at that time, what measures you would have taken to solve the
problem of the educated unemployed

Major Achievements
The following were those aspects of Ethiopian education which were
most affected during the American influence:
1. The structure and organization
2. the school curriculum
3. Higher education
4. Teacher education
5. Type of examinations
6. Language of instruction
7. Ethiopianization of education

98

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

1. Structure and organization of education

The former structure( 4+4+4+) was changed in 1954 in to 8+4, i.e.,
eight years of elementary education plus four years of secondary
education.

In 1964 the 8+ 4 structure was again replaced by 6+2+4 structure,

i.e., six years of elementary and two years of junior secondary and
foru years of senior secondary education.

2. School Curriculum
- Elementary curriculum
In 1958 the subjects were classified in to Academic and Non-
Academic. The non- academic subject included agriculture, Arts,
Crafts, Hygiene and physical training, Music and morals, while the
academic subjects remained the same.
.secondary curriculum
The most important change made in the area of secondary education
was the conversion of the government academic secondary schools in
to comprehensive high schools.

3- Comprehensive High Schools

99

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The aim here was to shift the emphasis from the academically
oriented curriculum to practical vocational curriculum. So every
comprehensive high school was made to contain Academic and Non-
Academic streams, where in academic, Technical and vocational
subjects were given. The non-Academic stream included commercial,
technical, teacher training, agricultural and home economics courses.

Limitations related to comprehensive high schools

1. They were poorly equipped
2. instruction was still given more in theory and less in
practice and
3. job was not easily available for the graduates

4. Higher Education
Haile Selassie I University College was opened in December 11,
1950. This
marked the beginning of higher education in Ethiopia.

5. Teacher Education
In Ethiopia the development of Primary teacher training has passed
through
the following stages:
Primary Teacher Training section Primary teacher
Training
School primary teacher Training Institute
In fact the first primary Teacher training program was opened in
1943/4. It was housed in one room at [Link]. School. And 32 students
were first admitted for a two year period (10+2)
The TTIS established during this period were:
- Harar T.T.I. (its origin was in [Link]. School) 1952
100

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- H.S.I. day school. (Teacher Training stream) Later

called Koteb T.T.I.- 1952
- Asmara T.T.I.– 1953
- Debre Berhan T.T.I.- 1964
- Jimma T.T.I - 1969
The main problem in the teaching profession was that most of the
teachers used to leave their jobs just because of low salary.
Secondary teacher Training
Pre- service training of secondary teachers was given in the faculty of
education, H.S.I.U. The faculty trained teachers by screening its
candidates through the
Be-ede Marian Laboratory School, which was established in the
university campus in 1964.

Other sources of secondary teachers were:

 Ethiopian University national services students
 American Peace Corps, volunteers, like those who are now
coming back to this county.
 Contract teachers from India, Philippines and Cylon( now called
Srilanka).

6. Type of Examination
They type of examination in the schools was changed from
Essay( subjective ) type to objective types.

7. Language of Instruction
In 1958 Amharic became the language of instruction in all the
elementary grades. But English remained the medium in the junior
and senior high schools.
101

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

In spite of its communicative advantage the promotion of Amharic as

a medium of elementary education had posed a number of problems-
outstandingly,
a) Text books for many subjects were written in English,
and not in Amharic
b) National teachers who were trained by foreigner( in
Alien languages) were not mentally ready to teach in
Amharic
c) It was very difficult to find equivalent Amharic terms for
many of the scientific terms written in English.

8. Relevance ( Ethiopianization) of Education

The process of Ethiopianization of education was begun with the aim

of adapting education to the needs and culture of the Ethiopian
society. One example of this was the writing of new Amharic
textbooks more suitable to the Ethiopian child and the society at
large. But prior to this period the government gave high priority to
the expansion of schools without sufficient emphasis on the relevance
of education to the Ethiopian situation

Unfortunately, the measures taken during the American period did

not go far enough to address the deep- rooted problems of Ethiopian
education. Dissatisfaction with the educational system set in and the
education system was criticized on a number of points, outstandingly,
a) Its curriculum remained to highly academic- oriented,
despite some attempts to orient it towards technical-
vocational education. Consequently, it gave rise to the
problem of the educated unemployed.
102

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

b) It was elitist. It was geared to satisfy the educational needs

of the aristocratic elites
c) It was wasteful. For only six percent of pupils who began
first grade finished secondary education within twelve years
of schooling.
d) It did not provide equal access to all. It was urban and male
biased. For instance, in 1974, 70 out of the available 124
secondary schools were located in Addis Ababa, Shoa
province, and Asmara.
e) There was little that was Ethiopian in the curriculum.
f) Its administration was characterized by a bloated
bureaucracy that stifled local initiative and efficiency.

It was, therefore, in the midst of all this that the government initiated,
in October 1971, a comprehensive study of the education sector. This
study, which came to be known as the Education Sector Review
(ESR), was indeed one of the boldest attempts at education reform
taken by the imperial regime.
Activity:
Write only one major change ( development ) made in each of the following aspects
of education during the period of American influence.

 Teacher education
 Curriculum development
 Structure development
 Language instruction
 Assessment tools ( examination)

D. The period of Russo- German Influence (1974-1990)

103

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

With the out- break of the 1974 Ethiopian revolution (which was a
death blow to the ESR) came the influence of Russians and Germans
on the Ethiopian education. Hence the introduction of socialist system
of Education in the country
German educational advisors were assigned to all departments in the
M.O. E. They began to control the design of curricula for all levels of
education.

Also Russian, German and even Cuban teachers began to teach in

some high schools, teacher training institutes and in some colleges
under Addis Ababa University.
Activity:

NB i. Use your experience and imagination to answer the

following questions.
ii. Try to relate your answer with the situations existed
during the revolution era in Ethiopia
1. List down all the passable impacts of the rapid quantitative
expansion of the education system on the quality of education
in one of the poorest countries in the world.
2. Based on each impact you have listed show how does the
contradiction between quantity and quality emerge ?
3. what should be done to resolve this contradiction
4. how does this quantity- quality contradiction explain the
educational problems of the revolution period.?

One of the immediate measures taken by the revolutionary regime

was to advance universal primary education within the shortest period
of time. This measure eventually set down the trend for the prompts
and expansion of primary education in the revolution ear.
104

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Furthermore, the educational system was to be overhauled with

socialist overtone.

The aims of education, as condensed into Slogans, were education for

scientific inquiry, and education for class struggle.
The general contents of Ethiopian education included five major
categories:
1. Ideological education
2. intellectual education
3. vocational and Technical edition
4. Aesthetic education
5. physical education
Of all these general contents much emphasis was given to ideological
education, eventually new subject were added to the curriculum as
compulsory coarses to betoken by all-
1. Political education at primary and secondary levels
2. Marxist Leninist philosophy, and political Economy at higher
levels In
addition the contents of every school subjects were revised to
reflect socialist
ideas and the revolutionary process in Ethiopia.
The structure of education remained the same as the American
period except that pre-school education was introduced here i.e.,
pre-school +6+2+4+ higher education.
Moreover new educational proclamations were issued. The most
significant ones were.
- Proclamation No. 54 of 1975 was issued to provide for the
public ownership of private schools
- Proclamation No 103 of 1976 gave ( half- heartedly) the
administration and control of schools to the people

105

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

- Above all, quite a vigorous national campaign was launched

against illiteracy (ENLC- Ethiopian National Literacy
campaign).
The reduction of the illiteracy rate from 93% set forth as the baseline
percentage figure at the start of the ENLC to 24.7 percent is certainly
an outstanding literacy achievement.

Besides, in terms of expansion, the educational system of the

revolutionary period had reached an all time high.

Though the linear expansion of the educational system during the

revolution period appears to be quite impressive it does not, however,
tell the problems that lie behind the figures.
 There was a remarkable regional disparities in the number of
schools and in the rate of participation
 The quality of education has gradually started to deteriorate,
due to various factors.
 The meager educational resources had to be thinly
spread, because of the uncontrolled expansion of schools
 The educational budget, as the percentage of the national
budge, had progressively declined from 1974 to 1980s.
Consequently per student expenditure at all levels had
drastically dropped
 There was a dire shortage of qualified teachers
 English language had become a language of obstruction
rather than instruction. The proficiency of most teachers
and student in communicating in English was said to be
quite poor.
It was obvious, therefore, that there was a need for reform. Thus in
1983, the MOE responded by launching a project known as the
106

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Evaluative Research on the general Education system of Ethiopia

(ERGESE). The ERGESE study was completed by 986.

Mean while in 1984 the government had already started to implement

its Ten year National perspective plan ( 1984-194), and as a result,
the study was quietly shelve. The most significant reform which the
ten year perspective plan had envisaged was the general polytechnic
education with Amharic as a medium of instruction. This program had
also failed at its experimental stage, before the demise of the Dreg
regime.
Major Achievements:
1. The expansion of basic education through literacy campaign
2. the expansion of pre- school education
3. the establishment of the:-
- Department of curriculum which was latter called
I.C.D.R (Institute of Curriculum development and
research)
4. The establishment of EMPDA- Educational materials production
and Distribution Agency.
The opening and expansion of these two institutions helped to
produce a very large number of curriculum materials, though it was
still difficult to cope-up with the growing number of students

107

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Activity:
Compare the educational practices of the American and the Russo-
Germen periods on the bass of the criteria given in the first column of
the following table.

Criteria for The period of The period of Russo-

comparison American Influence German Influence
The ideology that
influenced the
education system
The most emphasized
aim(s) of education
New subjects
included to the
curriculum
Subjects abandoned
from the old
curriculum
Two significant
achievements of the
period
Two critical
educational problems

108

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

of the period
Measures you could
have taken to solve
those problems if you
were the decision
maker during these
periods.

4.3. Educational reform in Ethiopia

4.3.1. The Education Sector Review (ESR)
[Link]. The state of Ethiopian education that promoted
the ESR

The state of education that promoted the establishment of the ESR

conference will be discussed in this section. The analysis of the state
of education is carried out under two general headings. The first is
Educational expansion and the question of equity. Under this heading
a number of issues such as the expansion of schools, enrollment,
participation ratio equity in terms of provinces, awarjas, school, sexes
are discussed. The quality of education of that particular period is
discussed in light of the purpose of education and curricular relevance
rate of attrition, the qualification and commitment of teachers to the
profession, provision of logistics and finance, and the adequacy and
efficiency of educational administration. There fore all the

109

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

quantitative and qualitative issues of the old education are discussed

in the following section.

A. Educational Expansion and the question of Equity

Since the introduction of modern education, the Ethiopian
government had developed faith in and enthusiasm for the powerful
role of education in nation building. As a result, a considerable
proportion of the national budget had been allocated for financing the
overall educational activities. Despite this and other valuable efforts,
the expansion of education in the 1960s had been characterized by a
number of defects.

First, it was found out that education did not expand in Ethiopia as it
was claimed by the fast growing population or by the international
community. Particularly it was in the UNESCO conference of African
states for the development of education held in Addis Ababa in 1961
that Ethiopia had got a clear picture of her educational status. From
the reports of the conference Ethiopia learned that she had fallen
seriously behind most African countries in terms or literacy rate,
enrollment , and the national education budget.

For instance it was only less than 10% of primary school age children
and less than 2% of secondary school age group that were attending
schools in the 1960s. This was a very low enrollment rate even by
African standard, because many African countries had reached more
than 20% enrolment rate at that time. The literacy rate was also
found to be below 7%, which was still below the literacy rate of other
African countries.

110

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The education system during 1960s was not only expanding slowly, it
was also expanding irrationally. In principle, Education in Ethiopia
was said to be free and open to all irrespective of age, color, religion
sex or political belief. In reality, however, it had got remarkable
variations in operation. There was a tremendous gap in the provision
of educational opportunity among the children of the nation, between
the rural and urban areas, among provinces, Awrajas, schools, and
between male and female. For instance, in 1960s the majority of
elementary schools and certainly all the good schools were situated in
the capital, Addis Ababa , and Eritrea. Of the 60 secondary schools of
Ethiopia in 1966, the great majority were to be found in five big
towns. Thus, the education system and the opportunities it opened
had irrationally favored very limited town of the nation.

There was also a remarkable gap in enrollment between male and

female. For instance , in 1961 , female students at the level of
elementary, middle senior secondary and higher education accounted
for 26 percent,. 19 percent, 14 percent, and 6 percent, respectively,
of the total enrollment.

Moreover, the existence of a wide gap among provinces, awrajas , and

between rural and urban schools in the availability of logistics and in
the quality of teachers were clear evidences of the discriminatory
policy of the time. The pattern was that schools located away from
the few major urban centers had little access to resources than those
schools found in and around big towns.

In a nutshell, the expansion of education in the 1960s was very small.

Besides, while it was the rural people who had been covering a very
large amount of the education budget, it was only the urban people,
111

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

particularly, the people in the big towns, who had irrationally

benefited from the educational system.

Activity:

1. Describe at least three instances that depict the problems

related to educational expansion in the 1960s.

2. Give two arguments against the decision that resulted in the

concentration of educational services in a very few urban
centers during the imperial regime.

B. The Quality of Education

Apart from educational expansion and the question of equity the other
factor that promoted the establishment of the ESR was related to the
quality of education of that particular period( the 1960s) . Therefore,
in the following section, issues related to the quality of Ethiopian
education in the 1960s will be discussed.

Activity

1. Discuss what is meant by quality education

Write down as many elements which you fell are indicators of

the quality of education as possible. Show how each indicator
you have mentioned explains quality

i . The Relevance of the curriculum

Since its inauguration in 1908, the purpose of modern education had

been directed towards the production of Ethiopian nationals who

112

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

could serve in the government offices. This age-old purpose was not
significantly revised and changed ( at least in the student’s mind) in
the 1960s too.

This purpose of education had created far-reaching effects upon the

quality of education in general and the school curriculum in
particular. Firstly it had created a type of curriculum which sought to
prepare students primarily for white color jobs, for the next scholastic
level and for rigidly set examinations. The purpose of schooling was
limited to the securing the securing of certificates, and as such, the
objectives, contents, and methods of instruction were examination-
oriented.

The salient feature of the curriculum was that both its objectives,
contents, and the experiences it offered to children were unrelated to
Ethiopian realities. Scholars were openly criticizing this trend and
they were forwarding alternatives too. Among these scholars was
Aklilu Habte who said the following:

We are in a state of curriculum crisis. We are in a crisis

in terms of curriculum perhaps because we are in the dark as
to what should constitute curriculum for our schools. All we
have done is probably get textbooks from Great Britain or the
United Stats and , at least , change the name of London to
Addis Ababa or perhaps miles to kilometers; but in terms of
thinking of the concept and its meaning fullness and its
relevance to the child who lives in a certain situation. I think ,
basically this has not taken place. We have just done the
superficial ( Aklilu, 1968 :8)

113

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Generally, the deep-rooted effects of the curriculum could be seen in

two ways. On the one hand the curriculum did not affect or penetrate
rural Ethiopia. The curriculum overlooked the rural life; where in 90
percent of population was accommodated It rather prepared students
for commercial, manufacturing and other public services which did
not have the potential to absorb the majority of the graduates.

On the other hand every bit of experience students acquired in the

schools had led them to develop unrealistic aspiration and life styles.
The Curriculum had developed a sort of confusion in students as to
what to do, what to aspire, where to go, where to reach etc, Hence
they were bound to the agony of frustration and insecurity.

Activity:
One of the criticisms made against the education system of the
1960s and 1970 was that “school children are at times more
familiar with the history of Rome and the life of Charles Dickens
than with the geography of their country or the history of their
immediate community” Explain in detail the nature , causes and
effects of the problem uncovered by this critics?

ii. The rate of Attrition

Another sever educational problem observed in the 1960s was high

rate of academic failure and dropout at all levels.

For instance, in the 1960s, on the average, it was only 5% of the

school beginners who had completed secondary schooling and sat for
ESLCE. Of the total students who sat for ESLCE during this period
only 33 percent were able to score the point required for university
admission. It was also found out that of the 1200 students who joined

114

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

the university in the 1967/68 academic year 35 percent of them did

not finish even the freshman program mainly due to academic failure.
It is thus self-evident that this high rate of academic failure and
dropout at early stage without having attained employable skills was
really wastage of both human and financial resources.

iii. The quality of Teachers and their Commitment to the

Profession
It is undeniable fact that quality in education is unthinkable without
qualified and devoted teachers. Therefore, it seems that examining
the level of qualification of teachers, their interest, and devotion could
provide important information about the quality of education.

In the year 1964/65, one out of every five elementary school teachers
had sixth grade of education or less. In fact a series of efforts were
made by the Ministry of Education to raise the amount of qualified
teachers trained in the TTIs. Despite all these attempts, however,
large numbers of elementary school teachers were leaving the
profession at faster rate than ever. For instance, in the year 1964/65,
while the TTIs of Harar, Asmara , Addis Ababa and Debre Berhan
graduated 788 qualified elementary school teachers, 400 of these new
comers were required to fill vacancies created by those who had left
the profession , and only 388 were assigned to meet the needs of the
expanding education system. Many capable teachers did not have a
slightest motivation to remain in their positions because of low salary
and in significant salary increment, low social status and bureaucratic
obscurities in the ministry.

Various statistical evidences indicate that the senior secondary

teaching force in the 1960s fall short of the required standard. For

115

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

instance in 1966, it was only forty nine out of the 424 Ethiopian
secondary school teachers that had University degrees, and many of
the United States peace corps volunteers had little or no teaching
experience, and also the 149 Ethiopian University service students
had not yet completed their training. Perhaps only a fifth of the
secondary school teachers had adequate qualifications and teaching
experience.

Concerning the interest of teachers in the profession, it was found out

that many school teachers were dissatisfied in their profession, and if
they got a job in other institutions they were ready to leave the
teaching profession.

From the discussions made above, one can conclude that Ethiopian
schools in the 1960s were highly staffed with unqualified and de
motivated teachers. Thus, it is questionable to expect either a
satisfactory instruction or a satisfied student from untrained,
dissatisfied and expatriate-dominated teaching force.

iv. The efficiency and Adequacy of educational Administration

The quality of education, partly, is the function of managerial and
administrative efficiency in the educational institutions. Good
leadership qualities are vital in any organization.

If we observe the administrative staff of the MOE during 1960s , right

from the head office, except a handful of well trained and devoted
individuals, the administrative personnel did not deserve the position
they held. Particularly at the provincial and Awraja levels the
adequacy of the people to the position they were assigned was quite
doubtful. For instance according to the statistical evidence of the

116

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

MOE , most of the 102 Awrajas head officers( heads) with no

qualification at all, and could not render any useful service to the
cause of education.

The administrative personnel were considered by teachers not as

facilitators, rather as faultfinders, supervisors and prosecutors. The
MOE was thought by teachers as the most corrupt institution in the
country. Nepotism and Bribe not performance and merits, were the
only avenues for transfer or promotion.

In a nut shell, in the 1960s, the centralized administrative structure,

and the people who filled these structures were not conductive for the
evolution of democratic leadership and motivating work environment
that encourage innovation, efficiency and local initiatives.

In the review made so far, you have surveyed the state of Ethiopian
education during 1960s. It has been said that problems of access,
equity, relevance, and quality were major challenges that
characterized the Ethiopian education system during that particular
period.

These and other issues therefore became sources of dissatisfaction for

parents, teachers and students. The dissatisfied and unemployed
youth become a threat to the political stability of the notion. As a
reaction to the above issues, the Imperial government initiated in
October 1971, a comprehensive study of the education sector, known
as the Education sector Review ( ESR).

Indicators of quality in Description The major The

education of the reasons that consequences(outc

117

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

problem caused omes) of the

problem problem
Provision of access and
equity
The relevance and
quality of the learning
experience acquired by
the students
The internal efficiency
of the education system
Provision of
appropriate and
sufficient curricular
material, facilities and
other support inputs
The adequacy of the
teaching force
The efficiency of the
management and
organization of the
education system

[Link]. The Findings and Recommendation of the Education sector

Review
In response to the problems existed and the criticisms followed the
Imperial government decided to conduct a thorough review of the
educational sector. The Education sector Review was officially
constituted with the following objectives:
 To analyze the education and training system of Ethiopia
and its capability of promoting economic , social and
cultural development
 To suggest whatever necessary ways to improve and
expand the education and training system in order that it
might achieve aims relevant both to the society and the
overall development of the country

118

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 To suggest ways in which education could best be utilized

to promote national integration
 To identify priority studies and investments in education
and training.

The professionals who formed the core group of the study were about
81. the bulk of these professionals, about fifty, were drawn form
Addis Ababa University, and were mostly Ethiopian. In addition, there
were international consultants as well as representatives of
international organizations such as UNESCO, IBRD (International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development) and ILO. All in all, it is
believed that about 160 individuals had participated in the study.

The group was divided into 14 task forces and started its analysis as
per the objectives. A symposium to exchange view on the draft papers
prepared by the task forces was in January 1972, followed by a
conference in July which deliberated over the final draft of the
recommendations and proposals, and integrated them into three
alternatives strategies submitted to the ESR conference. Before the
comparison you need to read a related literature.

[Link]. The strategy recommended by the Conference for ESR

The three proposed alternative strategies were evaluated and debated

extensively during the sector review conference, and at its conclusion
a high degree of agreement was reached on the course most favored
by Review participants.

119

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Essentially the Conference chose a modification of alternative II,

which would incorporate certain key elements of alternative III. The
recommended strategy would provide:
 Four years of minimum formation education to be made
available to all children as rapidly as permitted by
financial constraints.
 Two years of basic formation education for youths who
have been unable to attend MFE programs.
The MFE program would be essentially as described previously under
Alternative strategy II. Entry age of MFE would be flexible, ranging
form 7 to 9 or more depending on needs of individual areas and
pupils. The average pupil would require four years to complete MFE,
with some taking less time and some more.

In some areas it may be desirable to stretch four years of instruction

over a six year period, as suggested during the conference. Under
such arrangements, pupils would attend school for more hours per
day, but for fewer days per year, which might be desirable where
youngsters assist in seasonal farm work.

A. Basic formation
The basic formation program would be essentially as described
previously under alternative strategy III. This would be a two-year
program with the primary purpose of extending educational
opportunity to youths, generally in the 13 to 16 year age group, who
did not attend traditional primary schools or MFE programs.

B. Other formal Education

120

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The recommended strategy would be equivalent to Alternative II,

which is 4 years of enrollment in each of the second level and higher
education programs.

C. Non formal Education

The recommended strategy would provide for an extensive array of
non-formal education programs to serve youth and adults, which
would be closely related to the formal system, and also to overall
programs of community development.
Activity: How do you evaluate the striation of education recommended
by ESR in relation to:
i. the existing condition in 1960’s
ii. the current (the1990[s) conditions and practice of
education
To implement the proposed strategy the ESR conference had
suggested a number of recommendations among which the most
important ones are stated here below.
A. Decentralization of the Education system
B. Charging higher education Students Fee
C. Practice oriented Teacher education program
Self- checking: exercise-Read another related literature on the above
three recommendations to fill the table below. Corresponding to each
educational issue stated in the first column of the following table
indicate the major strategy proposed in the final draft of the ESR

121

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Issues addressed in the The strategy Your own view regarding

conference proposed in the the appropriateness of
final draft of the each strategy in
recommendations addressing the problems
uncovered
The structure of education

The purpose and contents of

minimum formation program
The purpose and contents of
basic formation program
The purpose of secondary
education
Institutionalization non-formal
education programs
Complementarily of formal
and non-formal education
programs
Complementarily of formal
and non-formal education
programs
Beneficiaries of non-formal
education
The link between formal
education and the world of
work
The proportion of school that
should possibly proceed to
higher(university) education
School fees ( tuition)
The focus of III programs

122

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

4.3.2. Evaluation Research on the General education System in

Ethiopia (ERGESE project)
[Link]. The state of Education that necessitated the ERGESE
Project

In quantitative terms, the growth rate of the education system in

Ethiopia had reached all times high in the years between 1974 to
1981. During this time the number of schools increased two fold and
participation rates also more than doubled at the Primary as well as
secondary levels as compared to the pre-revolution figures.
Unfortunately, in spite of this unprecedented quantitative expansion
the education system was entangled with a number of chronic
problems. To mention the few:
 The curriculum remained to be highly academic oriented;
 The system was characterized by educational wastage because
of the high rate of dropout and grade repetition;
 The proportion of qualified teachers was very low in the
elementary, junior secondary and secondary schools;
 Student-teacher ration had surprisingly exceeded the maximum
limit set by the government ;
 The educational budget was decreasing year after year. A
significant proportion of this meager education budget was
spent for salary and other administrative activities. As a result,
of the total money invested for learning materials and

123

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

equipments in 1980-81 the share of each student was as low as

Birr 3,12,and 16 at the primary, junior secondary, and
secondary levels, respectively.
Therefore, the massive quantitative expansion achieved right after the
revolution had eventually deteriorated the quality of education.

Though the poor performance of the education system had created

public anger and dissatisfaction, it was not demonstrated through
overt expressions because of the oppressive nature of the military
regime. And yet the government couldn’t have still remained
reluctant for the crisis of the education system became evident in
many ways.
The government thus took the initiative to lunch a project in 1983 that
come to be known as Evaluative Research on the General Education
system of Ethiopia (ERGESE)

The objective of the ERGESE was to provide through research a

picture of the overall status of schooling and show the areas that need
improvement. It was to give recommendations to improve the quality
of education for the decade ahead. Consequently a four-task force
was formed to undertake the task in the following areas:

 Curriculum Development and Teaching-Learning Process

 Educational Administration, structure and Planning
 Educational Logistics, Supportive service and Man power
Training.
 Educational evaluation and research.

The ERGESE study was started in 1983 and finished in 1986. A total
of 60 Ethiopian educators, mainly drown for Addis Ababa University
124

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

and to some extent from the ministry of education were involved in

the study.

[Link]. The Findings and Recommendations of ERGESE

Project.

After three years of nation-wide examination of the education system

it was found out that while educational opportunity has widened ,
there has not been a corresponding improvement in quality in the four
areas examined. The study made many recommendations for
improvement of which the most significant ones were:
 Taking measures for professionalizing of educational personnel;
 Increasing supply for resources and efficiency of their
utilization;
 Rationalization of the organization and management of the
education system; and
 Creation of a comprehensive structure and plan for scientific
research and evaluation of education program and project and
assessment of pupil performance.
 It was concluded that efforts for quality improvement at all
levels should be carried out with the participation of all
concerned and that resources of educational do not agencies
should be directed towards the critical problems and needs
identified in the study.
The report of the study was submitted in 1986. However the
government, which was in the process of implementing its ten years
National perspective plan (1984-1994) gave a deaf ear to the study
and , the report was quietly shelved in the archives.

4.3.3. The New Education and Training policy of Ethiopia (ETP)

125

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

[Link]. The crisis of the Old Education System

Since its inception into the country, Modern education has been
suffering from a number of chronic problems. The education system
in Ethiopia was criticized as being inaccessible, very poor in
expansion, based and unjust in distribution, irrelevant and poor in
quality etc. These and other related problems are believed to have
hindered the old education system from achieving the goals it was
established for. In spite of the half-hearted attempts made by the past
governments to address these problems, they remained to be very
strong and interwoven until the beginning of the 1990s. The major
problems of the past education system are discussed in the following
sections.
Activity: Evaluation of the ETP
1. How appropriate and timely is the new education and
training policy of Ethiopia?
2. What do you think would the result be if no measures
were to be taken against the problems of old education
system?

1. Inaccessibility
One of the major indicators of access is enrollment (participation). In
other words, the ratio of the number of students enrolled in schools to
the total number of school age children in the country provides
important evidence about the degree of access provided at a given
level of the education system.
At the beginning of the 1970s Ethiopia was found to be far behind the
status of many developing countries in providing access to education
for citizens. Many sub-Saharan African countries reached 60-70%
primary school enrollment rate.

126

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

However, in the 1992/93 academic year, only 1.9 million children (20
percent of the total primary school- age children in the country) were
attending primary education in Ethiopia. Therefore, in terms of
providing educational opportunity for its population, Ethiopia’s status
was embarrassingly poor even by African standard.
Moreover, the concentration of the available few primary schools in a
very few urban areas had further denied the vast majority of the
population access to educational opportunity.

This low level of expansion in education did exist, even more critically,
at the secondary and post-secondary levels too. For example, in the
1991/92 academic year, it was only 277 secondary schools, 16
technical vocational training institutes, 5 junior colleges and two
universities that had been operating in Ethiopia. As a result, the
education sector didn’t have the capacity to produce the required size
of skilled manpower.

2. Unjust (based) provision of educational Opportunities

It has been understood that not only that education in Ethiopia was
growing at the lowest rate; it was also characterized by biased
(unjust) distribution). There had been a visible gap (imbalance) in the
provision of educational service among regions, between male and
female and urban and rural areas.
The education system was favoring urban centers than rural villages,
males than females, and central regions than remote and peripheral
regions. Obviously, the pattern of distributio9n educational services
was discriminatory and, thus, unjust one economic, legal or moral
grounds.

127

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

One of the major factors that had made the education system more
unjust was related to the policy (system) of allocating education
budget for different levels of education. In Ethiopia where primary
schools are virtually absent in the largest portion of the country, and
where the largest proportion of the population didn’t have access to
primary education, the government was allocation a significant
amount of the education budget for secondary and higher education.
More specifically, since the largest proportion of the available few
primary schools were concentrated in urban areas; the vast majority
of peasant (rural) children didn’t have access to primary education.
Even through very few peasant and poor children did attend primary
school, their chance of pursuing secondary and higher education was
virtually insignificant, It was , therefore, children of the urban and
rich families that had the opportunity not only to attend and finish
primary education , but also to pursue secondary and higher
education.
Thus, on one hand, the largest proportion of the government’s
revenue came from the rural population who had been served very
least by the education system. On the other hand, it was children of
the urban population, whose contribution to the national revenue was
insignificant, that had been served most by the education budget
obtained from tax payers.

3. Lack of quality and Relevance

Different scholars have defined quality in education in some-how
different ways, testifying to the complexity and multifaceted nature of
the concept. The purpose here is not to define quality. Taking into
consideration the major indicators of quality that have been identified
by many educators, attempt will be made in this section to describe

128

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

the major problems of quality, which the post-1994 Ethiopian

education encountered.

One of the indicators of quality in education is the efficiency of the

system to enable the vast majority of the student population to
complete their education. The rate of completion is directly affected
by students’ promotion (retention) and dropout (persistence).

Until the first years of the 1990s, very high rates of grade repetition
and dropout were observed at all levels (primary, secondary, higher)
of the education system. Therefore, the problem in Ethiopia
education was not only the low participation (enrollment) of students,
a significant proportion of these enrolled retained in the same grade
or completely withdrew from the school. And, paradoxical enough,
instead of designing viable solution to curb this chronic problem of
wastage, the education system was considering it as a quality-
assurance strategy.

The nature of the curriculum was another problem related to quality.

As discussed earlier, Ethiopian education had been implicitly or
explicitly subject to the influences of many countries such as French,
Italy, Britain, USA, USSR, East Germany and others. The curriculum
employed during the periods of foreign influence was directly
imported from abroad and on significant attempt was made to adapt it
to the actual contexts ( the economic, social, ecological, cultural, and
political situations ) of the country. As a result, the curriculum was
not relevant or appropriate to develop in students the knowledge,
skills and abilities that are required to solve the actual problems of
life.

129

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Moreover, the pre-ETP (Education and Training policy) curriculum

was highly elitist. Until the beginning of the 1990s it was only 16
technical-vocational training schools, whose annual training capacity
was about 2500 students that had been operating throughout the
country. The system was investing the largest amount of the sector’s
budget for academic-oriented education. As a result, while the system
was producing thousands of secondary schools graduates every year.
It was a very insignificant proportion that went to higher education or
secure job in government offices.

The vast majority had neither the technical knowledge and skills nor
the physical and psychological readiness required to create jobs in
their locality. In other words, the education system was producing
huge number of what is referred to as the “educated-unemployed”,
who were functionally illiterate. Thus, instead of serving as a pool of
solutions for the problems of the country, the education system was in
some sense aggravating the already existed socio-economic problems.

Besides, the capacity of the education system to provide schools with

the necessary educational inputs was very poor. In many schools the
classrooms were not equipped with the necessary facilities. In many
cases those support inputs such as library, pedagogical centers, and
laboratories were either absent or ill equipped. The basic curriculum
materials such as syllabus and teacher’s guide were sometimes absent
in schools and the text book-student ratio was amazingly very low. As
a result the chalk-and –talk or the transmission model of teaching,
which denied active learning, came to be the invariable method of
instruction in the classrooms.

130

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Moreover, there was acute shortage of qualified teachers at all levels

of the education system. In most schools, compared to the size of
student population, the number of teachers was very low and the
problem was getting worse particularly in the rural schools. In
addition most of the available teachers were untrained or under-
qualified. A significant number of teachers joined the profession
because of the ease to be recruited for teaching with out having the
slightest psychological preparation and commitment which the
profession demands.

In general, the shortage of the teaching force, especially qualified

teachers, the absence of broad training opportunities, the absence of
recruitment policy that put the candidate’s academic ability, interest
and commitment, at the center of the selection criteria, lowness of the
salary paid for teaches were some of the bottlenecks that had
contributed to the deterioration of the quality of Ethiopian education
in the pre-ETP period.

Furthermore, the old education system had undemocratic elements in

it. It denied school children the opportunity to learn in their mother
tongue. A number of studies proved the pedagogical advantages in
learning in one’s mother tongue. Besides, the use of mother tongues
as a medium of instruction is believed to be one of the viable ways for
promoting the languages, values, traditions, customs, etc. of nations
and nationalities found in the country. In spite of these pedagogical
and political benefits in using vernacular languages as a medium of
education, children across the country were forced to learn primary
education in Amharic

131

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Self-Checking exercise: the statements written in the first

column of the following table are usually used to assess the
quality of education. Corresponding to each statement
describe the nature causes , and consequences of quality
problems which Ethiopian education was facing in the 1960
Indicators of quality in Description of The major The
education the problem reasons that consequences
caused (outcomes) of
problem the problem
Provision of access and
equity
The relevance of the
curriculum

The relevance and quality

of the learning experience
acquired by the students
The internal efficiency of
the education system

132

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Provision of appropriate
and sufficient curricular
material, facilities and
other support inputs
The adequacy of the
teaching force
The efficiency of the
management and
organization of the
education system

[Link]. The Objectives of the ETP

1. To provide a good quality primary education with an ultimate
aim of achieving universal primary education over a period of 20
years.
2. To make education relevant by providing problem solving skills
and an all-rounded education catering to the need of individual
and the society.
3. To provide vocational education and training at different levels
suitable to the needs of the individual and man power
requirements of the country.
4. To provide secondary education of appropriate quality in an
equitable way.
5. To promote good quality of higher education that focuses on
research and development.
133

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

6. To make available special and non-formal education in line with

the needs and capability of the individual.
7. To improve the quality of training, profession competence and
career structure of teachers and other professionals.
8. To streamline the management and organization of the
educational system so as to make it de - centralized,
coordinated, participatory professional and efficient.
9. Increase the financing of education by encouraging community
participation, introducing cost-sharing mechanisms , involving
the private sector in the provision of education.
10. To improve the collaboration and co-ordination of the
education sector with other relevant sectors.
[Link]. Overall Strategies of the New education and Training
Policy of Ethiopia.
Activity: Corresponding to each component of the education system listed
in the following table, describe the inherent problems of the old education
system of Ethiopia and suggest possible solutions to each problem.

The components of The problems which Possible

education the old education solution
system was facing
1 Curriculum
Relevance
2 Structure
3 Access
4 Quality
5 Teachers
6 Resources
7 Finance

134

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

8 Pedagogical
a[[roaches
9 Educational
Management
10 Medium of
instruction

1. Curriculum Development
Essentially, curriculum emerges from the national educational policy.
In other words, in both its aims, contents and approach, the
curriculum developed has to be consistent with the fundamental
assumptions and philosophy of the educational policy which the
country adheres. Accordingly, the new curriculum in Ethiopia has
been developed on the basis of the general objectives of the new
education policy.
Curriculum development is a complex and demanding of variables
that must be considered from the very beginning in order to address
multiple interests- individual, local, national and international
demands. Taking this into account the policy has stipulated the
fundamental assumptions that will serve as a framework for the
development of the new curriculum. The frameworks for the
development of the new curriculum are as described here below.

B. the curriculum and the associated instructional materials

developed at the regional and national levels will be based on
sound pedagogical and psychological principles, and are up to
international standards without denying due attention to the
actual contexts of the local situations and gender issues.
C. A participatory approach that will provide the opportunity for
teachers, students’ professionals, parents, and beneficiaries to
135

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

play meaningful roles in the preparation, implementation and

evaluation of the school curriculum will be exercised.
D. The new curriculum will create and strength a rational and
meaningful link among the various levels of education,
training, research & development.
E. The new curriculum will strive to address the various
individual , local, regional, national and international demands
in a harmonious manner .
F. The contents of the new curriculum will:
 Be capable of producing citizens who stand for
equality, justice& democracy;
 Ensure the integration of theory & practice
and international situations
 Reflect the equality of nations, nationalities
and gender
 Be designed in light of student’s profile which
are sought to be
 demonstrated at the termination of each level
of education.
Activity:

Explain the basic differences between general education and

specialized education in terms of their nature and purposes.

Based on the above frameworks, the new curriculum has been

organized under two categories- general education curriculum and
specialized education curriculum. While general education, which
embodies knowledge, skills and attitudes from diverse fields, strives
to meet the basic ( fundamental) life needs of the learner and also to
prepare them for the next specialized education, where as the

136

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

purpose of specialized education is to train lower, medium and higher

level professionals in different fields of study.

At the stage of primary education some subjects are designed in a

semi-integrated manner while others follow a linear organization
model. To help students acquire a strong foundation in some basic
subjects a relatively longer class time is allocated for science,
Mathematics and language than other subjects. Besides the former
integrated science syllabuses for grade 7 and 8 have been changed
into a linear model in which biology, Chemistry and Physics are
designed as separate subjects for each grade.
Moreover, primary school children will learn physical education, Art,
Music (integrated) and also civics. The purpose here is to acquaint
children with their natural, social, political and cultural environments
and to bring about mental and physical development in them.

It has been clearly indicate in the implementation strategy of the new

policy that a self-contained classroom organization will be employed
in the 1st cycle primary grades (1-4). The self-contained classroom, in
which a group of children are taught by a single teacher for a major
portion or all of a school day, is said to be more satisfactory way of
organizing the 1st cycle primary school than a departmental system. It
has been argued that the teacher in a self-contained classroom, by
virtue of his/her contact with only one group of students throughout
the school day, is in a key position to know each child well and, thus,
is better able to help him in his unique progress toward maturity and
self-development

137

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Activity:
Case study
 Write a short repot about the actual benefits gained and the
problems encountered in the explication of the self-contained
classroom organization in one of the nearby primary school.
 Source of information: teachers, directors, actual teaching-
learning activities (classroom observation), books, journals,
modules etc.

Another significant reform made in the lower primary school is related

to pupils promotion. It has been underscored that there will not be
grade repetition up to the level of grade four. The underlying
assumption is that the purpose of the 1 st cycle primary education
focuses on the development of literacy and basic life kills that ate
pertinent to the child’s actual environment. It is therefore possible for
a well-motivated and professionally capable self-contained teacher to
equip each child with literacy and basic life skills (which is the
fundamental purpose of primary education) through the application of
sound teaching methodology (active learning methods), continuous
assessment, immediate remedial techniques and other viable
pedagogical strategies.

Activity
Answer the following questions before proceeding to the next section.
1. What does free promotion mean?
2. why is free promotion allowed for the 1 stcycle primary school
students?

138

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

3. Under what circumstances would the policy of free promotion

have a negative impact upon the learner and the standard of
education?

The subjects taught at the 1st cycle secondary education have been
reduced in number to focus on general education that would prepare
students for vocational training and further education. Accordingly
priority is given for Mathematics, English, Social and Natural science
subjects. The curriculum also includes civics as a subject to be taught
from grade 1 up to 12.

The goals of the primary and secondary levels as stated in the policy
documents are given here below.

The goals of the 1st cycle of Primary Education (Grade 1-4)

 To provide basic education this is appropriate to the age-level.
Physical and mental development of the learners.
 To provide basic education to develop the potential of the
learners
 To acquaint the learners with production and service-giving
activities within their immediate environment and
 To lay the foundation for further education and training by
equipping them with problem-solving skill and attitudes.

The Goals of the 2ndCycle Primary Education (Grade 5-8)

 To provide a graded general education that prepares the
learners for the next cycle; and
 To prepare citizens who can be trained in basic vocational and
in technical skills to be involved in production activities.

139

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The goals of the 1st cycle of secondary Education ( 9-10)

 To provide a graded general education that will enable the
students to identify their need, interests and potentials so that
they can choose their field of study.
 To enable the students to continue further education and
training; and
 To prepare citizens who can be involved in the production
sector with medium vocational training.

The goals of the 2nd cycle of Secondary Education ( 11-12)

 To prepare students for tertiary level of education ; and
 To prepare citizens who can be involved in the production
sector with advanced vocational training.

2. The Structure of Education

The structure of the former education was designed in a three-tier

system (6+2+4). That is, it was consisting of six years of primary
education, two years of junior secondary education and four years of
senior secondary education.

According to the policy (ETP-1994) the new educational structure

consists of basic, general higher and specialized education on a
formal and non-formal basis as shown below:

140

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

i. A kindergarten system (pre-school education) for children

aged 4-6 years; KGE will focus on all-round development of
the child as a preparation for formal schooling.
ii. A primary education from grade 1-8 sub-divided into two
cycles:
a. First cycle of Basic education ( 1-4 grades)
b. Second cycle of General Education ( 5-8 grades)
iii. general secondary education form 9-10
iv. A preparatory senior secondary education of two years ( 11-
12)
v. Higher education of 2-3 years for diploma and 4-5 years of
undergraduate and an additional 1-3 years of post- graduate
vi. A system of Vocational and technical training in parallel with
the academic education is coordinated and interlinked with
it.
vii. A special education system and distance learning in
collaboration and coordination with the rest of the education
system.
 when put differently, the new educational structure is consisting
of pre-school education (KGE) +8(4+4)+2+2

3. Educational Measurement and Evaluation

Education is a systematic and purposeful human activity. As a

purposeful human endeavor, the outcomes of the educational process
are continually evaluated to find out the extent to which it has served
the intended purposes.

141

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

In consideration of this fact, the policy articulates in clear language

the role of measurement and evaluation and its application in the new
education system.

 Continuous assessment in academic and practical subjects,

including aptitude tests will be conducted to ascertain the
realization of the profiles of students set for each level of
education.
 National examinations will be conducted at grade eight and ten
to certify completion of general primary and secondary
education respectively.
 In order to get promoted from one level to the next, students
will be required to have a minimum of fifty percent
achievement.
 Students will be officially certified at the completion of the
various levels of education.
 Official certification will also be given to those who complete
technical and vocational training programs.
 Students’ admission to any higher-learning institutions will be
determined by their achievement in entrance examinations that
will be taken at the completion of the second cycle of secondary
education.
 A national organization of educational measurement and
evaluation will be established to provide central professional
guidance and co-ordination as well as to make the necessary
expertise available.

4. Teachers and Teacher Education

142

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The intensions of any education policy can be realized if, among other
things, there is adequate capable and professionally committed
teaching force. In consideration of this fact, the education and
Training policy of 1994, has envisaged a number of elements with
respect to the teaching profession.

 It has been noted in the policy that a special attention will be

given in the recruitment, professional development and working
conditions of teachers
 The recruitment of candidates for teaching will be based on
those criteria that can adequately ascertain the candidate’s
ability, diligence, professional interest, and physical and mental
fitness to meet the demands of the profession.
 The recruitment of trainees will participate. Teacher Education
institutions employers, training institutions (TEIs) and
professional associations.
 Special attention will be given to raise the participation of
women in the recruitment, training, and assignment of teachers.
 It is indicated that teachers need to be qualified before assigned
to teach at any level; and teacher education institutions towards
the appropriate educational level for which they prepare
teachers.
 Teacher education and training components will emphasize
basic knowledge, professional code of ethics, professional skills,
methodology and practical skill.
 Teacher education institutions (TEIs) will incorporate in their
regular programs those training components that enable
teachers to teach children with special needs.
 TEIs will be granted autonomy with accountability to run the
training program in line with the national and regional goals.
143

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 A professional career structure that will define the professional

development of teachers on the basis of merits (e.g. professional
growth, performance, and experience) will be developed and
practiced.
 The first cycle Teacher Education Program admits students who
successfully complete grade 10. The length of this program is
10 month.
 The second cycle teaching Diploma program is a three-year
program. The course is available to students who have
successfully completed grade 10, meeting the minimum
requirements.

5. Language of Instruction
Modern education is based on two assumptions about language-
language as a goal in itself and language as a tool for learning

Language as a Goal in itself assumes that language is the most

important means of communication between peoples in spoken and
written form. The more people are skilled in the use of language the
more they can manage their social relations, their occupations, their
responsibilities as citizens and the expression of their feelings.
According to this assumption the central task of an education system
is to promote each learner’s ability to speak, to listen, to read, and to
write, at least in their native tongue, and also to know some other
languages as may be useful to their welfare .

Language as an instrument for learning assumes that learning is

primarily dependent on the ability of the learners to listen and
understand as well as the ability to express themselves in the
language of instruction. As the learner grows up on continues on the
144

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

ladder of education, success depends on the learner’s skill in reading

and writing in the instructional language. This is important because,
the content of learning is often conveyed in print and also requires
written responses form the learners. Therefore students who lack the
necessary language skills not only fail in the language skill aspect of
the curriculum but also in the other subjects areas as well. Listening,
speaking reading and writing are the essential instruments for
learning mathematics, the natural as well as the social sciences. The
central question therefore becomes the choice of languages in
different learning settings.

What are the major policy directions regarding language subjects and
the language of instruction in Ethiopia?

In the old education system the medium of instruction at the primary

level was Amharic. Now the policy declares that primary education
will be given in nationality languages. The policy puts two basic
reasons to justify the promotion of nationality languages as the
medium of primary education. First, it argues that the use of mother
tongue in teaching and learning will have a pedagogical advantage in
facilitating communication and thus, yielding better learning
outcomes. Second, it is the natural and constitutional right of nations
and nationalities to develop their languages by promoting them as a
medium of primary education.

However, the policy underlines that the use of nationality languages

for primary education is not compulsory. The decision is left to
nations and nationalities to choose the language of instruction in their
respective constituencies. This means they can use their own
languages or can choose from among the available languages on the
145

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

basis of national and country-wide distribution. Consequently, the

language of teacher education for primary schools and kindergarten
will be the nationality language used in the area.

Activity:-
Using the following table, describe the advantages and disadvantages of using mother
tongue languages as media of instruction in Ethiopian schools.
Advantage Disadvantage
(Actual benefit) (Potential problem)

Concerning language subjects and the language of instruction, the

policy has also this to say:
 Amharic, which is a national language, will be taught as a
subject in all grades and in all regions
 English, which is an international language, will be used as the
medium of instruction for secondary and higher education.
 Students can choose and learn at least one nationality language
and one foreign language for cultural and international
relations.
Activity:
1. What are the major policy directions regarding language
subjects and the language of instruction?
146

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

2. What are the benefits and problems of using local languages as

media of primary education in Ethiopian schools at this
particular time?
3. Should the current practice of using national languages as
media of primary education in Ethiopian schools be continued,
pended(portended) or totally abolished? Why?

5. Educational Organization, Management of Finance

One of the drawbacks of the old education system was the excessive
application of a centralized approach in the organization and
management of educational activities. In the past, curriculum design,
the training or teachers, the language of instruction, significant
decisions on personnel matter, and many other significant decisions
were all rigidly centralized in the head office of the MOE.

The re-organization of the education system along a decentralized line

is the most significant reform envisaged by the new education policy.
The policy underlines that educational management will be
decentralized to the extent that will give opportunities for all parties
to participate in all affairs of the schools. More specifically, the
organization and management of the education system will be
decentralized in order to;
 Create fertile ground for the improvement of access, expansion,
equity, relevance and quality in education.
 To establish and strengthen efficient, democratic, and
professionally coordinated educational management.
 To ensure participatory and professional relations among all
involved in education.
 To give prominence to local needs, culture and language.
 To give prominence to local needs, culture and language
147

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 To create improved service delivery by enabling local

authorities to perform tasks they are better equipped to
manage.
 To create the necessary condition to expand and improve the
relevance, quality, accessibility and equity of education and
training.
Activity
1. Define the concepts centralized and de-centralized systems of
educational administration?
2. Discuss the pros and cons of each system?
3. Which approach do you prefer to be applied in Ethiopia?
4. Give at least two reasons to justify your response to question
number 3?

The policy confers autonomy for educational institutions to design &

implement educational programs and to administer their internal
affairs with an overall coordination and democratic leadership of
boards or communities that include the representatives of the
community, teachers, development and research institutions and
students.

There are two fundamental principles upon which the policy of

education finance has been founded:
a) Providing efficient educational service that leads to the
realization of the intended goals and also that lays the
foundation for rapid development.
b) Ensuring justice and equity and avoiding discriminatory
approach (on the basis of nationality, sex, religion,
economic background etc) in the provision of educational
opportunities.

148

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

UNIT FIVE
5. TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Education is an activity to prepare the young for life. Its main goal is
to make the person able to solve social, economic and political
challenges which may rise with in the society or a given country. This
can be done through research and applying scientific and
technological innovations. Among these teacher’s professional
development support is decisive in the effort towards creating better
life for the youth. So this unit generally comprises about teachers
professional development in Ethiopia.
149

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

General Objectives:-
At the end of this unit students will be able to:-
- understand the meaning, mission and objectives of teacher
development
- recognise the profile of teachers and other educational
professionals
- understand the training systems and modes of TEI’s
- Know the concepts of continuous professional development
program.

5.2. Definition of professional Development

Brainstorm: -1. Define professionalism?
2. Discuss characteristics of profession in a
comparison with non-professional duties and give
your own examples.
3. Duties like carpentry & tailoring are professions or
not? If not why?
Professional development often refers to skills required for
maintaining a specific career path or to general skills offered through
continuing education. It is a development in which an individual
acquires a level competence necessary in order to operate as an
autonomous professional. Professional development involves
developing worker’s knowledge, skills and attitudes in order to ensure
that they can work confidently and effectively. This includes providing
training, mentoring and supervision opportunities for teachers and
other professionals.

5.3 Teacher Development

5.3.1 The need for teacher development
150

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

The basic need for the development of teacher’s profession is:-

- to equip students with the desired knowledge behaviour in
the teaching learning process
- to develop the capacity of the teacher to solve the challenge
of harmful culture
- to aware teachers the fact that education has the potential
to improve one’s ability, to avoid harmful practices and
enforces science and technology
- to make the teachers effectively contribute what the
profession requires from them
Thus teachers’ professional development program has been designed
and organised in such a way that the initiative could continue in a
sustainable way.
The major issues addressed in this unit are the mission and objective
of TDP, profiles of professionals and their competences, and
approaches to teacher training.

5.3.2 The missions of Ethiopian teacher development program

▪ produce teachers who are competent, ethical and committed to
their profession
▪ Produce knowledgeable, skilful and research oriented teachers
▪ ensure gender equality through creating transparent and
democratic leadership
▪ Work for social and economic developments of the country

5.3.3 Objectives of Teacher development program

- To produce committed, knowledgeable and skilful teachers
- To produce teachers who can achieve the objective of ETP
- To produce efficient teachers who promote participatory,

151

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

problem solving and learner cantered teaching learning

methods
- To encourage interested and capable students especially
females to join profession
- To enable teachers be aware of students physical, psychological,
social developments as well as their special needs
- To produce teachers who are self-reliant, responsible and apply
democratic principles in the classrooms, know their
constitutional rights and share social responsibility.
- To produce teachers who can implement continuous
assessment using action research
- To produce teachers who can improve students learning by
properly using educational technology

5.4. Profiles of teachers and education professionals

Profiles in teacher and teacher education include teachers, head

teachers, supervisors, school counsellors and teachers for special
needs education. The profiles are focused up on two areas; namely
academic and ethics.

5.4.1. Teachers’ profile and competence

I. Academic knowledge and Professional skills
▪ The ability and skill to teach subjects delivered in the school
▪ The ability to plan and implement teaching and learning activity
▪ The ability to implement current teaching and learning methods
considering the size of the class and age , ability and levels of
students
▪ The ability to promote students self reliance, mental and physical
development
152

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

▪ The ability to implement continuous assessment strategy for

students improvement
▪ The ability in helping students irrespective of sex, race, religion,
nationality and disability
▪ The ability and skill to set, implement and analyze plans
▪ The ability to innovate problem solving ideas and conduct
research
on the teaching-learning process

II. Ethical and Civic duties

- Be committed to their profession and fulfil all ethical values
required by the profession
- Collaborate with colleagues in planning, implementing and
solving problems
- Upgrade one’s profession progressively
- Shoulder responsibility and participate actively in the school
community
- Respect the constitution and apply democratic principles in the
classroom
- Encourage and motivate female students participation
- Understand serving the community through good relationship
- Be aware of the role of parents and community in the teaching
learning process

Activity: -1. what makes teaching profession different from other

professions?
2. Discuss the peculiar features of teaching profession

5.2.2. Head Teachers profiles and competences

A. Academic and professional skills
153

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 Posses managerial ability that enable to make schools a place

for modern education
 Plan and implement all the teaching learning activities
 Can fulfill educational inputs and make use of them for the
teaching learning
 Design strategies that help teachers manage classes with large
number of students and with varied age level
 Be able to coordinate to produce, prepare and choose relevant
teaching learning materials
 Apply evaluation methods properly to serve with different needs
and improve their learning
 Support girls through implementing the strategies set for this
purpose
 Help students to be self reliant, self conscious and endowed
with social values
B. Ethical and civic duties
 Be committed to the managerial and teaching professions,
professionally ethical and deserve due respect by students and
the community
 Plan , work and solve problems in collaboration with colleagues
 Show a continuous and concerted effort to upgrade their
profession
 Be active participants in the school community and shoulder
responsibility
 Exert effort to produce good citizens, respect professional
ethics, accept the constitution and apply democratic principles
 Encourage female students participation and respect their right
to education
 Understand that serving the community through a proper
relationship is a responsibility
154

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 Be aware of the roles parents and community have in the

teaching learning process
 Help students appreciate social and cultural heritages and
relate learning to the local and global conditions.

5.2.3. Supervisors’ profiles and competences

Brainstorm: -1. List down necessary qualities of a supervisor to carry
out
his/her supervisory duties effectively?
A. Academic and professional skills
 Support schools to set good vision, mission, and be effective
accordingly
 Support school at their level in evaluating and revising
textbooks as well as introducing them to teachers
 Follow up and support the teaching learning process if it is
participatory, planned and made s p0er the plan
 Arrange trainings and professional improvement programs
 Support teachers who teach classes with large number of
students and varied age levels
 Give professional support top teachers to apply different
evaluation techniques based on students interest, use the
evaluation for improving student’s performance and for those
with special needs
 Follow up the implementation of the strategy designed to render
the relevant support to female students
 Understand and prepare plans, make action research, analyze
findings and encourage schools to share their experience

B. Ethical and civic duties

155

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

 Be committed to guide, follow up support teachers and be

endowed with professional ethics
 Plan, work and solve problems in collaboration with colleagues
 Show continuous effort to improve to improve professional
competence
 Shoulder responsibility to produce good citizens and cerate a
sense of active involvement among the school community
 Respect professional ethics, accept the constitution and
democratic values
 Encourage and follow-up females participation and provide a
continuous support by respecting their right to education
 Be aware of serving the community through establishing good
relationship with community
 Be aware of the roles of parents and the community for the
teaching learning process
 Encourage students appreciate social and cultural heritages and
support students to relate their learning with local and global
conditions

5.5. Training system of teacher education institutes

The main goal of teacher education institutions is to produce teachers

who are competent in academic and professional skills. In order to
make the pre-service training program effective they shall have the
focus and perform the following issues:
 Candidates for both cycles need to complete grade 10
 For both cycles candidates will be trained by 10+3 standard and
join the profession with their own interest
 Those who will be teaching in the first cycle primary education,
as they will be self contained teachers, will be trained on
156

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

language, social science, maths and natural science in an

integrated manner. Candidates for secondary education shall
be grade 12 complete who satisfy the college’s entrance
requirement and be trained with 12+4 standard.

General Course offerings in the TEIs

 Academic course: almost half of the course in all training
programs are academic
 Courses for practicum: All other courses are organized with
count of practicum course (which count no less than 13% credit
hour) as the core and guiding subject.
 Professional courses: Professional courses shall focus ion
psychology, educational contents and on contents related to
these and they cover 25% of the courses offered in the
programs.
 Common courses Common courses are delivered to all trainees
and cover 12% of the program courses. Contents of common
courses focus on issues that make teachers competent, increase
their knowledge in historical, economic and political issues,
base themselves on international, national, and regional
languages, and help improve professional competences.

The training modes

The training institutions can take two modes of training: face to face
and distance modes which shall be delivered in the regular, night,
distance and summer programs.
Methods of assessment and evaluation

157

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

To measure their teaching learning result effectively the TEIs

implement continuous assessment strategy scoring 50%and above
ensures promotion, however trainees should score 50% and above in
all subjects. Trainees achievement profile shall be criterion
referenced not norm referenced and shall be marked qualitatively.

Interdependence among training programs

Strong bond among the training program in such a way one helps the
vertical development of the other is to be maintained.

5.6. School leadership in teacher professional development

 Head teachers of the first cycle primary teachers are trained at

least at a 10+3 (diploma level) take training for head teachers
and complete all these satisfactorily
 Primary school (1-8) head teachers shall at least have a fist
degree and shall complete all these satisfactorily.
 Secondary school (9-12) head teachers shall at least have a
master’s degree and shall complete all these satisfactorily.
They also take the training for head teacher and complete
satisfactorily.
Activity: -1. Discuss duties of school leaders?
2. Suggest necessary human relationship and
technical skills to
be possessed by school leaders at all level.

158

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

5.7. CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Continuous professional development (CPD) is a means by which

members of professional associations maintain, improve and broaden
their knowledge and skills and develop the personal qualities required
in their professional lives.

Continuous professional development can also be defined as the

continuous updating of professional knowledge and the improvement
of professional competence throughout a person’s working life. It is
the key to optimizing a person’s career opportunities, both today and
for the future

Continuous professional development (CPD) consists of reflective

activity designed to improve an individual’s attributes, knowledge,
understanding and skills. There are many possible sources of CPD.
For example, some of the examples of CPD activities include:-
- Professional development meetings and professional
development items in staff and team meeting
- Attending internal and external conferences, courses
and professional development events
- Coaching and mentoring, shadowing and peer support
- Participating in networks or projects providing
opportunities for professional development
- Lesson observations
- Discussion with colleagues or pupils to reflect on
working practices and
- Research and investigation

159

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

Research shows that the priority areas of development for many

teachers include:-
o Preparing to take on additional responsibilities
o Expanding their subject knowledge and pedagogy
o Developing their behaviour management skills
Benefits of Continuous Professional Development
Some of the benefits of CPD to the teachers and the school are:-
- Improving the teachers’ confidence and their quality of teaching
as a practitioner.
- Increasing the teachers focus and understanding of their career
development.
- Broadening the teachers’ pedagogical skills and increasing their
reflection on their classroom practice.

References

1. Allan C. Ornstein and Francis P. Hunkins(2004), Curriculum Foundations, Principles

and Issues (4th ed.)
USA: Pearson Education. Inc.

2. Arbaminch Teacher Training College (1999), Teaching in Ethiopian Context

ArbaMinch.
Unpublished teaching material
3. Awassa Teacher Training College (1992), Fundamentals of Education and Teacher
Professional Development
Unpublished teaching material
4. Derebsa Dufera (2004), Fundamentals of curriculum development
Addis Ababa university
5. Peter F. Oliva (2005), Developing the Curriculum (6th ed.)
160

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

USA: Pearson Education. Inc.

FUNDAMENTALS OF EDUCATION AND

TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Compiled by:-
1. YOHANNES BISA
2. DEMMAMU DEMISSIE

161

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

3. TADESSE ABERA

ARBAMINCH COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

June, 2008
Arbaminch

Content
Page
Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------I
Unit One
1. What is Education --------------------------------------------------------------------------2
2. Forms of Education ------------------------------------------------------------------------3
3. The purpose of Education ---------------------------------------------------------------- 10
Unit Two
2. Foundations of Education----------------------------------------------------------13

162

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)

Arbaminch College of Education; Department of Education (2008)

2.1. Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------13

2.2. Philosophical foundations of education----------------------------------------------13
2.3. Psychological foundations of education---------------------------------------------25
2.4. Sociological foundations of education-----------------------------------------------29
2.5. Historical foundations of education--------------------------------------------------32
Unit Three
3. Multicultural education-------------------------------------------------------------48
3.1. Education for National Integration--------------------------------------------------48
3.2. The concept of multiculturalism-----------------------------------------------------49
3.3. Definitions of multiculturalism------------------------------------------------------53
3.4. Internationalism and Education------------------------------------------------------60
3.5 Education and development-----------------------------------------------------------61
Unit Four
4. The History and Development of Education in Ethiopia-----------------------64
4.1. Traditional education in Ethiopia----------------------------------------------------64
4.2. Modern education in Ethiopia--------------------------------------------------------73
4.3. Educational Reform in Ethiopia------------------------------------------------------94
Unit Five
5. Teachers Professional Development--------------------------------------------127
5.1. Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------127
5.2. Definition of professional development------------------------------------------ 128
5.3. Teacher Development---------------------------------------------------------------128
5.4. Continuous Professional Development------------------------------------------- 136

163

Arbaminch College of Teacher Education; Department of Education (2008)