The Respiratory System
Organs of the Respiratory System
1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Trachea
5. Bronchi
6. Lungs—alveoli
The major respiratory organs shown
in relation to surrounding structures.
Lateral walls have projections called
conchae
Increase surface area
Increase air turbulence within the nasal
cavity
The nasal cavity is separated from the oral
cavity by the palate
Anterior hard palate (bone)
Posterior soft palate (unsupported)
Functions of the Respiratory System 2. Paranasal Sinuses
Gas exchanges between the blood and Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal
external environment cavity are called sinuses
Occur in the alveoli of the lungs Sinuses are located in the following
Passageways to the lungs purify, bones:
humidify, and warm the incoming air Frontal
Sphenoid
1. The Nose
Ethmoid
The only externally visible part of the Maxillary
respiratory system Functions of the sinuses:
Air enters the nose through the external Lighten the skull
nostrils (nares) Act as resonance chambers for speech
Interior of the nose consists of a nasal Produce mucus that drains into the
cavity divided by a nasal septum nasal cavity
Olfactory receptors are located in the
3. Pharynx (Throat)
mucosa on the superior surface
The rest of the cavity is lined with Muscular passage from nasal cavity to
respiratory mucosa, which: larynx
Moistens air Three regions of the pharynx:
Traps incoming foreign particles 1. Nasopharynx—superior region behind
nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx—middle region behind
Basic anatomy of the upper respiratory tract,
mouth
sagittal section.
3. Laryngopharynx—inferior region The glottis consists of the vocal cords and
attached to larynx the slit like pathway (opening)
The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are
5. Trachea (Windpipe)
common passageways for air and food
4-inch-long tube that connects larynx with
Basic anatomy of the upper respiratory tract,
bronchi
sagittal section.
Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline
cartilage, which keeps the trachea patent
Lined with ciliated mucosa
Cilia beat continuously in the opposite
direction of incoming air
Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
Structural relationship of the trachea and
esophagus
Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the
nasopharynx
Tonsils of the pharynx
Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) is located in
the nasopharynx
Palatine tonsils are located in the
oropharynx
Lingual tonsils are found at the base of
the tongue
4. Larynx (Voice Box)
Routes air and food into proper channels
Plays a role in speech
Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a
spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
(epiglottis)
Thyroid cartilage
Largest of the hyaline cartilages
Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
Epiglottis
Protects the superior opening of the
larynx
Routes food to the posteriorly situated
esophagus and routes air toward the
trachea
When swallowing, the epiglottis rises (b)
and forms a lid over the opening of the 6. Main (Primary) Bronchi
larynx
Formed by division of the trachea
Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
Each bronchus enters the lung at the hilum
Vibrate with expelled air
(medial depression)
Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and
straighter than left
Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
branches
7. Lungs
Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
Heart occupies central portion called
mediastinum
Bronchial (Respiratory) Tree Divisions
Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior All but the smallest of these passageways
portion) have reinforcing cartilage in their walls
Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures Conduits to and from the respiratory zone
Left lung—two lobes Primary bronchi
Right lung—three lobes Secondary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi
Coverings of the Lungs
Bronchioles
Serosa covers the outer surface of the Terminal bronchioles
lungs
Respiratory Zone Structures
Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
lung surface Respiratory bronchioles
Parietal pleura lines the walls of the Alveolar ducts
thoracic cavity Alveolar sacs
Pleural fluid fills the area between layers to Alveoli (air sacs)
allow gliding and decrease friction during
Respiratory zone structures.
breathing
Pleural space (between the layers) is more
of a potential space
Anatomical relationships of organs in the
thoracic cavity
8. The Respiratory Membrane
Thin squamous epithelial layer lines 4. Internal respiration—gas exchange
alveolar walls between blood and tissue cells in systemic
Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs capillaries
Pulmonary capillaries cover external
surfaces of alveoli
Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary
Respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier)
Ventilation)
On one side of the membrane is air, and
on the other side is blood flowing past Completely mechanical process that
Formed by alveolar and capillary wall depends on volume changes in the thoracic
Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by cavity
diffusion Volume changes lead to pressure changes,
Oxygen enters the blood which lead to the flow of gases to equalize
Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli pressure
Alveolar macrophages (“dust cells”) add Two phases
protection by picking up bacteria, carbon
Inspiration = inhalation
particles, and other debris
Flow of air into lungs
Surfactant (a lipid molecule) coats gas-
Expiration = exhalation
exposed alveolar surfaces
Air leaving lungs
Anatomy of the respiratory membrane (air-
Inspiration
blood barrier
Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
contract
The size of the thoracic cavity increases
External air is pulled into the lungs as a
result of:
Increase in intrapulmonary volume
Decrease in gas pressure
Air is sucked into the lungs
Rib cage and diaphragm positions during
breathing.
Four Events of Respiration
1. Pulmonary ventilation—moving air into
and out of the lungs (commonly called
breathing)
2. External respiration—gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
Oxygen is loaded into the blood
Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the
blood
3. Respiratory gas transport—transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
Changes in intrapulmonary pressure and air Physical condition
flow during inspiration and expiration Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Amount of air that can be taken in
forcibly over the tidal volume
Usually around 3,100 ml
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Amount of air that can be forcibly
exhaled after a tidal expiration
Approximately 1,200 ml
Residual volume
Air remaining in lung after expiration
Allows gas exchange to go on
continuously, even between breaths,
and helps keep alveoli open (inflated)
About 1,200 ml
Vital capacity
The total amount of exchangeable air
Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
Expiration
4,800 ml in men; 3,100 ml in women
Largely a passive process that depends on Dead space volume
natural lung elasticity Air that remains in conducting zone and
As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the never reaches alveoli
lungs as a result of: About 150 ml
Decrease in intrapulmonary volume Functional volume
Increase in gas pressure Air that actually reaches the respiratory
Forced expiration can occur mostly by zone
contraction of internal intercostal muscles to Usually about 350 ml
depress the rib cage Respiratory capacities are measured with a
Normal pressure within the pleural space is spirometer
always negative (intrapleural pressure)
Idealized tracing of the various respiratory
Differences in lung and pleural space
volumes of a healthy young adult male.
pressures keep lungs from collapsing
Atelectasis is collapsed lung
Pneumothorax is the presence of air in
the intrapleural space
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air
with each breath
This respiratory volume is tidal volume
(TV)
Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
Many factors affect respiratory capacity
actions
A person’s size
Examples:
Sex
Age
Cough and sneeze—clears lungs of
debris
Crying—emotionally induced
mechanism
Laughing—similar to crying
Hiccup—sudden inspirations
Yawn—very deep inspiration
Respiratory Sounds
Gas exchanges in the body occur according to
Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
the laws of diffusion.
Two recognizable sounds can be heard with
a stethoscope:
1) Bronchial sounds—produced by air
rushing through large passageways such
as the trachea and bronchi
2) Vesicular breathing sounds—soft sounds
of air filling alveoli
External Respiration, Gas Transport, and
Internal Respiration
Gas exchanges occur as a result of
diffusion
Movement of the gas is toward the area of
lower concentration
A small dissolved amount is carried in
the plasma
External Respiration
Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
Oxygen is loaded into the blood Most carbon dioxide is transported in
The alveoli always have more oxygen the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
than the blood A small amount is carried inside red
Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the blood cells on hemoglobin, but at
area of lower concentration different binding sites from those of
Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen oxygen
Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of the blood For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood
Blood returning from tissues has higher into the alveoli, it must be released from its
concentrations of carbon dioxide than bicarbonate form:
air in the alveoli Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
Pulmonary capillary blood gives up Combine with hydrogen ions
carbon dioxide to be exhaled Form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen rich and Carbonic acid splits to form water + CO2
carbon dioxide poor Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into
Diagrammatic representation of the major alveoli
means of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide Internal Respiration
(CO2) loading and unloading in the bod
Exchange of gases between blood and
body cells
An opposite reaction to what occurs in the
lungs
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to
blood (called loading)
Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
(called unloading)
Diagrammatic representation of the major
means of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) loading and unloading in the body.
Gas Transport in the Blood
Oxygen transport in the blood
Most oxygen travels attached to
hemoglobin and forms oxyhemoglobin
(HbO2)
blood increase the rate and depth of
breathing
Neural Regulation of Respiration
Changes in carbon dioxide act directly
Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted on the medulla oblongata
to and from the brain by phrenic and Chemical factors: oxygen levels
intercostal nerves Changes in oxygen concentration in the
Neural centers that control rate and depth blood are detected by chemoreceptors
are located in the medulla and pons in the aorta and common carotid artery
Medulla—sets basic rhythm of Information is sent to the medulla
breathing and contains a pacemaker Oxygen is the stimulus for those whose
(self-exciting inspiratory center) called systems have become accustomed to
the ventral respiratory group (VRG) high levels of carbon dioxide as a result
Pons—appears to smooth out of disease
respiratory rate Chemical factors
Breathing control centers, sensory inputs, Hyperventilation
and effector nerves Rising levels of CO2 in the blood
(acidosis) result in faster, deeper
breathing
Blows off more CO2 to restore
normal blood pH
May result in apnea and dizziness
and lead to alkalosis
Chemical factors
Hypoventilation
Results when blood becomes
alkaline (alkalosis)
Extremely slow or shallow breathing
Allows CO2 to accumulate in the
Non-Neural Factors Influencing Respiratory
blood
Rate and Depth
Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive
Physical factors
Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Increased body temperature
Exercise Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
Talking emphysema
Coughing Major causes of death and disability in the
Volition (conscious control) United States
Emotional factors such as fear, anger, and Features of these diseases
excitement 1) Patients almost always have a history of
Chemical factors: CO2 levels smoking
The body’s need to rid itself of CO2 is 2) Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes
the most important stimulus for progressively more severe
breathing 3) Coughing and frequent pulmonary
Increased levels of carbon dioxide (and infections are common
thus, a decreased or acidic pH) in the 4) Most victims are hypoxic, retain carbon
dioxide, and have respiratory acidosis
Those who acquire infections will ultimately Accounts for one-third of all U.S. cancer
develop respiratory failure deaths
Increased incidence is associated with
Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Bronchitis
smoking
Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages Three common types:
becomes severely inflamed Squamous cell carcinoma
Excessive mucus production impairs Adenocarcinoma
ventilation and gas exchange Small cell carcinoma
Patients become cyanotic and are
Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
sometimes called “blue bloaters” as a result
System
of chronic hypoxia
Premature infants have problems keeping
Respiratory Disorders: Emphysema
their lungs inflated because of a lack of
Alveoli permanently enlarge as adjacent surfactant in their alveoli. (Surfactant is
chambers break through and are destroyed formed late in pregnancy around 28 to 30
Chronic inflammation promotes lung weeks of pregnancy)
fibrosis, and lungs lose elasticity Infant respiratory distress syndrome
Patients use a large amount of energy to (IRDS)—surfactant production is
exhale as exhalation becomes an active inadequate
process Significant birth defects affecting the
Overinflation of the lungs leads to a respiratory system:
permanently expanded barrel chest Cleft palate
Cyanosis appears late in the disease; Cystic fibrosis—oversecretion of thick
sufferers are often called “pink puffers” mucus clogs the respiratory system
The pathogenesis of COPD Respiratory rate changes throughout life
Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
Infants: 30 respirations per minute
Age 5: 25 respirations per minute
Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per minute
Rate often increases somewhat with old
age
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Apparently healthy infant stops
breathing and dies during sleep
Some cases are thought to be a
problem of the neural respiratory control
center
One-third of cases appear to be due to
heart rhythm abnormalities
Recent research shows a genetic
component
Lung Cancer Asthma
Chronically inflamed hypersensitive
Extremely aggressive and metastasizes
bronchiole passages
rapidly
Respond to irritants with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing
During youth and middle age, most
respiratory system problems are a result
of external factors, such as infections and
substances that physically block
respiratory passageways
Aging effects
Elasticity of lungs decreases
Vital capacity decreases
Blood oxygen levels decrease
Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decrease
Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit
sleep apnea
More risks of respiratory tract infection
