ASHRAE STUDY NOTES

2016 Chapter 1
 approx area for plant rooms in buildings is 4-9%
 Cooling tower placement if at all on ground or any floor should be 100 ft away from the building

2016 Chapter 2

2016 Chapter 3
 Chap 16-15 of 2016 gives design details for central plants
 Chap 38 and 43 of 2016 discuss chiller details
 Air cooled (condensers) equipment is suitable in high wet bulb environments and cooler
climates.
 Evaporative condensers pass outdoor air over coils sprayed with water (water treatment issue)
 Chap 44 for pumps and Chap 12-14 for system design
 Chap 32 for boilers
 Dont change set temp of chillers as that causes humidity calc problems and additional
distribution problems
 Central plants should be kept at or below grade to minimize vibrations and sounds
 Louver distancing shall be as per Ashrae 15 standard
 4 ft of service space is generally considered adequate
 BMS softwares that must be included and paramters that must be controlled/monitored are
given on 3.7 of this chapter

2016 Chapter 4

 Shafts constitute 2% of gross area in high rise buildings.

 In all air systems delta T is the difference between supplied (13ºC) and desired (24ºC). If you
double the delta T, the volume of air reqd is halved.
 Temp (13ºC) is set because air temp in absolute moisture is lower and when it gets to the
relatively moderate latent loads in the space it gets to 24ºC.
 For places with high latent loads (swimming pools, laundry, gyms) air is to be supplied at an even
lower temperature (10-11ºC).
  Cold air systems supply air at 7ºC. Adv include lower moisture in the building, smaller fan
selection, but overall higher energy consumption.
 Heat gain due to fans in air systems is approx 0.7ºC per inch of water static pressure.
 Chap 17 & 18 of 2017 Fundamentals give details on indoor basic conditions reqd
 Chap 21 of 2016 discusses fan and fan selection.
 During chemical dehumidification, usually 200 Btu/lb of moisture is removed.
 Chap 24 on chemical dehumidification
 Chap 37-36 of 2011 for energy use and operating costs
 On coil and on filter velocity of 1.5-2 m/s validates significant energy savings.
 If return air path has a higher pressure drop than 0.3 in (75 Pa) then a return fan is warranted.
 Outdoor air damper should be close as possible to the mixing damper. Should be sized at 1500
fpm (7.6 m/s)
 There should be minimum 3 ft in front of filter face and any other object.
 Chap 12-11 of 2017 discusses odor control
 Pre heat coil usually placed where high outdoor air volume is anticipated. Leaving air temp
should not exceed 45ºF (7ºC)
 Chap 23 more on cooling coils. Cooling coils with 4 rows is not feasible if there is more than 5%
outdoor air in humid climates (Karachi) or more than 20% in non humid climates. We should go
for 8 rows coil then.
 Chap 27 on reheat coils
 for humidification, adsorption distance is important (1.5-5 ft) and hence must be calculated for
accurate control of humidity.
 Chap 23-24 discuss dehum by cooling and desiccant dehumidifiers respectively
 Ashrae 90.1 requires energy recovery devices for AHUs larger than 5000 cfm and 70% outdoor
air.
 For sound attenuation use sound attenuation module or a full bank of duct silencers. Plenum
lined with acoustic duct liner can also be used.
 Draw thru fan provides more even air distribution along with some dehumidification effect.
 Blow thru is necessary where natural gas fired heat exchangers are used for heating.
 Humidity control is a problem in VAV systems and a constant air volume system is then specified.
 Primary secondary systems used in places where we have a high ACPH requirement
 Chap 53 of 2011 is fire and smoke management
 Chap 29 2016 for filters

2016 Chapter 5 (In room terminal units)

 ADV (less building space, local areas shutoff, no cross contamination, suitbale with solar water
heater, no central failure, easy and quick maintenance, simple but high quantity of controls,
small central ventilation reqd,
 DisADV (mainly perimetral usage, in-room terminal fans noisy, noy suitbale for high exhaust
reqrmnts, winter humidification is difficult, maintenance from in the space)
  Four pipe system: supply/return of both hot and cold water pipes. High initial cost but good
performance. ADV (all season availability of both temperatures, no changeover reqd, simple,
 Two pipe changover without central vent: It is the simplest system with the lowest initial cost
where outdoor air is bought in via building apertures. Thermmostat has to be reversed in
seasonal changes and system has a simple 3 speed motor fan.
 Three pipe distribution (common hot/cold return pipe and separate supply ones) is obsolete and
no longer recommended due to energy inefficiency.
 unit ventilators are similar to fan coil units except that they only provide outdoor air. So they
must be placed near or at the outside wall or roof (not for tall buildings though). They are mostly
used in classrooms.
 Fan coil motors are small. The largest never exceeds 300W at high speeds while current doesnt
exceed 2.5 Amps.
 Condensate drain along woth insulation to be provided.
 For FCus operating near dew point temp, cleaning of coils shall be done atleast annually.
 CHap 18 2016 VRF systems and Ashrae standard 15 for piping within buildings
 Chilled beams are either passive or active. Passive provides cooling upto 0.03 tons per ft. Active
beams provide upto 0.06 tons per ft. THey are usually 10 feet long therefore are stupid things to
begin with. Primary air to the active beam shall be below 13ºC to prevent condensation.
 Radiant heat panels are energy efficient providing approx 250-750W of heating in a single panel
(24 x 24 in). They provide comfortable heat without dropping the moisture content of the space.
They are provided alongiwth central tempered ventilated air.
 For all primary air systems, outdoor air temperature at which secondary cooling is not required,
is known as balance temperature. At this temperature direct outdoor air is sufficient enough for
cooling purposes.
 Temperature at which primary air plus friction loss temperature is cool enough so no cooling is
required is known as the changeover temperature.
 A/T ratio is the ratio of the primary (outdoor usually for 2 pipe and central vent) airflow to a
given space divided by the transmission per degree of that space. Common spaces in a primary
zone shall have the same A/T ratio. Higher A/T zones overcool at night and lower A/T zones (than
the primary air) lack sufficient heat druing winters.
 Electric heater use with a 2 pipe system is a good option when electric usage during winter is not
that expensive. Also if sized to full heating capacity it avoids changover and allows the chilled
water to run all year round. If not sized for full, it still decreases the amount or time of
changovers by essentially functioning the 2 pipe as a 4 pipe system.
 A 4 pipe system is a more flexible and adaptive system. No changeovers reqd. Can provide
heating cooling at all times. Easier to control and operate. Efficiency is greater than 2 pipe.

2016 Chapter 13 Hydronics

 Low temp water sys (120ºC max, 2 bar usual)
 Medium temp water sys (120º to 176ºC max, 10 bar usual)
 High temp water sys (205ºC max, 20 bar max)
 Dual systems (hot water 35º to 65ºC and chilled water 7ºC)
 Turndown ratio in source device is (min cap/des cap) x 100
 For a cooling system that must maintain 50%RH at 24ºC, dew point temp is 13ºC which sets the
chilled water return temp at 13-15ºC.
 t (entering water temp) = 2xt(appdew) - t(leaving air wet bulb)
 Expansion tank must for closed system. Provides the only required point of water and movable
interface. Bladder type is best. Formula and example in special notes
 Compund pumping (sce/pri) explained in 13.8. With new chillers variable primary is made
possible. Max fluid velocity in chiller is 11 fps and min vel of 2 fps.
 In variable primary systems, dont take pumps below 30% of design as practically it is not feasible
thereafter (it is a scant 3% of power). Detail provided in 13.9 of same standard.
 Pump suction pipe should atleast be equal to the inlet flange size. Atleast 5-8 eqv dia length
should be fitting less before suction. Pump discharge manifolds should be designed to keep
velocities at 10-15 fps (lower side when a check valve is present) to avoid water hammer.
 Pipe design: calculate flow by given Btus by q(heat transfer Btu/hr) = 500 x Q(water flow in
gpm) x delta T (of water in Faranheit)
 For flow and pressure drop relation Q (flow in gpm) = Cv (system constant calculated by once
putting known pressure and flow values) x root(pressure drop) (psi).
 Expansion tanks should be located at the highest possible point so that the size is the smallest.
 Piping circuits. Series are for small residential/commercial. Diverting series are for generally
small residentail/commercial heating systems. Diverting tees can also be used with a
compounded piping system. parrallel direct and reverse are mainly what we usually do which
gives equal temp at all loads.
 2 way and 3 way control valves are described in detail in 13.13. 3 way mixer valve more common
than diverting type. The equal percentage characteristic is recommended for proportional
control of load flow for two- and three-way valves; the bypass flow port of three-way valves
should have the linear characteristic to maintain a uniform flow during part-load operation.
 Use equal percentage two way valves (such that 10% flow is achieved with 50% valve lift).
 Hot water heating systems designed at 92ºC and delta T of 10ºC. at this delta T 1 gpm conveys
10000 Btu/h.
 For large heating systems go for higher supply temps, prim/sec (compound) pumping, terminal
equipment designed for smaller flow rates. and mixing type control valves used in heating where
freezing is a problem so that constant flow flows.
 Chilled water temp design window is between providing adequate dehumidification and high
enough temp to avoid chiller freezup.
 Dual temp systems detail in 13.20
 Air vents installed at points of lowest air solubility and lowest velocity. Air vents installed with
diaphragm tanks and not with compression tanks.
 When preparing preliminary equipment layout, start by listing the cumulative flow and head loss
in each of the mains and branch circuits in the system (with the help of a piping schematic).
 Designer is responsible for sizing control valves and coordinating them with heeat ransfer
devices. Size pipes therafter, not exceeding velocities of 10 fps (and above 2 fps to carry air) in
general and friction values of 0.75-4 ft per 100 ft of pipe. For hot water dont go above 5 fps.
After pipe design calculate pressure drop thru all the portions up the longest circuit. Select pump
and voila.
 To prevent freezing, select 3 way valves, keep cooling coils open thru out, operate all pumps in
freezzing weather, select auto start vfds, select non overloading pumps,
 Ethylene/Propylene glycol are more viscous and dense and have theri effects (13.24) but are
sometimes the only solution to anti freeze. Annual refractometer check for concentration and
use inhibitors to prevent corrosion.

Chapter 51 Thermal storage

 Benefits of thermal storage include: shifting of load from peak to non peak times, reduce
operational and initial cost, backup, extension of current capacity, integration of renewables.
 It is applied where: Loads are short duration or occur infrequently, energy source not available at
load times, high energy costs at load times, renewable rebates available, expansion planned but
full load energy inavailable but non peak available.
 Thermal storage media should be: non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic, non-corrosive,
inert, high density, high specific heat, high heat of fusion, with stable properties.
 _____________________________________

Chapter 20 2016 Room Air Distribution Equipment

 For fully stratified systems (no mixing, displacement systems of cylindrical perforated shapes),
outlets are designed to maintain a max velocity of 50-70 fpm. No occupants should be in the
nearby clear zone where velocities are at these rates. Used in braodcast recording areas.
 Partially mixed system outlets produce high roomair entrainment so that well mixed air is
achievd in part of the room while other is left stratified. Supply is from low sidewall or floor
locations. Supply air temp has to be above 16ºC for cooling as lower would affect occupants.
Provide adjustable louvers so occupants have control. Thermostat location for VAV systems in
these type of systems should be at 4-5 feet high. Vertical release velocity from oultlets at 50 fpm
(below respiratory level of 4.5 feet).
 Linear grills are usually installed along walls or exterior surfaces where traffic is min.
 Laminar flow diffusers have 35% or less free area and are used in labs and clean rooms etc.
 Air curtain applied to doors opening 10 x an hour or for an hour daily. Min velocity reqd at floor
for optmimum closure is 400 fpm.
Chapter 21 2016 Fans

 An unhoused centrifugal fan impeller is called a plug fan. Backward curved fans are more
efficient than forward curved and can deal with more static.
 Total pressure imparted by the fan is the true measure of the total energy imparted by the fan
on the air.
 System effects kick in alot when distance between fan inlet and cabinet wall is less than half of
the impeller size. So avoid this.
 Fan efficiency grade (10 points diff bw efficiency and pressure curve start)
 Fan motor efficiency grade is based on overall fan sysem peak efficiency, electrical power input,
efficiency category and fan type. These things are just for code applications and must not be
made a basis of real time selections
 When selecting a fan, pressure characteristics of the application and the fan must match.
 Selecting fan by totalling the static pressure requirements is WRONG. we have to add the fan
velocity pressure that is calcd by flow and outlet area then add it to the static pressure.
 When selecting duty point, the point should be well on the right of the peak of the pressure
curve so as to avoid operating the fan or fans in the unstable region.
 Fan noise generation does not depend on outlet velocity, or rotational tip speed. Rather it is by
the manufacturers data that is more valid.
 When using VFDs to control the fan speed, charactersitics may then be estimated using the fan
laws. For axial fans we can even change the pitch of the blades for infrequent changes.

Chapter 40 cooling towers

 Cooling towers cool within 4-5 degrees of the ambient wet bulb therefore they are a good cheap
option.
 Temperature difference of water entering and leaving the cooling tower is the range of the
cooling tower.
 Difference between leaving water temperature and entering air wet bulb temperature is the
approach of the cooling tower.
 The evaporation rate is approx 1% of water flow rate (gpm) for each 12.5ºF of water temp
change.
 Thermal capacity (load) of a cooling tower is defined by 3 things: the entering air wet bulb temp,
the water entering and leaving temp, and the water flowrate.
 A nominal cooling tower ton is defined as cooling 3 gpm of water from 95°F (35ºC) to 85°F (30ºC)
at a 78°F (25.5ºC) entering air wet-bulb temperature. At these conditions, the cooling tower
rejects 15,000 Btu/h (4.5 kW) per nominal cooling tower ton.
 2 basic types of cooling towers are there: direct contact/open type or indirect contact
(water/fluids in coils) closed type. We use closed type where we dont want the fluid to iteract
with outside impurities.
 Fill is the medium which increased water contact with air. There are 2 basic types of fill, splash
type and film type (thins the water spray line). Films are compact but splash types are better to
negate silting and scaling.
 Mechanical draft means a fan is included in the cooling tower. Non mechanical means vice versa.
 Induced draft is when air is pulled by a fan into the cooling tower. Forced draft is when a fan
pushes the air in to the cooling tower.
 Most cooling towers are made up of galvanised steel. Some use SS and FRP (fiberglass reinforced
plastic).
 A hybrid indirect cooling tower controls fan and water pump accordingly (when outer air is
cooler uses more fa, when load is peak it uses more water).
 The 2 common methods of economic evaluation as per Ashrae are life cycle costing and payback
analysis.
 Cooling tower positioning is important. Discharged air should never enter the system again as it
will reduce performance drastically.
 All equipment such as chillers and heat exchangers should be placed below the water basin level
of the cooling tower so there is no problem at start up. Basins should have enough water so as to
not allow air to get into condenser water suction line.
 Some things to be discueed when designing cooling tower with VFD fans: Ask manufacturer
about critical speen of fan and design to avoid it. Pulse width modulating drive VFDs should be
avoided and cable length should be kept min.
 2 fans (cells) operatign simultaneously are always better than one on and one off. Therefore
(after consuling with the manufacturer regarding the low flow limits) always try to run more cells
at part loads rather than some on and some off.
 Water flow should be controlled only when air temp is expected to go down.
 When using cooling towers for free cooling (chillers off and cooling water in the lines) the
temperature in the chilled water line is expected to got to 55ºF (13ºC) from 45ºF (7ºC).
 Precautions to be taken in winter are as follows: Regular inspections of the cooling tower.
Reverse fan run at slow speed to de ice shit. Vibration inducing on structural components to de
ice shit. Use anti freeze solution or provide supplemental heating. Emergency drain systems in
case of power failure.
 Even after drift eliminators, 0.005% of the total water flow is lost in drift which is generally pretty
bad for vehicles and equipment nearby as the water has treatment chemicals etc.
 Cooling tower exhaust under certain conditions form fog. Heat the tower exhaust for solution.
 Cooling tower performance sureties: CTI certification STD-201. Field acceptance test as per CTI
Standard ATC-105 or ASME PTC-23. Field acceptance testing should be carried out with winds
under 10mph.
Chapter 43 Chillers

 A chiller basically consists of: Compressor(s), liquid cooler (evaporator), condenser, compressor
drive(s), refrigerant expansion or flow control device, and control center.
 A chiller CAN also include: receiver, economizer, expansion tube, and a subcooler.
 Auxiliary components that can also be used include: lubricant cooler, lubricant separator,
lubricant return device, purge unit, lubricant pump, refrigerant transfer unit, refrigerant vents,
control valves.
 Subcooling is when the refrigerant is cooled below its saturation temp in the condenser.
Subcooling reduces flashing and increases the refrigeration effect.
 Economizing is using the post compressor high pressure to do something else (rotate a fucking
turbine, flash and subcool the liquid a bit more etc).
 Always opt for multiple chillers instead of one big one as it provides redundancy and part load
value (at the cost of time and initial investment ofcourse).
 When multiple chillers are running in parallel (and the design temp is above 7ºC or 45ºF, the
units shall be controlled by the combined exit water temperature or by the return water temp so
that overchilling does not cause very low chilled water supply temp. When the leaving temp
drops below a capacity one of the units can be turned off.
 When the design temp is below 7ºC or 45ºF, each machine shall be controlled by its own
individual leaving water temperature. This is to prevent very low temperatures as discussed in
the point above and to avoid frequent shutdowns as there is not much range available for the
temperature differential setting to allow the step up in temperature to shut one chiller off or on.
 When running chillers in series, evaporator tem dropping below design value is no longer a
problem. If the condenser water circuit is also designed in series, then the chiller where the
warmer water returns first should get the warmer condenser water.
 Oversized chillers might cause surging of centrifugal compressors at low loads.
 Things to consider when selecting a chiller include: energy costs, maintenance requirements, life
expectancy of equipment, stand by arrangement, cooling loads, effect on size and type of
peripheral equipment.
 Chillers have liquid head connections wherein you just connect the chilled water and condenser
water pipes but they have to be removed for tube maintenance. If we buy marine type box
connections, then we wont have to remove the piping when we go for mainenance of tubes etc.
 Modulation of consumed electrical power (signal provided by the water temperature controller)
is done via a slide valve in screw compressors, by an adjustable prerotating vane in a centrifugal
compressor and on/off of the compressors in a reciprocating chiller. When chiller goes off due to
no load in running situation, the anti recycle timer limits starting frequency.
 Screw and centrifugal chillers usually go down to 10% of capacity and can even go to 0% via hot
gas bypass (although at cost of efficiency).
 During high startup loads, a current limiter limits the amount of current drawn by the machine.
 Maintaining the condenser water temperature is achieved by bypassing the cooling tower,
cooling tower fan control, or dampers, as velocity is to be maintained in the piping.
 For air-cooled or evaporative condensers, compressor discharge pressure can be controlled by
cycling fans, shutting off circuits, or flooding coils with liquid refrigerant to reduce heat transfer.
 Surge is when the lift of the compressor is exceeded. It may occur due to high temp of
refrigerant in the condenser (blockage of flow, cooling tower mal function, scaling and blockage
of condenser water tubes causing low heat transfer), low refrigerant flow thru compressor at
reduced load (low chilled water return temp causes low rerigerant temp and pressure). Surge
causes refrigerant to backflow from the condenser to the evaporator via the compressor and it is
pretty damaging and produces a screeching sound.
 Modern compressor cut out parameters include: High condenser pressure. Low refrigerant
pressure in evaporator. High compressor lubricant temperature (lubricant leaks also cause this).
High compressor motor temperature. Overcurrent protection. Low lubricant
temperature/pressure. Chilled water no flow switch. Chilled water low temp/anti freeze
protection. Pressure relief valves.
 AHRI standar 550/590 provides guidance for rating and testing of liquid chilling machines.
ASHRAE standard 15 applies to all liquid chillers and new refrigereants. Sound level standard is
AHRI standard 575.
 Chiller continous monitoring includes: Condenser water treatment. Operating conditions log
sheets. Brine quality.
 Chiller periodic checks include: Leak check. Purge op. System dryness. Lube level. Lube filter
delta p. Refrigerant quantity/level. System temps and pressure. Expansion valve operation.
Water flows.
 Regularly scheduled maintenance should include: Condenser• Condenser and lubricant cooler
cleaning. Evaporator cleaning on open systems. Calibrating pressure, temperature, and flow
controls. Tightening wires and power connections. Inspection of starter contacts and action.
Safety interlocks. Dielectric checking of hermetic and open motors. Tightness of hot gas valve.
Lubricant filter and drier change. Analysis of lubricant and refrigerant. Seal inspection. Partial or
complete valve or bearing inspection, as per manufacturer’s recommendations. Vibration levels.
 Extended maintenance checks include: Compressor guide vanes and linkage op and wear. Eddy
current inspection of heat exchanger tubes. Compressor teardown and inspection of rotating
components.
 Reciprocating units are popular for the following reasons in small capacities: Greater number in
capacity increments which means less current, stand by capacity and less power consumption.
Multiple refrigerant circuits used easing service and maintenance.
 Refrigerants for the reciprocating chillers include R-22 and R-134a but since they are on phase
out due to being HCFC, ammonia/R-717 is popular (exept in public places as you have that
dreaded stench.
 Fouling allowance of 0.00025 is included in accordance with AHRI 550/590. A water velocity of
200 fpm is recommended for condenser to avoid fouling. However velocities should not exceed
660 fpm as that would cause corrosion.
  As special application of reciprocating type, they are used in parallel when delta T of 10ºF is
there since in series the condenser water pressures will be high. At delta T of 18ºF series
arrangement can be used.
 For centrifugal machines, the start up process more affects the bearing wear than the running
system so we should minimize the start ups. Centrifs are good as they can vary and modulate in
a very wide range of load conditions and consume power accordingly.
 Flooded coolers are used (water in tubes and flooded refrigerant) and the water tubes can be 1
or 3 pass (pipe connection at opp ends) or 2 pas (pipe connections at same end).
 Chillers operating on refrigerants that have evaporation pressures below atmospheric pressures
must have a purge device to remove non condensable gases which might leak in to the machine.
For higher evaporative pressure refrigerants, leakage rates are approx 0.5 to 2% per year.
 Free cooling can also be provided via centrifs which works when the condenser water is cool
enough to condense the refrigerant and after the gas is pressurized in the evaporator it goes to
the condenser without any work from compressor (due to it being at higher temp/pressure).
 Centrifs also have a heat recovery package type unit. In multiple packages, only one unit is
designed for heat recovery.
 Chapter 39 of Applications guide gives details about the process and program of maintenance of
centrif chillers.
 Screw type chillers have the following characteristics: high max working pressure. Continous
lubricant scavenging. No mist eliminators (flooded coolers).
 Various ways to cool the lubricant. Mainly: Liquid injection into the compressor. Condensed
refrigerant liquid thermal recirculation.
 Common refrigerants include R-134a and R-717.
 Since it is positive displacement, there is no surge.
 Safety controls commonly required for screw chillers are: Lubricant failure switch. high discharge
pressure cutout. Low suction pressure switch. Cooler flow switch. High lubricant and dsicharge
temp cutout. hermetic motor inherent protection. lube pumpand compressor motor overload.
Low lubricant temp.
 Special applications of the screw chillers include: Heat recovery installations. low temp brine
chillers for process cooling. Ice rink chillers. Power transmission line lubricant cooling.

Chapter 44 Pumps

 Total pump head is the discharge head.

 Flat curve pump (if the churn is about 120% of design) selected for closed chilled water systems.
 Steep curve pump selected for open systems such as cooling towers.
 The theoretical power required to circulate water in a hydronic system is whp (water horse
power), while the actual tested power required to circulate the fluid is bhp (brake horse power).
Pump efficiency is bhp/whp x 100.
  Whp = (Q x h)/3960
 To obtain the lowest lifecycle pump power, consider the power required at various expected
operating conditions and how much time is spent at those conditions (duty cycle). This results in
selecting pumps with the highest efficiencies at the most common operating points, and favors
pumps with wide regions of best efficiency.
 Selecting pumps at the maximum impeller diameter and using reduced speed to reach the
highest flow and head operating point, and all other operating points, often results in the
highest overall pump efficiency and lowest power requirement.
 Centrifugal pumps have the highest efficiency at the max impeller dia and any pump above 5hp
is to have a VFD as per Ashrae 90.1.
 Flow varies with rotating speed N (peripheral velocity of the impeller.
 Head varies with the square of N
 BHP varies with the cube of N
 The maximum speed required to provide design flow and pressure is 80% of full speed (1400
rpm) and the practical lower limit is 30% (525 rpm).
 If the suction pressure at pump goes down to the vapor pressure (increases with temperature)
of the liquid, pockets of vapor are formed which then lead to cavitation. The extra amount of
pressure required at suction to prevent this is called the NPSHR (net positive suction head reqd)
and it is given by the manufacturer. The NPSHA is the available head and is calculated by: abs
press at liquid surface + static elevation (-ive if down) - vapor press - frictional losses.
 Basic arrangement of pumps include: Parallel (same head and flows add). Series (same flow and
heads add). Standby. Primary/secondary. Variable primary.
 The VFDs control differential pressure according to predefined control curves. For low pressure
losses, constant pressure control is recommended. For high pressure losses on load side,
proportional or exponential pressure control is recommended.
 As far as motor drives for pumps are concerned, non-overloading motors should be used, which
means the motor nameplate rating must exceed the pump bhp at any point on the curve.
Smaller sizes upto 3.35 hp should be ECM motors which are more efficient.

Chapter 9 Thermal comfort

 A principal purpose of HVAC is to provide conditions for human thermal comfort wherein the
mind expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment.
 Skin temperature associated with comfort with sedentary activities are 33ºC to 34ºC. This range
decreases with increased activity. Brain temp normal is 36.8ºC and goes upto 37.9ºC when
jogging. Temp in brain above 43ºC causes death and brain temp below 28ºC causes death.
 Resting adult produces 100 W of heat.
 Skin wetedness of 25% starts irritation. Average adult surface area is 1.8 m2. 1 met = 58 W/m2.
Max met = 12, min met = 7.
  ASHRAE thermal sensation scale: +3 hot, +2 warm, +1 slightly warm, 0 neutral, -1 slightly cool, -2
cool, -3 cold. 3ºC change in temperature or a 3kPa change in water vapor pressure is necessary
to change a thermal sensation vote by one unit.
 ASHRAE standard 55 specifies the conditions or comfort zones that 80% people find acceptable.
 For high humidity environment, the RH should not exceed 60% for comfort.
 Evaporative heat loss from skin depends upon the amount of moisture on the skin and diff bw
water vapor pressure at skin and the ambient environment.
 Sensible heat loss passes from the clothes onto the environment.
 The mean radiant temperature is a key variable is thermal calculations for the human body. It is
the uniform temp of an imaginary enclosure in which radiant heat transfer from the human body
equals the radiant heat transfer in the actual non uniform enclosure.
 Radiative heat transfer coefficient basically depends on emissivity of the body.
 Convective heat transfer coefficient is depended upon body surface area exposed to moving air.
 Complaints temp range is 21ºC - 24ºC. Values lower or higher than these values generated
complaint.
 A warm ceiling is the most likely source of assymetric discomfort.
 Draft is an undesired local cooling of the body caused by air movement. Air speed lesser than
0.25 m/s didnt cause trouble.
 Floor temperature should be lower than 28ºC for comfort and higher than 21ºC.
 Max rate of sweating for an average man is 0.5g/s.
 Body heat storage of 335 kJ for an average man represents an average tolerance limit.
 Ambient temp of -35ºC is the lower limit for outdoor activity with full clothing.
 Shivering is a form of a heat generation procedure.
 As long as the skin temperature of the fingers is above 15ºC, manual dexterity is maintained.

Chapter 17 Residential load calculation

With respect to heat and cool load calcs the residential loads differ as follows:

 smaller heat gains

 varied use of space
 few zones
 distribution losses
 partial/small loads (5-18 kW cooling and 18-32 kW heating)
 dehumidification issues.

Residential buildings are categorized as follows:

  Single family detached. 4 exposed walls. Central return. 2 stories max. Open rooms. Supply to
each room based on load of that room.
 Multi family. Pretty much the same as single one but not all walls of rooms are exposed to
sunlight. Also load levelling effect not as dominant.
 Other.

Heating calculation is simple in these sort of units. It is a worst case assumption with no solar gain, no
internal gain and no heat storage. It is a simple UxAxdelta T problem.

The residential heat balance method is a computer only method used to calculate loads. The toolkit used
to calculate this has the following features:

 multizone
 temp swing
 master slave control. Master room is the one where the thermostat is located.
 residential default values.

The residential load factor method is a simplified procedure derived from the ResHB (above) method and
is done on a spreadsheet. The 2 main applications are:

 education and training

 quick estimates

There are 2 basic steps of the RLF method:

 the cooling and heating factors are dervied for all project component types
 then these factors are applied to the individual components by a single multiplication.

Residential loads are generally designed for typical usage and not for special social cases. Also adding
safety factors generally oversize the system. Basic relationship of sensible, latent and total heat conveyed
by air on volumetric basis is:
For residential loads the common range of design indoor condition is

 for cooling, 24ºC and 40-60% RH is considered.

 For heating 20ºC and 30% RH is considered.

For outside conditions, the hottest month dry bulb daily range is required with wind speed (usually
estimated at about 3.4 m/s).

For heating as stated above, no solar gains and no internal gains are considered. Should also consider the
fact that there may be prolonged days of cold and the fact that it may be colder in the area on extreme
windy days. Also, we can assume that as adjacent insulated room temp will be the mean of maintained
indoor and outdoor temperature.

Infiltration generally has a large effect on the load. It is given by:

Infiltration also depends on 2 things:

 Building effective leakage area.

 Stack and wind effects.

After infiltration we need to add the outside air load.

We also have to cater for distribution losses:

Moving onto cooling we gotta calculate 4 main things:

 Heat gain thru opaque surfaces (walls, roofs, floors, doors)

 Heat gain thru transparent fenestration surfaces (windows, skylights etc)
 Heat gain thru ventilation and infiltration.
 Occupancy

Note that latent loads are calculated separately.

Chapter 18 Non Residential load calculations

For the commercial zones we also take into consideration, the heat storing capacity of equipment.

Places with high latent loads such as auditoriums cannot only be designed based on sensible load. There
has to be subcooling followed by heating to make sure dehumidification is occurring.

When designing large systems, simultaneous loads and diversity should be taken into account as the
complete central system is planned.

Cooking areas are specially designed considering various special cases. Hooded cooking equipment
radiant heat gain is taken as 15-45% of the actual appliance energy consumption. For each meal 15W of
heat is considered of which 75% is sensible and the rest is latent.

RTS method was developed so that it was a rigorous but non iterative way to do calculations and that it
would enable the designer to identify the effect of each small component on the overall load separately.
This method is suitable for peak design load calcs but not suitable for annual energy simulations because
of its limiting assumptions

Chapter 16 Ventilation

 ASHRAE standard 62.1 for ventilation rates.

 Ventilation is intentional introduction of outdoor air into a building. Natural vent is auto flow
thru windows grilles etc. Mechnical/forced ventilation is when you use fans, ducts, louvers to
intake air.
 Infiltration is when unwanted air is bought in to the system via openign doors, construction
cracks etc.
 Exfiltration is leakage of building air to outside via similar openings.
 Displacement flow within a space is piston type movement (technically no mixing of air).
 Entrainment of air generally means short circuiting air when the incoming supply doesnt really
mix with the room air.
 Occupied zone is usually the lowest 1.8 m of the room.
 Time constant is the inverse of outdoor air change rate. Age of air concept is also something that
is prevalent. Ventilation effectiveness is time constant/age of air.
 Tracer gas is usually used to estimate a buildings air change rate. Tracer gas should be
detectable, non reactive, non toxic, buoyant.
 Stack pressure is the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of a column of air located inside
or outside of a building. When indoor air is warm, base of the building is depressurized and the
top is pressurized relative to the outdoor. If the inside air is cool, the reverse is true also.
 Wind pressure. Wind is measured at a height of 10m.