D Y OTCHERE
School of medicine
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Cell Structure and Function
LECTURE 2
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Course Objectives
• At the end of the study, student should be able to:
• Describe cell and it structures
• History of Cell Theory
• Definition of cell
• Types of cell
• cell membrane,
• nucleus,
• cytoplasm
• cytoskeleton
• other organelles
• Give the Functions of cell
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READING OR REFERENCE MATERIAL
• Principles and techniques of practical
Biochemistry. Fourth Edition and edited by
Keith Wilson and John Walker.
• Techniques used in Bioproduct Analysis.
Published by Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
• Structure and Function of cells, by Colin R.
Hopkins.
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READING OR REFERENCE
MATERIAL CONT’D.
Cell Biology, 1st Edition by C. A.
Smith and E. J. Wood.
Molecules of Life, Structure and
Function at a glance, 2nd Edition, by
J. P. Adjimani.
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READING OR REFERENCE
MATERIAL CONT’D.
• Biology, Concepts and Connections, 2nd
Edition, by Neil A. Campbell, Lawrence
G. Mitchell and Jane B. Reece.
• Cell Biology, Structure, Biochemistry and
function, by Philip Sheeler and Donald E.
Bianchi etc
• Cell and Molecular Biology, Concepts
and Experiments, 3rd Edition, by Gerald
Karp. 7
Cell Biology
• Life activities such as ingestion, digestion,
etc. are initiated by an aggregation of certain
‘minute structures’ within the human body.
• These ‘structures’ generate the energy that
permits the body to perform its function.
• Cell is from Latin word ‘cella’ meaning ‘small
room’
• Cells are the building block of life
THE STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of
an organism that is capable of self
replication/reproduction independently. Life
exhibits varying degrees of organization.
• Atoms are organized into molecules, molecules into
organelles, and organelles into cells, and so on.
• According to the Cell Theory, all living things are
composed of one or more cells, and the functions of
a multicellular organism are a consequence of the
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types of cells it has. 8
Development of the Cell
•
Theory
In 1838 and 1839, a German botanist by the
name of Matthias Schleiden and German
zoologist by the name of Theodore
Schwann viewed plants and animals under
a microscope and discovered that plants and
animals are both made of cells.
• In 1855 a Prussian (modern day German)
physician by the name of Rudolph
Virchow collaborated his ideas with the
other two scientists and they developed the
Cell Theory.
The Cell Theory
• The ideas of these three men led to the
creation of the cell theory. These are the
three main principles of cell theory.
– All living organisms are made up of cells -
Matthias Schleiden (1838) (Looked at plant cells)
– Cells are the most basic unit of life - Theodore
Schwann (1839) (looking at animal cells)
– Cells only come from the division of pre-
existing cells. In other words, spontaneous
generation of cells does not occur- Rudolph
Virchow (1855)
Cell Theory
• All chemical reactions take place in the cell. Eg.
Photosynthesis, respiration, etc
• The hereditary material responsible for the
transmission of characters to offspring is located
in the cell.
• The shape of cell depends partly on the surface
tension and viscosity of the cytoplasm, the
mechanical action which the adjoining cells exert,
the rigidity of the membrane and the functional
adaptation.
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Cell Shape
Spherical Rod-like Spiral
Basic Features of Cells
• Living cells have some basic similarities
such as;
– Growth, Metabolism,
Reproduction/Differentiation,
Responsiveness/Irritability, Respiration and
Movement
• all living things, hereditary material—
genes—are stored in DNA molecules, and
are responsible for the transmission of
characters to offspring is located in the cell.
CELL TYPES
• Cells fall into two broad groups: prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
• Prokaryotic cells have single cell, smaller (as a general
rule) and lack much of the internal organelles and
structure. Eg. bacteria
• Eukaryotic cells have more than one cell, large
organisms, present of variety organelles. Eg. human
• all cells have certain features in common, such as a
cell membrane, DNA and RNA, cytoplasm, and
ribosomes. 15
PROKAYORTES VRS EUKAYORTES
• Prokaryotes are the earliest and simplest cells
on Earth. Eukaryotes are more modern cells.
All the cells described so far are eukaryotic.
• In prokaryotes, there is no nucleus and genetic
material floats freely in the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotes also lack all the other organelles
except for cell walls and ribosomes.
Additionally, the cell walls in prokaryotic
organisms are made of peptidoglycan instead
of cellulose and the ribosomes are smaller. 16
Cellular organization
• A cell is comprised of the three major
components;
• A cell, or plasma membrane that forms the outer
boundary of the cell;
• The cytoplasm that lies interior to the cell
membrane and surrounds the nucleus and other
organelles, and;
• The organelles; - tiny structures within the cell
that are specialized to carry out specific
functions.
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Diagram of the structure of cell
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CELL MEMBRANE
• The membrane is made of a two molecule
thick layer (bilayer) of phospholipids, an oily
substance found in all cells. This layer is
embedded with many diverse proteins and
has carbohydrates attached to its outer
surface.
• The lipids in the membrane can exist either in
a gel-like, nearly solid, state or in a liquid-like
state, which gives the lipid molecules more
mobility. In living cells, the membrane seems
to be in a transition between the two states,
depending on physical conditions and what
lipids and proteins are present in the 19
CELL MEMBRANE
• The biological membrane is a collage of many
different proteins embedded in the fluid
matrix of the lipid bilayer. The lipid bilayer is
the main fabric of the membrane, and its
structure creates a semi-permeable
membrane. The hydrophobic core impedes
the transport of hydrophilic structures, such as
ions and polar molecules but enable
hydrophobic molecules, which can dissolve in
the membrane, cross it with ease. 20
CELL MEMBRANE
• Proteins determine most of the membrane's
specific functions. The plasma membrane and
the membranes of the various organelles each
have unique collections of proteins. For
example, to date more than 50 kinds of
proteins have been found in the plasma
membrane of red blood cells.
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Plasma membrane
• It is a lipid bilayer, thin, pliable and elastic in
nature. It is between 7.5-10nm thick.
• It contains about 55% protein, 25%
phospholipids, 13% cholesterol, 4% of other
lipids and 3% carbohydrate.
• The lipid bilayer is interspersed with proteins.
• Each lipid bilayer molecule has hydrophobic
lipid tail and hydrophilic head.
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• The hydrophilic heads face the cytoplasm or
the extrcellular fluid and the hydrophobic tails
are found in the middle of the lipid bilayer.
• The lipid bilayer is not rigid.
• It is fluid in nature and the phospholipids
molecules are not held by chemical bonds.
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• Dissolve in the lipid bilayer is cholesterol
which helps in stabilizing the plasma
membrane and adds to the fluidity of the
plasma membrane.
• It also regulates the permeability of the
plasma membrane.
• Proteins interspersed in the plasma
membrane. They are two types- integral and
peripheral proteins.
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Plasma Membrane Structure
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MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
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MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
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MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
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MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
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Functions of the protein
• Add to the structure of the plasma membrane
• Serves as receptors
• Serves as enzymes
• Serves as channels through which some
substances cross the plasma membrane
• Serves as carrier proteins to transport
substance across the membrane
• Serves as adhesion molecules
• Involves in cell to cell recognition 30
• In the plasma membrane carbohydrates are
found which form chemical bond with lipid
and proteins called glycolipid and
glycoprotein.
• They form a loose bonding on the surface of
the membrane called glycocalyx found in the
ECF.
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Carbohydrate functions in the plasma
membrane
• Cell to cell recognition
• Receptors
• Involves in cell adhesion function
• Immune response
• The plasma membrane is said to be
asymmetrical in nature- thus certain
substances may be found in one part and not
the other, example glycocalyx is only found in
the outer membrane.
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Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm consists of :
• gelatinous solution and
• contains microtubules (which serve as a cell's
cytoskeleton) and
• organelles (literally 'little organs').
• The cytoplasm is filled with both minute and
large dispersed particles and organelles.
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• The clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm in
which the particles are dispersed is called
cytosol; this contains mainly dissolved
proteins, electrolytes, and glucose.
• Dispersed in the cytoplasm are neutral fat
globules, glycogen granules, ribosomes,
secretory vesicles, and five especially
important organelles: the endoplasmic
reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria,
lysosomes, and peroxisome 34
Organelles include: Endoplasmic
reticulum
• Often abbreviated ER, the endoplasmic
reticulum is widely distributed throughout the
cytoplasm as a complex network of
interconnected membranes.
• Although the name sounds complicated,
endoplasmic simply means “within the plasm”
(cytoplasm of the cell) and reticulum means
“network.”
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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• The ER provides a pathway for transportation
of substances within the cell and a storage
area for synthesized molecules.
• There are two distinct varieties, either of
which may predominate in a given cell:
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• rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough
ER),characterized by numerous small granules
called ribosomes that are attached to the
outer surface of the membranous wall; and
• smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)
that lacks ribosomes.
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• The membranous wall of rough ER provides a
site for protein synthesis within ribosomes.
• Smooth ER manufactures certain lipid
molecules.
• Also, enzymes within the smooth ER of liver
cells inactivate or detoxify a variety of
chemicals.
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Ribosomes
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Golgi Apparatus
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Golgi complex -
• Consists of several tiny membranous sacs or a
series of flattened sacs (or cisternae) located
near the nucleus.
• Synthesis of carbohydrates and cellular
secretions.
• The Golgi complex is prominent in cells of
certain secretory organs of the digestive
system, including the pancreas and the
salivary glands.
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Golgi complex – cont.
• Functions include: synthesis of substances
likes phospholipids, packaging of materials for
transport (in vesicles), and production of
lysosomes.
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LYSOSOME
• A membrane-bounded organelle, found in the
cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, which contains
digestive enzymes. It acts as the “garbage
disposal” of the cell by breaking down cell
components that are no longer needed as well
as molecules or even bacteria that are
ingested by the cell. The interior of a lysosome
is strongly acidic, and its enzymes are active at
an acid pH. Lysosomes are found in all
eukaryotic cells, but are most numerous in 44
LYSOSOMES
• Some human diseases are caused by lysosome
enzyme disorders. Tay-sachs disease, for
example, is caused by a genetic defect that
prevents the formation of an essential enzyme
that breaks down ganglioside lipids. An
accumulation of undigested ganglioside
damages the nervous system, causing mental
retardation and death in early childhood.
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• Tay-Sachs Disorder: Affects children of eastern
European- descent.
• It is characterized by seizures, muscle rigidity, blind,
demented and dead before the age of 5.
• A Genetic disorder caused by absence of single
lysosomal enzyme.
• The enzyme normally breaks down glycolipid
commonly found in nerve cells and as glycolipid
accumulates, nerve cells lose functionality.
• Currently chromosome testing now available.
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LYSOSOMES
• Details of function and structure
• Lysosomes break down cellular waste products, fats,
carbohydrates, proteins, and other macromolecules
into simple compounds, which are then returned to
the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials. To
accomplish the tasks associated with digestion, the
lysosomes use some 40 different types of hydrolytic
enzymes, all of which are manufactured in the
endoplasmic reticulum and modified in the Golgi
apparatus.
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LYSOSOMES
• Lysosomes are often budded from the
membrane of the Golgi apparatus, but in
some cases they develop gradually from late
endosomes, which are vesicles that carry
materials brought into the cell by a process
known as endocytosis. Like other microbodies,
lysosomes are spherical organelles contained
by a single layer membrane, though their size
and shape varies to some extent. This
membrane protects the rest of the cell from
the digestive enzymes contained in the
lysosomes, which would otherwise cause
significant damage. 48
LYSOSOMES
• The cell is further safeguarded from exposure to the
biochemical catalysts present in lysosomes by their
dependency on an acidic environment. With an
average pH of about 4.8, the lysosomal matrix is
favorable for enzymatic activity, but the neutral
environment of the cytosol renders most of the
digestive enzymes inoperative, so even if a lysosome is
ruptured, the cell as a whole may remain uninjured.
• The acidity of the lysosome is maintained with the help
of hydrogen ion pumps, and the organelle avoids self-
digestion by glucosylation of inner membrane proteins
to prevent their degradation.
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• The lysosomes provide an intracellular digestive
system that allows the cell to digest
• (1) damaged cellular structures,
• (2) food particles that have been ingested by the
cell, and
• (3) unwanted matter such as bacteria.
• The lysosome is quite different in different types of
cells, but it is usually 250 to 750 nanometers in
diameter.
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LYSOSOME:
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• Several diseases arise from abnormalities in
lysosome function.
• The painful inflammation of rheumatoid
arthritis, for example, occurs when enzymes
from lysosomes are released into the joint
capsule and initiate digestion of the
surrounding tissue.
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Mitochondrion
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Mitochondria –
• They have a double-membrane: outer
membrane & highly convoluted inner
membrane
• Cristae that contain enzymes important in ATP
production
• primary function is production of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
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The Cell Nucleus
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NUCLEUS
• Only the cells of advanced organisms, known
as eukaryotes, have a nucleus. Generally there
is only one nucleus per cell, but there are
exceptions, such as the cells of slime molds
and the Siphonales group of algae. Simpler
one-celled organisms (prokaryotes), like the
bacteria and cyanobacteria, don't have a
nucleus. In these organisms, all of the cell's
information and administrative functions are
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. 56
NUCLEUS
• The spherical nucleus typically occupies about 10
percent of a eukaryotic cell's volume, making it
one of the cell's most prominent features. A
double-layered membrane, the nuclear envelope,
separates the contents of the nucleus from the
cellular cytoplasm. The envelope is riddled with
holes called nuclear pores that allow specific
types and sizes of molecules to pass back and
forth between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It
is also attached to a network of tubules and sacs,
called the endoplasmic reticulum, where protein
synthesis occurs, and is usually studded with
ribosomes.
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NUCLEUS
• The semifluid matrix found inside the nucleus
is called nucleoplasm. Within the
nucleoplasm, most of the nuclear material
consists of chromatin, the less condensed
form of the cell's DNA that organizes to form
chromosomes during mitosis or cell division.
The nucleus also contains one or more
nucleoli, organelles that synthesize protein-
producing macromolecular assemblies called
ribosomes, and a variety of other smaller
components, such as Cajal bodies, GEMS
(Gemini of coiled bodies), and interchromatin
granule clusters. 58
NUCLEUS
• CHROMATIN AND CHROMMOSOSME
• Packed inside the nucleus of every human cell is nearly
6 feet of DNA, which is divided into 46 individual
molecules, one for each chromosome and each about
1.5 inches long. Packing all this material into a
microscopic cell nucleus is an extraordinary feat of
packaging. For DNA to function, it can't be crammed
into the nucleus like a ball of string. Instead, it is
combined with proteins and organized into a precise,
compact structure, a dense string-like fiber called
chromatin.
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Chromatin and Chromosomes
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NUCLEUS
• The nucleolus is a membrane-less organelle within
the nucleus that manufactures ribosomes, the cell's
protein-producing structures. Through the
microscope, the nucleolus looks like a large dark spot
within the nucleus. A nucleus may contain up to four
nucleoli, but within each species the number of
nucleoli is fixed. After a cell divides, a nucleolus is
formed when chromosomes are brought together
into nucleolar organizing regions. During cell division,
the nucleolus disappears.
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NUCLEUS
• Some studies suggest that the nucleolus may
be involved with cellular aging and, therefore,
may affect the senescence of an organism.
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NUCLEAR PORE
• The nuclear envelope is perforated with holes
called nuclear pores. These pores regulate the
passage of molecules between the nucleus
and cytoplasm, permitting some to pass
through the membrane, but not others.
Building blocks for building DNA and RNA are
allowed into the nucleus as well as molecules
that provide the energy for constructing
genetic material.
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CYTOSKELETON
• Eukaryotic cells have a wide variety of distinct
shapes and internal organizations. Cells are
capable of changing their shape, moving
organelles, and in many cases, move from
place to place. This requires a network a
protein filaments placed in the cytoplasm
known as the cytoskeleton.
• The two most important protein filaments are
called the actin filaments and the
microtubules. The actin is responsible for
contraction (like in muscles) and the
microtubules are for structural strength.
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Cytoskeleton
• Enables a cell to change shape
• Anchors organelles and cytoplasmic enzymes
• Basically just non-membrane bound organelles
that can self-assemble.
• Cytoskeleton contains:
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments (actin fibrils)
– Intermediate fibrils
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TYPES OF FIBRES
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CYTOSKELETON CONT’D.
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CYTOSKELETON
• The cytosol is the main component of the
cytoplasm, the fluid that fills the inside of the
cell. The cytoplasm is everything in the cell
except for the cytoskeleton and membrane-
bound organelles. Both structures, the
cytoskeleton and cytosol, are "filler"
structures that do not contain essential
biological molecules but perform structural
functions within a cell.
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CYTOSKELETON
• The interior of a cell is composed of
organelles, the cytoskeleton, and the cytosol.
The cytosol often comprises more than 50% of
a cell's volume. Beyond providing structural
support, the cytosol is the site wherein
protein synthesis takes place, and this
provides a home for the centrosomes and
centrioles.
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Detailed Structure of some of the
organelles
• MICROBODIES:
• are heterogeneous group of small vesicle-like
organelles, concerned largely with oxidation.
• They are usually oval or spherical and bounded by a
single membrane. Microbodies are found in the liver
and kidneys of vertebrates, in the leaves and seeds of
plants as well as in protozoa, yeasts and other fungi.
• Microbodies consist of peroxisomes, glyoxysomes,
hydrogenosomes and glycosomes.
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MICROBODIES
• PEROXISOMES:
• These contain the enzymes urate oxidase, D-amino
acid oxidase and catalase.
• Urate oxidase is a purine – catabolising enzyme,
converting urate into allantoin, CO2 and H2O2. Thus,
peroxisomes not only play a role in the break down
of nitrogenous bases derived from nucleic acids but
they are also involved in the degradation of L-α-
hydroxy acids to oxoacids and H2O2 and of
oxoacids to smaller products including acetyl CoA.
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MICROBODIES
• D-Amino acid oxidase and catalase have
protective functions. D-amino acids may be
absorbed from the gut following their release
by the break down of cell walls of gut bacteria.
These “unnatural” amino acids are degraded
to give oxoacids and H2O2 .
• H2O2 is a powerful oxidising agent and is
potentially toxic. Catalase catalyses the rapid
degradation of H2O2 to water and O2.
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PEROXISOME
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MICROBODIES
• GLYOXYSOMES:
• These are microbodies of plant cells in which
the enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle are
functionally more important than those
involved in oxidative mechanisms. The
glyoxylate cycle allows the relatively immobile
fatty reserves of e.g. seeds to be converted to
sugars and therefore, more easily transported
to growing tissues.
• The fats are degraded to acetyl CoA which
feeds into the glyoxylate cycle to give
succinate as a net product. 75
• Succinate is then transported to the
mitochondria where it becomes a substrate
for gluconeogenesis.
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Movement of Substances
• Cell membrane must act as a selectively permeable
barrier
– This prevents passive movement of most molecules
• There are seven ways a substance can get into a cell:
– Bulk Flow
– Diffusion
– Osmosis
– Facilitated Diffusion
– Active Transport
– Vesicle-Mediated Transport
– Cell-Cell Junction
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