Revision Notes for Class 12 Physics

Chapter 1 – Electric Charges and Fields

1. Electric Charge

1.1 Definition- Charge is that property that is associated with the matter due to which it
produces and experiences electrical and magnetic effects.

1.2 Type

There exist two types of charges in nature. They are:

i. Positive charge

ii. Negative charge

Charges with the same electrical sign repel each other while charges with opposite electrical
signs attract each other.

1.3 Unit and Dimensional Formula

S.I. unit of charge is coulomb (C), (1mC = 10−3 C,1 C = 10−6 C, ln C = 10−9 C )

C.G.S. the unit of charge is e.s.u. 1C = 3 109 esu

The Dimensional formula is given by [Q] = [AT] .

1.4 Point Charge

Whose spatial size is negligible as compared to other distances.

1.5 Properties of Charge

(i) Charge is a Scalar Quantity: Charges can be added or subtracted algebraically.

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(ii) Charge is transferable: When a charged body is put in contact with an uncharged body,
the uncharged body becomes charged due to transfer of electrons from the charged body to
the uncharged body.

(iii) Charge is always associated with mass: Charge cannot exist without mass though mass
can exist without charge.

(iv) Charge is conserved: Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed.

(v) Invariance of charge: The numerical value of an elementary charge is independent of

velocity.

(vi) Charge produces an electric field and magnetic field: When a charged particle is at
rest it only produces an electric field in the space surrounding it. However, if the charged
particle is in unaccelerated motion it produces both electric and magnetic fields. And if the
motion of the charged particle is accelerated it not only produces electric and magnetic fields
but also radiates energy in the space surrounding the charge in the form of electromagnetic
waves.

(vii) Charge resides on the surface of conductor: Charge resides on the outer surface of a
conductor because like charges repel and try to get as far away as possible from one another
and stay at the farthest distance from each other which is the outer surface of the conductor.
Therefore, a solid and hollow conducting sphere of the same outer radius will hold a
maximum equal charge, and a soap bubble expands on charging.

(viii) Quantization of charge: When a physical quantity can have only discrete values
rather than any value, the quantity is said to be quantised. The smallest charge that can exist
in nature is the charge of an electron. If the charge of an electron ( −1.6 10−19 C ) is taken as
elementary unit i.e. quanta of charge the charge on anybody will be some integral multiple of
e i.e., Q =  ne with n = 0 , 1, 2,3 

Charge on a body can never be 0.5e, 17.2e or 10−5 e etc.

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1.6 Comparison of Charge and Mass

We are familiar with the role of mass in gravitation, and we have just studied some features
of electric charge. The comparison between the two are as follows:

S. No Charge Mass

Electric charge can be positive,

1. Mass of a body is a positive quantity.
negative or zero.

Mass of a body increases with its velocity

as

Charge carried by a body does not mo

m= where c id velocity of light in
2. depend upon the velocity of the v2
body. 1− 2
c
vacuum, m is the mass of the velocity v
and m0 is rest mass of the body.

The quantization of mass is yet to be

3. The charge is quantized.
established.

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 Electric charge is always Mass is not conserved as it can be
4.
conserved. changed into energy and vice-versa.

Force between charges can be

The gravitational force between two
5. attractive(unlike charges) or
masses is always attractive.
repulsive(like charges) in nature.

1.7 Methods of Charging

A body can be charged by following methods:

i. By friction:

In friction when two bodies are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one body to
the other. As a result of this one body becomes positively charged while the other is
negatively charged, e.g., when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod becomes positively
charged while the silk becomes negatively charged. However, ebonite on rubbing with wool
becomes negatively charged making the wool positively charged. Clouds also become
charged by friction. In charging by friction in accordance with conservation of charge, both
positive and negative charges in equal amounts appear simultaneously due to the transfer of
electrons from one body to the other.

ii. By electrostatic induction:

If a charged body is brought near an uncharged body, the charged body will attract the
opposite charge and repel a similar charge present in the uncharged body. As a result of this
one side of the neutral body (closer to charged body) becomes oppositely charged while the
other is similarly charged. This process is called electrostatic induction.

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Note: Inducting body neither gains nor loses charge.

(iii) Charging by conduction:

Take two conductors, one charged and the other uncharged. Bring the conductors in contact
with each other. The charge (whether negative or positive) under its own repulsion will
spread over both the conductors. Thus, the conductors will be charged with the same sign.
This is called as charging by conduction (through contact).

Note: A truck carrying explosives has a metal chain touching the ground, to conduct away
the charge produced by friction.

2. Coulomb's Law

If two stationary and point charges Q1 and Q2 are kept at a distance r , then it is found that
force of attraction or repulsion between them is Mathematically, Coulomb's law can be
written as

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 q1q 2
F=k
r2

where k is a proportionality constant.

In SI units k has the value,

k = 8.988 109 Nm2 / C2

k = 9.0 109 Nm2 / C2

(a) The direction of force is always along the line joining the two charges.

(b) The force is repulsive if the charges have the same sign and attractive if their signs are
opposite.

(c) This force is conservative in nature.

(d) This is also called inverse square law.

2.1 Variation of k

Constant k depends upon a system of units and medium between the two charges.

a. In [Link]. for air

Q1Q2
k = 1, F = Dyne
r2

1 N − m2
b. In S.I. for air k = = 9  10 9
,
4 0 C2

F=
1
4 0

Q1Q 2
r2
(
Newton 1 Newton = 105 Dyne)

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Note:

•  0 = Absolute permittivity of air or free space

C 2  Farad 
= 8.85 10−12 = 
N − m2  m 

Dimension is  M −1 L−3T 4 A2 

•  0 Relates with absolute magnetic permeability ( 0 ) and velocity of light (c)

1
according to the following relation c =
 0 0

2.1.2 Effect of Medium

(a) When a dielectric medium is completely filled in between charges rearrangement of the
charges inside the dielectric medium takes place and the force between the same two charges
decreases by a factor of K known as dielectric constant, K is also called relative
permittivity  r of the medium (relative means with respect to free space).

Hence in the presence of medium

Fair 1 QQ
Fm = =  12 2
K 4 0 K r

Here  0 K =  0 r =  (permittivity of medium)

Medium K

Vacuum/air 1

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 Water 80

Mica 6

Glass 5-10

Metal 

2.2 Vector Form of Coulomb's Law

It is helpful to adopt a convention for subscript notation.

F12 = force on 1 due to 2 F21 = force on 2 due to 1D

Suppose the position vectors of two charges q1 and q 2 are r1 and r 2 , then, electric force on
charge q1 due to charge q 2 is,

F12 =
1 q1q2
4 0 r1 − r 2 3
(r − r )
1 2

Similarly, electric force on q 2 due to charge q1 is

1 q1q2
F21 = ( r2 − r1 )
4 0 r2 − r1 3

Force is a vector, so in vector form the Coulomb's law is written as

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 1 q1q 2
F12 = r12
4 0 r 2

Where r12 is a unit vector, directed toward q1 from q 2 .

Note:

rˆ12 = − rˆ21

F12 =
1 q1q 2
4 0 r 2
r12 =
1 q 2 q1
4 0 r 2
( )
−r 21

1 q 2 q1
F12 = − r 21 = − F21
4 0 r 2
Remember convention for r .

Here q1 and q2 are to be substituted with sign. Position vector of charges q1 and q2 are
r1 = x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ and r2 = x2iˆ + y2 ˆj + z2 kˆ respectively. Where ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are the
co-ordinates of charges q1 and q 2 .

2.3 Principle of Superposition

According to the principle of superposition, the total force acting on a given charge due to a
number of charges is the vector sum of the individual forces acting on that charge due to all
the charges.

Consider number of charges Q1, Q2, Q3…..are applying force on a charge Q

Net force on Q will be

Fnet = F1 + F2 +  + Fn −1 + Fn

The magnitude of the resultant of two electric force is given by F = F12 + F22 + 2 F1 F2 cos  and
the force direction is given by,

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 F2 sin 
tan  =
F1 + F2 cos 

3. Electric Field

A positive charge or a negative charge is said to create its field around itself. Thus space
around a charge in which another charged particle experiences a force is said to have an
electrical field in it.

3.1 Electric Field Intensity E( )

The electric field intensity at any point is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive
charge placed at that point.

F
E=
q0

Where q0 → 0 so that presence of this charge may not affect the source charge Q and its
electric field is not changed, therefore expression for electric field intensity can be better
written as:

F
E = lim
q0 →0 q0

(a) Unit and Dimensional formula:

It's S.I. unit is,

Newton volt Joule

= = and
coulomb meter coulomb  meter

C.G.S. unit = Dyne/stat coulomb.

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Dimension:  E  =  MLT −3A −1 

(b) Direction of electric field: Electric field (intensity) E is a vector quantity. Electric field
due to a positive charge is always away from the charge and that due to a negative charge is
always towards the charge.

3.2 Relation Between Electric Force and Electric Field

In an electric field E a charge (Q) experiences a force F = QE . If the charge is positive then
force is directed in the direction of the field while if the charge is negative force acts on it in
the opposite direction of field.

3.3 Superposition of Electric Field

The resultant electric field at any point is equal to the vector sum of electric fields at that
point due to various charges.

E = E1 + E2 + E3 + 

The magnitude of the resultant of two electric fields are given by

E = E12 + E 22 + 2E1E 2 cos  and the direction is given by,

E2 sin 
tan  =
E1 + E2 cos 

3.4 Point Charge

Point charge produces its electric field at a point P which is distance r from it given by,

Q
EP = (Magnitude)
4 0 r 2

For positive point charge, E is directed away from it.

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For negative point charge, E is directed towards it.

3.5 Continuous Charge Distributions

There is an infinite number of ways in which we can spread a continuous charge distribution
over a region of space. Mainly three types of charge distributions will be used. We define
three different charge densities.

Symbol Definition SI units

(lambda)  Charge per unit length C/m

(sigma)  Charge per unit area C/m2

(rho)  Charge per unit volume C/m3

If a total charge q is distributed along a line of length , over a surface area A or throughout
a volume V, we can calculate charge densities from.

q q q
 = , = , =
A V

3.6 Properties of Electric Field Lines

1. Electric field lines originate from a positive charge & terminate on a negative charge.

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2. The number of field lines originating/terminating on a charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.

3. The number of Field Lines passing through the perpendicular unit area will be
proportional to the magnitude of the Electric Field there.

4. Tangent to a Field line at any point gives the direction of the Electric Field at that point.
This will be the instantaneous path charge will take if kept there.

5. Two or more field lines can never intersect each other.

(they cannot have multiple directions)

6. Uniform field lines are straight, parallel & uniformly placed.

7. Field lines cannot form a loop.

8. Electric field lines originate and terminate perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.
Electric field lines do not exist inside a conductor.

9. Field lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.

10. If in a region electric field is absent, there will be no field lines.

3.7 Motion of Charged Particle in an Electric Field

(a) When charged particle initially at rest is placed in the uniform field:

Let a charge particle of mass m and charge Q be initially at rest in an electric field of
strength E .

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(i) Force and acceleration:

The force experienced by the charged particle is F = QE . Positive charge experiences force
in the direction of electric field while negative charge experiences force in the direction
opposite to the field. [Fig. (A)]

F QE
Acceleration produced by this force is a = =
m m

Since the field E in constant the acceleration is constant, thus motion of the particle is
uniformly accelerated.

(ii) Velocity:

Suppose at point A particle is at rest and in time t , it reaches the point B

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V = Potential difference between A and B

S = Separation between A and B

(a) By using

E
v = u + at, v = 0 + Q
m

QEt
tv=
m

(b) By using,

QE 2QEs
v2 = u 2 + 2as,v2 =0+2   s=
m m

(iii) Momentum:

Momentum p = mv ,

QEt
p = m = QEt
m

(iv) Kinetic energy:

Kinetic energy gained by the particle in time t is

1 1 (QEt) 2 Q 2 E 2 t 2
K= mv 2 = m =
2 2 m 2m

(b) When a charged particle enters with an initial velocity at a right angle to the
uniform field.

When a charged particle enters perpendicularly in an electric field, it describes a parabolic

path as shown.

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(i) Equation of trajectory:

Throughout the motion, a particle has uniform velocity along x -axis and horizontal
displacement ( x) is given by the equation x = ut

Since the motion of the particle is accelerated along y -axis, we will use the equation of
motion for uniform acceleration to determine displacement y.

1
From S = ut + at 2
2

1
We have u = 0 (along y − axis) so y = at 2
2

i.e., displacement along y -axis will increase rapidly with time (since y  t 2 )

From displacement along x -axis, t = x / u

2
1  QE  x 
So y =    ; this is the equation of parabola which shows y  x .
2

2  m  u 

(ii) Velocity at any instant:

QEt
At any instant t , vx = u and vy = .
m

So,

Q2 E 2 t 2
v =| v |= v + v = u +
2
x
2
y
2

m2

If  is the angle made by v with x -axis than

vy QEt
tan  = = .
vx mu

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4. Electric Dipole

4.1 General Information

A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small, fixed distance is called a
dipole.

(i) Dipole axis: Line joining negative charge to positive charge of a dipole is called its axis.
It may also be termed as its longitudinal axis.

(ii) Equatorial axis: Perpendicular bisector of the dipole is called its equatorial or transverse
axis as it is perpendicular to the length.

(iii). Dipole length: The distance between two charges is known as dipole length (d).

(iv). Dipole moment: It is a quantity that gives information about the strength of dipole. It is
a vector quantity and is directed from negative charge to positive charge along the axis. It is
denoted as p and is defined as the product of the magnitude of either of the charge and the
dipole length.

i.e., p = q(d )

Its S.I. unit is coulomb-metre or Debye (1 Debye = 3.3 10−30 C  m ) and its dimensions are
M 0 LT A.
1 1 1

Note:

• A region surrounding a stationary electric dipole has electric field only.

• When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, its atoms or molecules are considered
as tiny dipoles.

(a) Electric Potential due to a dipole

k(−q) k(+q)
VP = +
AP BP

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r   d (distance ' r ' is large as compared to d)

AP  O P; BP  O P

O P = r + d / 2cos  , OP = r − d / 2cos 

k(−q) k(+q)
Vp = +
(r + d / 2cos  ) (r − d / 2cos  )

 1 1 
= k(+q)  −
 r − d / 2 cos  r + d / 2 cos  

 
 r + d / 2 cos  − r + d / 2 cos   kqd cos 
= kq  2 =
 d  d2
r − cos 
2 2
r − cos 2 
2
 4 
 4

k(qd) cos  kp cos 

Vp = 2
= [ p = qd]
d d2
r − cos  r − cos 
2 2 2 2

4 4

since r   d

kp cos  1 p cos 
Vp = =
r 2
4 0 r 2

 is angle with the axis of dipole; r is distance from centre of dipole.

(b) Electric Field due to dipole

(i) For points on the axis

Let the point P be at distance r from the centre of the dipole on the side of the charge q ,as
shown in the below figure.

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Then

q
E− q = − pˆ
4 z0 (r + a) 2

q
where p is the unit vector along the dipole axis (from −q to q ). Also, E + q = p
4 0 (r − a) 2

The total field at P is,

q  1 1  q 4ar
E = E+ q + E− q =  − 2
pˆ = pˆ
4 0  (r − a ) (r + a)  (
4 0 r 2 − a 2 )
2 2

For r  a

4qa
E= pˆ (r   a) …(i)
4 0 r 3

(ii) For points on the equatorial plane

The magnitudes of the electric fields due to the two charges +q and −q are given by,

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 q 1
E+ q =
4 0 r + a 22

q 1
E− q =
4 0 r + a 22

and are equal.

The directions of E+q and E−q are as shown in fig. (b). Clearly, the components normal to the
dipole axis cancel away. The components along the dipole axis add up. The total electric
field is opposite to p . We have,

E = − ( E + q + E − ) cos  p

2qa
= − p
( )
3/2
4 0 r + a 2 2

At large distances (r   a) , this reduces to

2qa
E= − pˆ ( r   a ) …(ii)
4 0 r 3

From Eqs. (i) and (ii), it is clear that the dipole field at large distances does not involve q
and a separately; it depends on the product $qa$. This suggests the definition of dipole is
defined by

P = q  2ap

that is, it is a vector whose magnitude is charge q times the separation 2a (between the pair
of charges q, - q) and the direction is along the line from −q to q .

In terms of p, the electric field of a dipole at large distances takes simple forms:

At a point on the dipole axis

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 2p 2kp
E= = 3 (r   a )
4 0 r 3
r

At a point on the equatorial plane.

p −kp
E= = (r   a)
4 0 r 3
r3

4.3 Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field

(i) Force and Torque: If a dipole is placed in a uniform field such that dipole (i.e. p )
makes an angle  with the direction of field then two equal and opposite forces acting on
dipole constitute a couple whose tendency is to rotate the dipole hence torque is developed in
it and dipole tries to align itself in the direction of the field. Consider an electric dipole in
placed in a uniform electric field such that dipole (i.e., p ) makes an angle  with the
direction of the electric field as shown.

(a) Net force on electric dipole Fnet = 0

(b)    = pEsin  ( = p  E)

(ii) Work: From the above discussion it is clear that in an uniform electric field dipole tries
to align itself in the direction of electric field (i.c. equilibrium position). To change it's
angular position some work has to be done.

Suppose an electric dipole is kept in an uniform electric field by making an angle 1 with the
field, if it is again turn so that it makes an angle  2 with the field, work done in this process
is given by the formula

W = qE ( cos1 − cos 2 )

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(iii) Potential energy: In case of a dipole (in a uniform field), potential energy of dipole is
defined as work done in rotating a dipole from a direction perpendicular to the field to the
given direction i.e. if 1 = 90o and 2 =  then

W = U = U − U90o = − PE cos

 U = − PE cos  ( U 90 = 0 or U = − PE )

5. Neutral Point

A neutral point is a point where resultant electrical field is zero. Thus neutral points can be
obtained only at those points where the resultant field is subtractive.

(a) At an internal point along the line joining two like charges (Due to a system of two
like point charge): Suppose two like charges. Q1 and Q2 are separated by a distance x from
each other along a line as shown in following figure.

If N is the neutral point at a distance x1 from Q1 and at a distance x2 ( = x − x1 ) from Q2 then

for natural pt. at N ,

| E.F. due to Q1 |=| E.F due to Q2 ∣ i.e.,

2
1 Q 1 Q2 Q x 
 21 =  2  1 = 1 
4 0 x1 4 0 x2 Q2  x2 

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Short trick:

x x
x1 = and x2 =
1 + Q2 / Q1 1 + Q1 | / | Q2 ∣

Note:

In the above formula if Q1 = Q2 , neutral point lies at the centre so remember that resultant
field at the midpoint of two equal and like charges is zero.

(b) At an external point along the line joining two unlike charges (Due to a system of
two unlike point charge):

Suppose two unlike charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a distance x from each other.

Here neutral point lies outside the line joining two unlike charges and also it lies nearer to
charge which is smaller in magnitude.

If Q1 ∣ Q2 then neutral point will be obtained on the side of Q1 , suppose it is at a distance l

from Q1 Hence at neutral point;

Q1   
2
k Q1 k Q2
=  = 
2
( x + )2 Q2  x + 2 

x
Short trick: =
( Q2 /Q1 − 1 )
Note:

In the above discussion if Q1 = Q2 neutral point will be at infinity.

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6. Equilibrium of Charge

(a) Definition: A charge is said to be in equilibrium, if net force acting on it is zero. A

system of charges is said to be in equilibrium if each charge is in equilibrium.

(b) Type of equilibrium: Equilibrium can be divided in following type:

(i) Stable equilibrium: After displacing a charged particle from it's equilibrium position, if
it returns back then it is said to be in stable equilibrium. If U is the potential energy then in
case of stable equilibrium U is minimum.

(ii) Unstable equilibrium: After displacing a charged particle from it's equilibrium position,
if it never returns back then it is said to be in unstable equilibrium and in unstable
equilibrium, U is maximum.

(iii) Neutral equilibrium: After displacing a charged particle from it's equilibrium position
if it neither comes back, nor moves away but remains in the position in which it was kept it
is said to be in neutral equilibrium and in neutral equilibrium, U is constant.

(c) Different cases of equilibrium of charge

Suppose three similar charges Q1 , q and Q2 are placed along a straight line as shown below.

Case -1:
2
Q x 
Charge q will be in equilibrium if F1 = F2 ie.,, 1 =  1  ;
Q2  x 2 

This is the condition of equilibrium of charge q . After following the guidelines, we can say
that charge q is in stable equilibrium and this system is not in equilibrium.

x x
x1 = and x2 =
1 + Q2 / Q1 1 + Q1 / Q2

e.g. if two charges +4C and +16C are separated by a distance of 30 cm from each other
than for equilibrium a third charge should be placed between them at a distance

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 30
x1 = = 10 cm or x 2 = 20 cm
1 + 16 / 4

Case-2:

Two similar charge Q1 and Q 2 are placed along a straight line at a distance x from each
other and a third dissimilar charge q is placed in between them as shown below

Charge g will be in equilibrium if F1 = F2

2
Q x 
i.e., 1 =  1  .
Q2  x2 

Note:

Same short trick can be used here to find the position of charge q as we discussed in Case-1
i.e.,

x x
x1 = and x2 =
1 + Q2 / Q1 1 + Q1 / Q2

It is very important to know that magnitude of charge q can be determined if one of the
extreme charge (either Q1 . or Q2 ) is in equilibrium ie. if Q2 is in equilibrium then
q = Q1 ( x 2 / x ) and if Q1 is in equilibrium then | q |= Q 2 ( x1 / x ) (It should be remember that
2 2

sign of q is opposite to that of Q1 ( or Q2 ) ) .

Case -3:

Two dissimilar charge Q1 and Q2 are placed along a straight line at a distance x from each
other, a third charge q should be placed outside the line joining Q1 and Q2 for it to
experience zero net force.

(Let Q2 ∣ Q1 )

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Short Trick :

For its equilibrium. Charge q lies on the side of charge which is smallest in magnitude and

x
d=
Q1 / Q2 − 1

7. Electric Dipole

7.1 Electric Field Due to a Dipole

Using the concept that if we know potential electric field can be calculated we have already
calculated

kp cos 
Vp =
r2

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To Calculate net electric field at P we need E (Radial Component) & E1 (tangential
component) of electric field at P.

−dV
Er = . (When we travel in the radial direction).
dr

dV
Et = − (When we travel in the tangential direction).
rd

kP cos 
Vp =
r2
−d  kP cos   2kP cos 
Er =  =
dr  r 2  r3
−d  kP cos   −kP d kP sin 
Et =  = 3 cos  =
rd  r 2
 r d r3

2
 kP 
Enet = E + E =  3   4cos2  + sin 2  
2
r t
2

r 

2
 kP 
Enet =  3  1 + 3cos 2  
r 

kP
Enet = 3
1 + 3cos2 
r

kP
sin 
Et 3 tan   tan  
tan  = = r =  = tan −1 
Er 2 kP cos  2  2 
3
r

(Note:  is the angle with the radial direction)

[Link] 27
7.2 Equilibrium of Dipole

We know that, for any equilibrium net torque and net force on a particle (or system) should
be zero.

We already discussed when a dipole is placed in an uniform electric field net force on dipole
is always zero. But net torque will be zero only when  = 0o or 1800 .

When  = 0o i.e., dipole is placed along the electric field it is said to be in stable equilibrium,
because after turning it through a small angle, dipole tries to align itself again in the direction
of electric field.

Stable equilibrium Unstable equilibrium

When  = 180o i.e., dipole is placed opposite to electric field, it is said to be in unstable
equilibrium.

 = 0  max = pE  =0

W = 0 W = pE Wmax = 2 pE

U min = − pE U = 0 U max = pE

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Gauss’s Law

1. Electric Flux

1.1 Definition

Electric flux is defined as proportional to number of field lines crossing or cutting any area
of cross section in space.

'The number of field lines passing through perpendicular unit area will be proportional to the
magnitude of Electric Field there (Theory of Field Lines)

N
 E  N  E⊥
A⊥

 Electric Flux,  A = EA⊥

⊥

As  increases, flux through area A decreases. If we draw a vector of magnitude A along

the positive normal, it is called the area vector, A corresponding to the area A .

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 Electric Flux,  A = EA cos  = E  A

(Assuming Electric Field is uniform over whole area)

Note:

If Electric field is not constant over the area of cross section, then

 =  E  dA
A

1.2 Unit and Dimension

Flux is a scalar quantity.

N  m2
S.I. unit : (volt m) or
C

It’s Dimensional formula: ( ML3 T −3 A −1 )

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1.3 Types of Flux

For a closed body outward flux is taken to be positive, while inward flux is taken to be
negative.

2. Gauss's Law

2.1 Definition

According to Gauss's law, total electric flux through a closed surface enclosing a charge is
1
times the magnitude of the charge enclosed.
0

1
i.e., not = ( Qcc )
0

Qen
i.e.,  E  dA = E0
.

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Note:

Gauss's law is only applicable for a closed surface.

2.2 Gaussian Surface

The closed surface on which Gauss law is applicable is defined as a Gaussian surface.

Note:

• Gaussian surface can be of any shape \& size, only condition is that it should be
closed.

• Gaussian surface is hypothetical in nature. It does not have a physical existence.

2.3 Deriving Gauss's Law from Coulomb's Law

Let’s take a spherical gaussian surface with charge ' +Q ' kept at the centre.

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We know field lines for a +ve charge are always radially outward.

Angle between dA and E is zero.

kQ Q
E= =
r 2
4 0 r 2

Hence Net flux = Q /  0 .

Although we derived gauss law for a spherical surface it is valid for any shape of gaussian
surface and for any charge kept anywhere inside the surface.

2.4 Coulomb's Law from Gauss's Law

We choose an imaginary sphere (Gaussian surface) of radius r centred on the charge +q .

Due to symmetry, E must have the same magnitude at any point on the surface, and E
points radially outward, parallel to dA . Hence we write the integral in Gauss's law as:

net =  E  dA =  EdA = E  d A = E ( 4 r )
2

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Qenclosed = q

Thus, E ( 4 r 2 ) =
q q
or E =
0 4 0 r 2

From the definition of the electric field, the force on a point charge q 0 located at a distance r
from the charge q is F = q 0 E . Therefore,

1 qq 0
F=
4 0 r 2

which is Coulomb's law.

3. Applications of Gauss's Law

Using Gauss's law to derive ‘E’ due to various charge distributions.

3.1 Electric Field Due to a Line Charge

Consider an infinite line which has a linear charge density  . Using Gauss's law, let us find
the electric field at a distance ' r ' from the line charge.

The cylindrical symmetry tells us that the field strength will be the same at all points at a
fixed distance r from the line. Thus, if the charges are positive. The field lines are directed
radially outwards, perpendicular to the line charge.

The appropriate choice of Gaussian surface is a cylinder of radius r and length L . On the
flat end faces, S2 and S3 , E is perpendicular dS , which means flux is zero on them. On the
curved surface S1 , E is parallel to dS , so that E  dS = EdS . The charge enclosed by the
cylinder is Q =  L . Applying Gauss's law to the curved surface, we have

L  2k
E  dS = E(2 rL) = or E = =
0 2 0 r r

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Note:

This is the field at a distance r from the line. It is directed away from the line if the charge is
positive and towards the line if the charge is negative.

3.2 Electric Field Due to a Plane Sheet of Charge

Consider a large plane sheet of charge with surface charge density (charge per unit area)
$\sigma $. We have to find the electric field ${\text{E}}$ at a point ${\text{P}}$ in front of
the sheet.

Note:

If the charge is positive, the field is away from the plane.

To calculate the field E at P . Choose a cylinder of area of cross-section A through the point
P as the Gaussian surface. The flux due to the electric field of the plane sheet of charge
passes only through the two circular caps of the cylinder.

According to Gauss law  E  dS = q

in / 0

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 A
 [Link]
I circular surface
+  [Link]
II circular surface
+  [Link]
cylindricalr surface
=
0
A
or EA + EA + 0 =
0


or E =
2 0

Note:

We see that the field is uniform and does not depend on the distance from the charge sheet.
This is true as long as the sheet is large as compared to its distance from P .

3.3 Uniform Spherical Charge Distribution

3.3.1 Outside the Sphere

P is a point outside the sphere at a distance r from the centre.

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 or E ( 4 r 2 ) =
Q Q
According to Gauss law,  E  ds = E D D

Electric field at P (Outside sphere)

1 Q  R2
Eout =  = and
4 0 r 2  0r 2

1 Q  R2
Vout = −  Edr =
r
 =
 4 0 r  0r

Note:

Q = 0 A

=   4 R 2

3.3.2 At the surface of sphere

At surface r = R

1 Q  1 Q R
So, Ee =  = and V =  =
4 0 R 2
0 4 0 R  0

3.3.3 Inside the Sphere

Inside the conducting charged sphere electric field is zero and potential remains constant
everywhere and equals to the potential at the surface.

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