Comprehensive Reviewer on Research Methods and Concepts
Objectives
1. Recall Types of Research Methods: Understand and identify various approaches to
conducting research.
2. Familiarize with New Research Methods: Learn modern and emerging techniques in
research methodology.
3. Identify Differences Between Research Methods: Recognize the unique
characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of each method.
Definition and Importance of Research
Definition:
● Research is a step-by-step process of investigation that employs standardized and
systematic approaches to discover new information or concepts (Polit & Beck, 2004).
● It plays a significant role in tertiary education and contributes to advancements despite
challenges in higher education (Palispis, 2004).
● Defined as a careful and organized inquiry aimed at generating new knowledge or
improving existing understanding (Sanchez, 1999).
● It employs validated instruments and structured thinking to ensure credibility and
reliability in findings (Crawford, as cited by Alcantara & Espina, 1995).
Importance:
1. Builds Credibility: Provides reliable and verifiable results.
2. Enhances Knowledge: Encourages continuous learning and discovery.
3. Introduces Innovations: Leads to the development of new ideas, tools, and
technologies.
4. Encourages Problem-Solving: Helps find solutions to complex issues.
5. Expands Knowledge Base: Broadens understanding of various fields and phenomena.
6. Improves Decision-Making: Provides evidence-based insights for informed choices.
Characteristics of Research
1. Systematic: Research follows an organized and sequential plan.
2. Objective: Avoids biases and relies on factual evidence.
3. Feasible: Can be conducted within available resources and constraints.
4. Empirical: Relies on observable and measurable evidence.
5. Clear: Defined by explicit goals and methodologies.
General Forms of Research
1. Scientific Research: Focuses on examining natural phenomena using systematic
processes, including hypothesis formulation and testing.
2. Humanities Research: Explores human existence, culture, and purpose through
interpretative methods.
3. Artistic Research: Investigates concepts through creative and practical approaches,
often using alternative methods to traditional theoretical frameworks.
Types of Research Design
Qualitative Research
● Definition: A naturalistic method of inquiry that explores human complexity and
behavior.
● Purpose: Understands perceptions, experiences, and social contexts.
● Examples:
1. Phenomenological Study: Investigates lived experiences to understand human
perspectives.
2. Ethnographic Study: Focuses on cultural groups or minority populations to
explore social patterns.
3. Case Study: In-depth examination of individuals, groups, or institutions.
4. Grounded Theory: Develops theories by systematically analyzing collected data.
5. Basic Interpretative Study: Examines how individuals assign meaning to their
experiences.
Strengths:
● Allows for deep exploration of complex phenomena.
● Flexible and adaptable to dynamic contexts.
● Incorporates personal and cultural experiences.
● Generates rich, narrative-driven findings.
Weaknesses:
● Findings may lack generalizability.
● Time and resource-intensive.
● Results can be influenced by researcher biases.
Quantitative Research
● Definition: Systematic investigation involving numerical data and statistical analysis.
● Purpose: Examines relationships, patterns, and causal effects between variables.
● Examples:
1. Descriptive Research
Purpose: This type of research focuses on systematically observing, describing,
and documenting a phenomenon or behavior without influencing it in any way.
What it does: It provides an accurate snapshot of the subject being studied,
helping researchers understand the "what" and "how" of a phenomenon.
Examples: A survey to document public opinions about climate change.
Observing how children interact in a playground to study social behaviors.
Common methods: Surveys, interviews, observations, and case studies.
2. Correlational Research
Purpose: This research investigates the relationship between two or more
variables to determine whether they are associated (correlated).
What it does: It does not establish causation, meaning it cannot prove that one
variable causes the other to change. Instead, it highlights patterns or
connections.
Examples: Studying the relationship between hours of sleep and academic
performance. Examining the link between physical activity and mental health.
Key tools: Statistical analysis, scatter plots, and correlation coefficients (e.g.,
Pearson's r).
3. Ex Post Facto Research
Purpose: This type of research investigates cause-and-effect relationships
retrospectively, using existing data or naturally occurring differences between
groups.
What it does: Researchers study effects that have already occurred and try
to infer potential causes. It’s observational, as researchers don’t manipulate
variables but analyze them after the fact.
Examples: Analyzing the impact of parental divorce on children's academic
performance. Studying the long-term effects of smoking by comparing smokers
and non-smokers. Challenges: Since the variables are not controlled, it’s difficult
to rule out confounding factors.
4. Quasi-Experimental Research
Purpose: This research aims to explore causal relationships but uses
pre-existing groups instead of random assignment.
What it does: It provides insight into causation while accommodating practical or
ethical constraints that make randomization impossible.
Examples: Studying the effect of a new teaching method by comparing two
classrooms where one uses the method and the other does not. Investigating the
impact of workplace policies on employee productivity in different departments.
Limitations: Lack of random assignment makes it harder to eliminate biases or
confounding variables.
5. Experimental Research
Purpose: This is the most rigorous type of research, testing hypotheses by
manipulating one or more variables (independent variables) and observing their
effect on other variables (dependent variables) under controlled conditions.
What it does: It establishes causation by isolating variables and controlling
external influences.
Examples: Testing the effectiveness of a new drug by randomly assigning
participants to a treatment group and a placebo group. Evaluating the impact of a
specific study technique on student performance.
Key features: Random assignment of participants to groups. Control group and
experimental group(s). Controlled environment to minimize confounding factors.
Strengths:
● Quick and efficient data collection and analysis.
● Produces precise, numerical results.
● Suitable for large sample sizes.
Weaknesses:
● Can oversimplify complex issues.
● Results may lack depth and context.
● Researcher biases may affect hypothesis-driven studies.
Variables in Research
Types of Variables:
1. Dependent Variable: (EFFECT)
○ The outcome being measured or observed.
○ Changes based on the independent variable.
○ Example: Test scores in an educational study.
2. Independent Variable: (CAUSE)
○ The factor manipulated by the researcher.
○ Represents the presumed cause in a study.
○ Example: Type of teaching method.
3. Criterion Variable:
○ Another term for dependent variables.
○ Represents the outcome or effect being predicted.
4. Predictor Variable:
○ Another term for independent variables.
○ Used to predict outcomes based on specific circumstances.
Categories of Variables:
1. Qualitative Variables:
○ Non-numerical and categorized by characteristics.
○ Nominal: Categories without a specific order (e.g., blood type).
○ Ordinal: Categories with a ranked order (e.g., satisfaction levels).
○ Dichotomous: Two distinct categories (e.g., yes/no responses).
2. Quantitative Variables:
○ Numerical and measurable.
○ Discrete: Whole numbers (e.g., number of students).
○ Continuous: Ranges or fractions (e.g., temperature).
○ Ratio: Cannot have negative values (e.g., height, weight).
Mixed Methods Research
● Definition: Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide a more
comprehensive understanding of research questions.
● Benefits:
○ Integrates strengths of both methods.
○ Provides a holistic view of the research problem.
Types of Mixed Methods:
1. Sequential Explanatory:
○ Quantitative data collection and analysis followed by qualitative.
○ Focuses on numerical results, supported by qualitative insights.
2. Sequential Exploratory:
○ Qualitative data collection and analysis followed by quantitative.
○ Emphasizes understanding phenomena before quantifying.
○ Start with stories, then use numbers to check them.
3. Convergent Parallel:
○ Simultaneous collection of qualitative and quantitative data.
○ Integrates findings to identify areas of convergence or divergence.
○ Use both numbers and stories at the same time, then compare them.
4. Embedded:
○ Qualitative data embedded within a quantitative framework or vice versa.
○ Focuses on one primary method, with supplementary insights from the other.
○ Focus mainly on one method (QUALI OR QUANTI), but add the other method for
extra details.
Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling (Random, Fair Selection):
1. Random Sampling: Everyone in the group has an equal chance of being selected. It's
like drawing names from a hat.
2. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into smaller groups (called strata) based
on a shared characteristic (like age or gender). Then, people are randomly chosen from
each group to make sure all types of people are included.
3. Cluster Sampling: Instead of picking individuals, entire groups (clusters) are selected
randomly. For example, picking random schools and surveying everyone in those
schools.
4. Systematic Sampling: You choose people at regular intervals. For example, picking
every 5th person from a list of names.
Non-Probability Sampling (Not Random, More Selective):
1. Convenience Sampling: You select people who are easiest to reach. For example,
asking people who are nearby or who are willing to participate.
2. Purposive Sampling: You choose participants based on specific traits or qualities that
are important to the study. For example, studying only people who have a particular
disease.
3. Snowball Sampling: After choosing a few participants, they help you find others who
also meet the criteria. It’s like a chain reaction where one person introduces the next.
4. Quota Sampling: You make sure to select people from certain groups (like age, gender,
or location) in specific proportions, so each group is represented properly.
Data Collection and Preparation
1. Collection: Use instruments like surveys, interviews, or existing datasets.
2. Organization:
○ Merging: Combine related data.
○ Sorting: Classify data based on characteristics.
○ Selecting Cases: Choose specific data points based on criteria.
○ Preparation: Format data for analysis.
Analysis and Interpretation
Phases of Analysis:
1. Prepare and organize data.
2. Explore data to identify patterns.
3. Manage and code data into themes.
4. Compare variables and answer research questions.
5. Report findings with visual aids like tables and graphs.
Interpretation:
● Relates findings to research objectives.
● Explores relationships, patterns, and implications.
● Identifies areas for further research.
Hawthorne Effect
● Definition: Changes in behavior when participants are aware of being observed.
● Implication: Highlights the need for minimizing observer bias in research.
