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B AS I C TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

To the Instructor xx
To the Student xxviii

CHAPTER 1 What Is Physical Anthropology? 2

PART I The Present: Foundation for the

Past 19
CHAPTER 2 Evolution: Constructing a Fundamental Scientific Theory 20
CHAPTER 3 Genetics: Reproducing Life and Producing Variation 42
CHAPTER 4 Genes and Their Evolution: Population Genetics 70
CHAPTER 5 Biology in the Present: Living People 100
CHAPTER 6 Biology in the Present: The Other Living Primates 132
CHAPTER 7 Primate Sociality, Social Behavior, and Culture 164

PART II The Past: Evidence for the

Present 183
CHAPTER 8 Fossils and Their Place in Time and Nature 184
CHAPTER 9 Primate Origins and Evolution: The First 50 Million Years 216
CHAPTER 10 Early Hominin Origins and Evolution: The Roots of Humanity 244
CHAPTER 11 The Origins and Evolution of Early Homo 282
CHAPTER 12 The Origins, Evolution, and Dispersal of Modern People 306
CHAPTER 13 Our Last 10,000 Years: Agriculture, Population, Biology 350

vii
viii
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T
S

Two-Page Spreads xix

To the Instructor xx
Tools for Teaching and Learning xxiii
Who Helped xxv
To the Student xxviii

CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS PHYSICAL

ANTHROPOLOGY? 2
Big Questions 3
What Is Anthropology? 5
What Is Physical Anthropology? 7
What Do Physical Anthropologists Do? 7
What Makes Humans So Different from Other Animals?: The Six Steps to
Humanness 8
How We Know What We Know: The Scientific Method 14
Answering the Big Questions 16
Key Terms 17
Evolution Review 17
Additional Readings 17

ix
 PART I THE PRESENT: FOUNDATION
FOR THE PAST 19
CHAPTER 2 EVOLUTION: CONSTRUCTING A
FUNDAMENTAL SCIENTIFIC THEORY 20
Big Questions 21
The Theory of Evolution: The Context for Darwin 23
Geology: Reconstructing Earth’s Dynamic History 24
Paleontology: Reconstructing the History of Life on Earth 25
Taxonomy and Systematics: Classifying Living Organisms and Identifying Their
Biological Relationships 26
Concept Check Pre-Darwinian Theory and Ideas: Groundwork for
Evolution 27
Demography: Influences on Population Size and Competition for Limited
Resources 28
Evolutionary Biology: Explaining the Transformation of Earlier Life-Forms into
Later Life-Forms 28
Concept Check Darwin Borrows from Malthus 30
The Theory of Evolution: Darwin’s Contribution 31
Since Darwin: Mechanisms of Inheritance, the Evolutionary Synthesis, and the
Discovery of DNA 33
Mechanisms of Inheritance 33
The Evolutionary Synthesis, the Study of Populations, and the Causes of
­Evolution 36
DNA: Discovery of the Molecular Basis of Evolution 37
Answering the Big Questions 39
Key Terms 39
Evolution Review: Past, Present, and Future of a Fundamental Scientific
Theory 40
Additional Readings 41

CHAPTER 3 GENETICS: REPRODUCING LIFE AND

PRODUCING VARIATION 42
Big Questions 43
The Cell: Its Role in Reproducing Life and Producing Variation 44
The DNA Molecule: The Genetic Code 46
DNA: The Blueprint of Life 48
The DNA Molecule: Replicating the Code 48
How Do We Know? Ancient DNA Opens New Windows on the Past 50
Concept Check The Two Steps of DNA Replication 51
Chromosome Types 51
Mitosis: Production of Identical Somatic Cells 52
Meiosis: Production of Gametes (Sex Cells) 54
Producing Proteins: The Other Function of DNA 56
x Table of Contents
Concept Check The Two Steps of Protein Synthesis 60
Genes: Structural and Regulatory 61
Polymorphisms: Variations in Specific Genes 61
Genotypes and Phenotypes: Genes and Their Expression 63
The Complexity of Genetics 65
Answering the Big Questions 67
Key Terms 68
Evolution Review: Insights from Genetics 68
Additional Readings 69

CHAPTER 4 GENES AND THEIR EVOLUTION:

POPULATION GENETICS 70
Big Questions 71
Demes, Reproductive Isolation, and Species 72
Hardy-Weinberg Law: Testing the Conditions of Genetic Equilibrium 76
Mutation: The Only Source of New Alleles 77
Natural Selection: Advantageous Characteristics, Survival, and
Reproduction 80
Patterns of Natural Selection 81
Natural Selection in Animals: The Case of the Peppered Moth and Industrial
Melanism 82
Natural Selection in Humans: Abnormal Hemoglobins and Resistance to
Malaria 84
The Geography of Sickle-Cell Anemia and the Association with Malaria 86
The Biology of Sickle-Cell Anemia and Malarial Infection 87
The History of Sickle-Cell Anemia and Malaria 87
Other Hemoglobin and Enzyme Abnormalities 89
Genetic Drift: Genetic Change due to Chance 90
Founder Effect: A Special Kind of Genetic Drift 93
Gene Flow: Spread of Genes across Population Boundaries 93
Concept Check What Causes Evolution? 97
Answering the Big Questions 97
Key Terms 98
Evolution Review: The Four Forces of Evolution 99
Additional Readings 99

CHAPTER 5 BIOLOGY IN THE PRESENT: LIVING

PEOPLE 100
Big Questions 101
Is Race a Valid, Biologically Meaningful Concept? 102
Brief History of the Race Concept 102
Debunking the Race Concept: Franz Boas Shows that Human Biology Is Not
Static 103
Table of Contents xi
 So-Called Racial Traits Are Not Concordant 103
Human Variation: Geographic Clines, Not Racial Categories 103
Life History: Growth and Development 104
The Growth Cycle: Conception through Adulthood 105
Prenatal Stage: Sensitive to Environmental Stress, Predictive of Adult Health
105
Postnatal Stage: The Maturing Brain, Preparing for Adulthood 106
Adult Stage: Aging and Senescence 109
Evolution of Human Life History: Food, Sex, and Strategies for Survival and
Reproduction 111
Concept Check Life History Stages in Humans: Prenatal, Postnatal, and
Adult 111
Prolonged Childhood: Fat-Bodied Moms and Their Big-Brained Babies 112
Grandmothering: Part of Human Adaptive Success 112
Adaptation: Meeting the Challenges of Living 113
Climate Adaptation: Living on the Margins 114
Heat Stress and Thermoregulation 114
Body Shape and Adaptation to Heat Stress 114
Cold Stress and Thermoregulation 115
Solar Radiation and Skin Color 116
Solar Radiation and Vitamin D Synthesis 117
Solar Radiation and Folate Protection 118
High Altitude and Access to Oxygen 118
Concept Check Adaptation: Heat, Cold, Solar Radiation, High Altitude 119
Nutritional Adaptation: Energy, Nutrients, and Function 120
Macronutrients and Micronutrients 120
Human Nutrition Today 121
Overnutrition and the Consequences of Dietary Excess 123
Concept Check Nutritional Adaptation 126
Workload Adaptation: Skeletal Homeostasis and Function 126
Excessive Activity and Reproductive Ecology 128
Answering the Big Questions 129
Key Terms 130
Evolution Review: Human Variation Today 130
Additional Readings 131

CHAPTER 6 BIOLOGY IN THE PRESENT:

THE OTHER LIVING PRIMATES 132
Big Questions 133
What Is a Primate? 135
Arboreal Adaptation—Primates Live in Trees and Are Good at It 138
Primates Have a Versatile Skeletal Structure 138
Primates Have an Enhanced Sense of Touch 140

xii Table of Contents

 Primates Have an Enhanced Sense of Vision 141
Primates Have a Reduced Reliance on Senses of Smell and Hearing 141
Concept Check What Makes Primates Good at Living in Trees? 142
Dietary Plasticity—Primates Eat a Highly Varied Diet, and Their Teeth Reflect This
Adaptive Versatility 142
Primates Have Retained Primitive Characteristics in Their Teeth 142
Primates Have a Reduced Number of Teeth 142
Primates Have Evolved Different Dental Specializations and Functional
Emphases 143
Concept Check What Gives Primates Their Dietary Flexibility? 143
Parental Investment—Primate Parents Provide Prolonged Care for Fewer but
Smarter, More Socially Complex, and Longer-Lived Offspring 146
Concept Check Primate Parenting 148
What Are the Kinds of Primates? 148
The Strepsirhines 153
Concept Check Monkey or Ape? Differences Matter 154
The Haplorhines 155
Concept Check Strepsirhines and Haplorhines Differ in Their Anatomy and
Senses 161
Answering the Big Questions 162
Key Terms 162
Evolution Review: Our Closest Living Relatives 163
Additional Readings 163

CHAPTER 7 PRIMATE SOCIALITY, SOCIAL

BEHAVIOR, AND CULTURE 164
Big Questions 165
Primate Societies: Diverse, Complex, Long-Lasting 166
Diversity of Primate Societies 166
Primate Social Behavior: Enhancing Survival and Reproduction 167
Primate Residence Patterns 168
Primate Reproductive Strategies: Males’ Differ from Females’ 169
Concept Check Male and Female Reproductive Strategies 170
The Other Side of Competition: Cooperation in Primates 170
Getting Food: Everybody Needs It, but the Burden Is on Mom 172
Acquiring Resources and Transmitting Knowledge: Got Culture? 173
Vocal Communication Is Fundamental Behavior in Primate Societies 175
Answering the Big Questions 181
Key Terms 181
Evolution Review: Primate Social Organization and Behavior 182
Additional Readings 182

Table of Contents xiii

 PART II THE PAST: EVIDENCE FOR
THE PRESENT 183
CHAPTER 8 FOSSILS AND THEIR PLACE IN TIME
AND NATURE 184
Big Questions 185
Fossils: Memories of the Biological Past 188
What Are Fossils? 188
Taphonomy and Fossilization 188
Types of Fossils 188
Limitations of the Fossil Record: Representation Is Important 191
Just How Old Is the Past? 192
Time in Perspective 192
Geologic Time: Earth History 193
Relative and Numerical Age 195
Relative Methods of Dating: Which Is Older, Younger, the Same Age? 196
Stratigraphic Correlation 196
Chemical Dating 196
Biostratigraphic (Faunal) Dating 197
Cultural Dating 198
Absolute Methods of Dating: What Is the Numerical Age? 198
The Radiometric Revolution and the Dating Clock 198
The Revolution Continues: Radiopotassium Dating 203
Non-Radiometric Absolute Dating Methods 205
Genetic Dating: The Molecular Clock 207
Concept Check How Old Is It? 208
Reconstruction of Ancient Environments and Landscapes 209
The Driving Force in Shaping Environment: Temperature 210
Chemistry of Animal Remains and Ancient Soils: Windows onto Diets and
­Habitats 211
Answering the Big Questions 213
Key Terms 214
Evolution Review: The Fossil Record 214
Additional Readings 215

CHAPTER 9 PRIMATE ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION:

THE FIRST 50 MILLION YEARS 216
Big Questions 217
Why Did Primates Emerge? 218
The First True Primate: Visual, Tree-Dwelling, Agile, Smart 220
Primates in the Paleocene? 220
Eocene Euprimates: The First True Primates 220
The Anthropoid Ancestor: Euprimate Contenders 224
The First Anthropoids 225

xiv Table of Contents

Early Anthropoids Evolve and Thrive 227
Concept Check When Were They Primates?: Anatomy through Time 227
Coming to America: Origin of New World Higher Primates 230
How Anthropoids Got to South America 230
Apes Begin in Africa and Dominate the Miocene Primate World 231
Apes Leave Africa: On to New Habitats and New Adaptations 234
Apes in Europe: The Dryopithecids 234
Apes in Asia: The Sivapithecids 235
Dead End in Ape Evolution: The Oreopithecids 235
Climate Shifts and Habitat Changes 238
Miocene Ape Survivors Give Rise to Modern Apes 238
Apes Return to Africa? 238
Concept Check The First Apes: A Remarkable Radiation 239
Monkeys on the Move 239
Answering the Big Questions 241
Key Terms 242
Evolution Review: Primate Social Organization and Behavior:
The Deep Roots of the Order Primates 242
Additional Readings 243

CHAPTER 10 EARLY HOMININ ORIGINS AND

EVOLUTION: THE ROOTS OF
HUMANITY 244
Big Questions 245
What Is a Hominin? 246
Bipedal Locomotion: Getting Around on Two Feet 248
Nonhoning Chewing: No Slicing, Mainly Grinding 248
Why Did Hominins Emerge? 251
Charles Darwin’s Hunting Hypothesis 251
Concept Check What Makes a Hominin a Hominin? 252
Peter Rodman and Henry McHenry’s Patchy Forest Hypothesis 254
Owen Lovejoy’s Provisioning Hypothesis 254
Sexual Dimorphism and Human Behavior 255
Bipedality Had Its Benefits and Costs: An Evolutionary Trade-Off 255
What Were the First Hominins? 256
The Pre-Australopithecines 256
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7–6 mya) 257
Orrorin tugenensis (6 mya) 257
Ardipithecus kadabba and Ardipithecus ramidus (5.8–4.4 mya) 258
Concept Check The Pre-Australopithecines 263
The Australopithecines (4–1 mya) 264
Australopithecus anamensis (4 mya) 265
Australopithecus afarensis (3.6–3.0 mya) 266
Australopithecus (Kenyanthropus) platyops (3.5 mya) 269

Table of Contents xv
 Diversification of the Homininae: Emergence of Multiple Evolutionary Lineages
from One (3–1 mya) 269
Australopithecus garhi (2.5 mya) 270
The First Tool Makers and Users: Australopithecus or Homo? 270
Evolution and Extinction of the Australopithecines 273
Concept Check The Australopithecines 276
Answering the Big Questions 280
Key Terms 280
Evolution Review: The First Hominins 281
Additional Readings 281

CHAPTER 11 THE ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF

EARLY HOMO 282
Big Questions 283
Homo habilis: The First Species of the Genus Homo 285
The Path to Humanness: Bigger Brains, Tool Use, and Adaptive
Flexibility 285
Homo habilis and Australopithecus: Similar in Body Plan 287
Homo habilis’s Adaptation: Intelligence and Tool Use Become Important 287
Habitat Changes and Increasing Adaptive Flexibility 288
Concept Check Homo habilis: The First Member of Our Lineage 288
Homo erectus: Early Homo Goes Global 289
Homo erectus in Africa (1.8–.3 mya) 290
Homo erectus in Asia (1.8–.3 mya) 293
Homo erectus in Europe (1.2 million–400,000 yBP) 296
Evolution of Homo erectus: Biological Change, Adaptation, and Improved
­Nutrition 297
Patterns of Evolution in Homo erectus 302
Concept Check Homo erectus: Beginning Globalization 303
Answering the Big Questions 304
Key Terms 305
Evolution Review: The Origins of Homo 305
Additional Readings 305

CHAPTER 12 THE ORIGINS, EVOLUTION, AND

DISPERSAL OF MODERN PEOPLE 306
Big Questions 307
What Is So Modern about Modern Humans? 309
Modern Homo sapiens: Single Origin and Global Dispersal or Regional
Continuity? 309
What Do Homo sapiens Fossils Tell Us about Modern Human Origins? 311
Early Archaic Homo sapiens 311
Archaic Homo sapiens in Africa (350,000–200,000 yBP) 312

xvi Table of Contents

 Early Archaic Homo sapiens in Asia (350,000–130,000 yBP) 312
Early Archaic Homo sapiens in Europe (500,000–130,000 yBP) 313
Early Archaic Homo sapiens’ Dietary Adaptations 313
Late Archaic Homo sapiens 314
Late Archaic Homo sapiens in Asia (60,000–40,000 yBP) 315
Late Archaic Homo sapiens in Europe (130,000–30,000 yBP) 316
The Neandertal Body Plan: Aberrant or Adapted? 319
Neandertal Hunting: Inefficient or Successful? 321
Neandertals Buried Their Dead 324
Neandertals Talked 325
Neandertals Used Symbols 327
Early Modern Homo sapiens 327
Concept Check Archaic Homo sapiens 328
Early Modern Homo sapiens in Africa (200,000–6,000 yBP) 329
Early Modern Homo sapiens in Asia (90,000–18,000 yBP) 331
Early Modern Homo sapiens in Europe (35,000–15,000 yBP) 332
Modern Behavioral and Cultural Transitions 334
How Has the Biological Variation in Fossil Homo sapiens Been
Interpreted? 335
Ancient DNA: Interbreeding between Neandertals and Early Modern People? 336
Concept Check Early Modern Homo sapiens 337
Living People’s Genetic Record: Settling the Debate on Modern Human Origins 338
Assimilation Model for Modern Human Variation: Neandertals Are Still with
Us 339
Concept Check Models for Explaining Modern Homo sapiens’ Origins 340
Modern Humans’ Other Migrations: Colonization of Australia, the Pacific, and
the Americas 340
Down Under and Beyond: The Australian and Pacific Migrations 342
Arrival in the Western Hemisphere: The First Americans 344
Answering the Big Questions 348
Key Terms 349
Evolution Review: The Origins of Modern People 349
Additional Readings 349

CHAPTER 13 OUR LAST 10,000 YEARS:

AGRICULTURE, POPULATION,
BIOLOGY 350
Big Questions 351
The Agricultural Revolution: New Foods and New Adaptations 353
Population Pressure 354
Regional Variation 355
Survival and Growth 359
Agriculture: An Adaptive Trade-Off 360
Population Growth 360
Environmental Degradation 361
Concept Check The Good and Bad of Agriculture 362

Table of Contents xvii

 How Did Agriculture Affect Human Biology? 362
The Changing Face of Humanity 363
Two Hypotheses 363
Implications for Teeth 365
Concept Check Soft Food and Biological Change 365
Building a New Physique: Agriculture’s Changes to Workload/Activity 366
Health and the Agricultural Revolution 369
Population Crowding and Infectious Disease 369
Concept Check Labor, Lifestyle, and Adaptation in the Skeleton 370
The Consequences of Declining Nutrition: Tooth Decay 371
Nutritional Consequences Due to Missing Nutrients: Reduced Growth and
Abnormal Development 371
Nutritional Consequences of Iron Deficiency 373
Concept Check Health Costs of Agriculture 374
Nutritional Consequences: Heights on the Decline 375
If It Is So Bad for You, Why Farm? 375
The Past Is Our Future 375
Our Ongoing Evolution 376
Answering the Big Questions 378
Key Terms 379
Evolution Review: Setting the Stage for the Present and Future 379
Additional Readings 380

Appendix: The Skeleton A1

Glossary A11
Glossary of Place Names A19
Bibliography A21
Permissions Acknowledgments A47
Index A51

xviii Table of Contents

­T WO -​­P AG E S P R E A D S

Figure 1.3
The Six Big Events of Human F IGU R E
6.2
Primate Adaptation in Microcosm:
The Taï Forest, Ivory Coast, West Africa

Evolution: Bipedalism, Nonhoning

Emerging canopy
Chewing, Dependence on Material
GENERALIZED SKELETAL STRUCTURE ENHANCED VISION

Primates have a generalized skeletal structure. The bones that make up the Primates have an enhanced sense of vision. Evolution has given primates
shoulders, upper limbs, lower limbs, and other major joints such as the better vision, including increased depth perception and seeing in color.

Culture, Speech, Hunting, and

hands and feet are separate, giving primates a great deal of flexibility when The eyes’ convergence provides significant overlap in the visual fields and
moving in trees. In this monkey skeleton, note the grasping hands and feet, thus greater sense of depth.
the long tail, and the equal length of the front and hind limbs relative to
each other.

Domestication of Plants and Overlapping

visual fields

Main canopy
Animals pp. 10–11
REDUCED SMELL

Figure 3.17
ENHANCED TOUCH Primates have a reduced sense of smell. The smaller and less projecting
Primates have an enhanced sense of touch. This sensitivity is due in part to snouts of most primates indicate their decreased reliance on smell.
the presence of dermal ridges (fingerprints and toe prints) on the inside
Reduced

Protein Synthesis pp. 58–59

surfaces of the hands and feet. The potto, a prosimian, has primitive snout length
dermal ridges, whereas the human, a higher primate, has more derived
ridges, which provide better gripping ability.

Figure 6.2 Dog Monkey

Understory

Primate Adaptation in Microcosm: Human Potto

DIETARY VERSATILITY

Primates have dietary plasticity. Part of the record of primate dietary

adaptation is found in the teeth. The red colobus monkey dentition

The Taï Forest, Ivory Coast, West

shown here is typical of a catarrhine dentition with a 2/1/2/3 dental
formula. Note the differences in morphology of the four different tooth
types: incisors (I1, I2), canines (C), premolars (P3, P4), and molars
(M1, M2, M3).

Africa pp. 136–137

I1 I1 I2
I2
C
C

P3 P3
P4 P4
Black-and-white colobus Human Red colobus M1 M1
Campbell’s Lesser spot-nosed Sooty mangabey M2 M2

Figure 9.21
M3 M3
Chimpanzee Olive colobus Thomas’s galago Taï Forest
Demidoff’s galago Potto Eagle
Diana monkey Putty-nosed

Eocene–​­Oligocene–​
­Miocene Habitats and Their
Primates pp. 236–237
Figure 10.16 F IGU R E Eocene-Oligocene-Miocene Habitats and
9.21 Their Primates
From Discovery to Understanding:
Ardipithecus of Aramis pp. 260–261
Oligocene 23–34 mya Miocene 5.3–23 mya

Primate evolution began with primitive primates in the Eocene, setting the stage for the origin of all hominoids. Euprimates of the Eocene had
the basic characteristics of living primates, such as convergent eye orbits and grasping digits. In the last 20 million years, primates diversified
in appearance and behavior. These changes included the shift, for some, from life in the trees to life on the ground, and eventually the
beginning of bipedality in the late miocene. (Based on Fleagle, J. G. Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 2nd ed. 1999. Academic Press.)

Eocene 34–56 mya

Quadrupedal,
monkeylike primate with
superb arboreal skills

Convergent eyes
and grasping hands

Quadrupedal, apelike primate.

Note the lack of a tail, an
ape characteristic.
Large eyes for
nocturnal vision

Scene from the early Miocene of Rusinga Island, Kenya. Apes first
appeared during this period, and these are the first apes (two species
of Proconsul, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus). These and other taxa
Scenes from the late Eocene in the Paris Basin. Scenes from the early Oligocene of the Fayum, Egypt. form the ancestry of all later apes and hominins. Note the range of
Top: The diurnal Adapis is feeding on leaves. These anthropoid ancestors include Aegyptopithecus, habitats occupied by these primates within the forest, including some in
Bottom: Several
236 taxa of omomyids
| CHAPTER (Pseudoloris, 9Necrolemur,
PrimateMicrochoerus).
Origins and Evolution: The First 50 Million Years Propliopithecus, and Apidium. These primates were adept the middle and lower canopies and someApeson the forestAfrica:
Leave floor. These
On to New Habitats and New Adaptations | 237
Note the large eyes, a nocturnal adaptation, typical of both ancient and arborealists, using their hands and feet for climbing and primates show a combination of monkeylike and apelike features, in the
modern prosimians who are active at night. feeding. skeleton and skull, respectively.

xix
TO T H E I N S T R U C TO R

HOW THIS BOOK CAN HELP YOUR 2009. The discussions in this textbook of topics familiar
STUDENTS DISCOVER PHYSICAL and unfamiliar give the student s­ tepping-​­stones to science
and to the centrality of physical anthropology as a window
ANTHROPOLOGY
into understanding our world. Whether the students find
IT IS ABOUT ENGAGEMENT the material familiar or unfamiliar, they will see that the
book relates the discipline to human life: real concerns
Teaching is about ­engagement—​­connecting the student with about human bodies and human identity. They will see
knowledge, making it real to the student, and having the themselves from an entirely different point of view and gain
student come away from the course with an understanding new awareness.
of core concepts. Essentials of Physical Anthropology seeks to In writing this book, I made no assumptions about what
engage the student in the learning process. Engaging the the reader knows, except to assume that the r­ eader—​­the stu-
student is perhaps more of a challenge in the study of phys- dent attending your physical anthropology ­class—​­has very
ical anthropology than in the study of other sciences, mainly little or no background in physical anthropology. As I wrote
because the student has likely never heard of the subject. the book, I constantly reflected on the core concepts of phys-
The average student has probably taken a precollege course ical anthropology and how to make them understandable. I
in chemistry, physics, or biology. Physical anthropology, combined this quest for both accuracy and clarity with my
though, is rarely mentioned or taught in precollege settings. philosophy of t­ eaching—​­namely, engage the student to help
Commonly, the student first finds out about the subject the student learn. Simply, teaching is about engagement.
when an academic advisor explains that physical anthro- While most students in an introductory physical anthro-
pology is a popular course that fulfills the college’s natural pology class do not intend to become professional physical
science requirement. anthropologists, some of these students become interested
Once taking the course, however, that same student enough to take more courses. So this book is written for stu-
usually connects quickly with the subject because so many dents who will not continue their study of physical anthro-
of the topics are ­familiar—​­fossils, evolution, race, genet- pology, those who get “hooked” by this fascinating subject
ics, DNA, monkeys, forensic investigations, and origins of (a common occurrence!), and those who now or eventually
speech, to name a few. The student simply had not real- decide to become professionals in the field.
ized that these separately engaging topics come under the The book is unified by the subject of physical anthropol-
umbrella of one discipline, the subject of which is the study ogy. But equally important is the central theme of ­science—​
of human evolution and human variability. ­what it is, how it is done, and how scientists (in our case,
Perhaps drawn to physical anthropology because it anthropologists) learn about the natural world. I wrote the
focuses on our past and our present as a species, the student book so as to create a picture of who humans are as organ-
quickly sees the fundamental importance of the discipline. isms, how we got to where we are over the last millions of
In Discover magazine’s 100 top stories of 2009, 18 were from years of evolution, and where we are going in the future in
physical anthropology. Three topics from the field were in light of current conditions. In regard to physical anthro-
the top 10, including the remarkable new discovery of our pology, the student should finish the book understanding
earliest human ancestor, Ardipithecus. So important was this human evolution and how it is studied, how the present
discovery that Science, the leading international professional helps us understand the past, the diversity of organisms
science journal, called it the “Breakthrough of the Year” for living and past, and the nature of biological change over

xx
time and across geography. Such knowledge should help the into what came ­before—​­the present contextualizes and
student answer questions about the world. For example, how informs our understanding of the past. It is no mistake,
did primates emerge as a unique group of mammals? Why then, that Discovering Our Origins is the subtitle of the book.
do people look different from place to place around the The origins of who we are today do not just lie in the record
world? Why is it important to gain exposure to sunlight yet of the past, but are very much embodied in the living. Our
unsafe to prolong that exposure? Why is it unhealthy to be origins are expressed in our physical makeup (bone, teeth,
excessively overweight? Throughout their history, what have and muscles), in our behavior, and in so many other ways
humans eaten, and why is it important to know? that the student taking this course will learn about from
I have presented such topics so that the student can come this book and from you. You can teach individual chapters in
to understand the central concepts and build from them a any order, and that is partly because each chapter reinforces
fuller understanding of physical anthropology. Throughout the central point: we understand our past via what we see in
the book, I emphasize hypothesis testing, the core of the the living.
scientific method, and focus on that process and the excite- Part II presents evidence of the past, covering more than
ment of discovery. The narrative style is personalized. Often 50 million years of primate and human evolution. Most
I draw on my own experiences and those of scientists I know textbooks of this kind end the record of human evolution at
or am familiar with through their teaching and writing, to about 25,000 years ago, when modern Homo sapiens evolved
show the student how problems are addressed through field- worldwide. This textbook also provides the record since the
work or through laboratory investigations. appearance of modern humans, showing that important bio-
Scientists do not just collect facts. Rather, they collect logical changes occurred in just the last 10,000 years, largely
data and make observations that help them answer questions relating to the shift from hunting and gathering to the
about the complex natural world we all inhabit. Reflecting domestication of plants and animals. Food production was
this practice, Essentials of Physical Anthropology is a collec- a revolutionary development in the human story, and Part II
tion not of facts for the student to learn but of answers to presents this remarkable record, including changes in health
questions that help all of us understand who we are as living and ­well-​­being that continue today. A new subdiscipline of
organisms and our place in the world. Science is a way of physical anthropology, bioarchaeology, is contributing pro-
knowing, it is a learning process, and it connects our lives found insights into the last 10,000 years, one of the most
with our world. In these ways, it is liberating. dynamic periods of human evolution.
During this period, a fundamental change occurred in
how humans obtained food. This change set the stage for
our current environmental disruptions and modern living
HOW THE BOOK IS ORGANIZED
conditions, including global warming, the alarming global
The book is divided into two parts. Following an introduc- increase in obesity, and the rise of health threats such as newly
tory overview of anthropology and physical anthropology, emerging infectious diseases, of which there is little under-
Part I presents the key principles and concepts in biology, standing and for which scientists are far from finding cures.
especially from an evolutionary perspective. This material
draws largely on the study of living organisms, including
humans and nonhuman primates. Because much of our CHANGES IN THE THIRD EDITION
understanding of the past is drawn from what we have
learned from the present, this part lays the foundation for Reflecting the dynamic nature of physical anthropology,
the presentation in Part I­ I—​­the past record of primate and there are numerous revisions and updates throughout this
human evolution. In putting the record of the living up front, new, third edition of Essentials of Physical Anthropology. These
this book departs from the style of most other introductory updates provide content on the ­cutting-​­edge developments
physical anthropology textbooks, which start out with the in the discipline, give new ways of looking at older findings,
earliest record and end with the living. This book takes the and keep the book engaging and timely for both you and
position that most of what we learn about the past is based your students. Although the core principle of the book
on theory and principles learned from the living record. remains the same, namely the focus on evolution, the revi-
Just as all of Charles Darwin’s ideas were first derived from sions throughout the book present new insights, new discov-
seeing living plants and animals, much of our understanding eries, and new perspectives. Other changes are intended to
of function and adaptation comes from living organisms as give added focus and clarity and to increase the visual appeal
models. Therefore, this book views the living as the window that supports the pedagogy of engagement and learning:

Instructor xxi
 • New content on biocultural adaptation. Anthropol­ including grasses on the African savanna, confirming
ogists provide important insights into how humans’ the l­ong-​­held notion that some had highly specialized
remarkable intelligence is related to their evolution- diets.
ary success. This third edition presents new research • New findings on the origins of cooking and its
on the role of social learning and the retention of importance in human evolution. Controlled use of
­knowledge—​­the accumulation of ­information—​­over fire dates to as early as 1 mya in South Africa. This
many generations. innovation provided a means for cooking meats and
• New primate taxonomy. In order to inform students starches, thereby increasing the digestibility of these
about the latest developments in primate classifica- foods. New research suggests that cooking and nutri-
tion, the third edition has shifted from the tradi- tional changes associated with cooking may have
tional, ­grade-​­based approach used in the previous “fueled” the increase in brain and body size in early
editions to the cladistics, or phylogenetic, approach. hominins.
This approach provides students with a classifica- • New content on the appearance and evolution of modern
tion based on ­a ncestor-​­descendant evolutionary Homo sapiens and the Neandertal genome. Analysis
relationships. of the direction and pattern of scratches on the
• New content on developments in genetics that are altering incisors of Neandertals reveals that they were pre-
our understanding of phenotype. We are learning that dominantly r­ ight-​­handed. In addition to showing
­non-​­protein coding DNA, often considered “junk” this modern characteristic, this finding reveals that
DNA, has important implications for various other this earlier form of H. sapiens had brain laterality, a
instructions in the genome. Similarly, the rapidly feature linked to speech. Neandertals talked. New
expanding field of epigenetics is revealing evolution- genetic evidence reveals the presence of Neander-
ary change without alteration of DNA. tal genes in modern humans, consistent with the
• New content on race and human variation in Chapter 5. hypothesis that modern H. sapiens interbred with
• New content on maladaptive human behavior and health Neandertals. Newly discovered hominin fossils from
outcomes such as obesity. The role of environment is Denisova, Siberia, dating to the late Pleistocene
fundamental in understanding patterns of health in represent a genome that is different from Neander-
very recent human evolution, including the impacts tals’ and modern H. sapiens’. This newly discovered
of the creation of obesogenic environments, the “Denisovan” genome is also found in people living
alarming rise in obesity globally, and the causes and today in East Asia, suggesting that modern H. sapiens
consequences of these changing circumstances and encountered Neandertals as well as other populations
outcomes. once in Europe.
• New content on fossil primate and hominin discoveries. • New findings on the future of humankind. The study of
Exciting new discoveries in early primate evolution melting ice caps and glaciers around the world today
from Africa and Asia are revealing the enormous reveals a dramatic warming trend. As temperatures
variety and complexity of species. New discoveries rise, habitats are in the process of changing. These
from East Africa reveal that although all australo- environmental changes will provide a context for
pithecines were bipedal, some retained arboreal evolution, both in plants and in animals. These fac-
behavior relatively late in the evolution of these tors, coupled with reduction in species diversity, are
early hominins. New discovery of stone tools dat- creating new health challenges for humans today and
ing to 3.3 million years ago—700,000 years earlier for the foreseeable future.
than previously known—from East Africa shows • Revision of content to enhance clarity. I have contin-
the b ­ eginnings of humankind’s reliance on material ued to focus on helping students understand core
­culture. Once thought to be the domain of Homo, concepts, with considerable attention given to cell
these early dates show use of tools by earlier aus- biology, genetics, DNA, race and human variation,
tralopithecines, long before the origins of our genus. primate taxonomy, locomotion, and dating methods.
These discoveries continue to illustrate the com- As in previous editions, I paid careful attention to
plexity of early hominin evolution. New evidence the clarity of figure captions. The captions do not
from chemical and tooth wear analyses reveals that simply repeat text. Instead, they offer the student
at least some later australopithecines were eating additional details relevant to the topic and occasional
­significant quantities of ­low-​­quality vegetation, questions about concepts that the figures convey.

xxii Instructor
 • Greatly enhanced art program. The new edition con- look at places around the world on a daily basis, students
tains over 100 new or revised figures, often using a often need reminders about geography. In recognition of
new “photorealistic” style. The book adds several this, locator maps in the book’s margins show the names and
­f ull-​­color ­t wo-​­page spreads developed by Mauri- locations of places that are likely not common knowledge.
cio Antón, a ­world-​­renowned artist with expertise
in conveying past life through wonderful visual PHOTORE ALISTIC ART YOU CAN “TOUCH”: Designed
presentations. to give students an even better appreciation for the feel
• “Evolution Review” sections. At the end of each chapter, of the discipline, the art program has been substantially
an “Evolution Review” section summarizes material reworked. Now most illustrations of bones and skeletons
on evolution in that chapter and includes assignable have an almost photorealistic feel, and most primates were
questions about concepts and content. Suggested redrawn for a high degree of realism. This book helps your
answers appear in the Instructor’s Manual. students visualize what they are reading about by including
• InQuizitive. Norton’s new formative and adaptive hundreds of images, many specially prepared for the book.
online learning resource improves student under- These illustrations tell the story of physical anthropology,
standing of the big picture concepts of physical including key processes, central players, and important con-
anthropology. Students receive personalized quiz cepts. As much thought went into the pedagogy behind the
questions on the topics they need the most help illustration program as into the writing of the text.
with. Engaging, ­game-​­like elements motivate
­students as they learn. These are intended for use DEFINITIONS are also presented in the text’s margins,
in teaching f­ ace-​­to-​­face, blended, or online class giving your students ready access to what a term means
formats. generally in addition to its use in the associated text. For
• New lab manual. This text now has a new lab manual, convenient reference, defined terms are signaled with bold-
the Lab Manual for Biological Anthropology—Engaging face page numbers in the index.
with Human Evolution by K. Elizabeth Soluri and At the end of each chapter, ANSWERING THE BIG
Sabrina C. Agarwal. This flexible and richly illus- QUESTIONS presents a summary of the chapter’s central
trated manual is designed to support or enhance points organized along the lines of the Big Questions pre-
your current labs and collections, or work on its own. sented at the beginning of the chapter.
Attractively priced, discount bundles can be pur-
chased including this text. The study of evolution is the central core concept of
physical anthropology. The newly introduced EVOLUTION
REVIEW section at the end of each chapter discusses topics
AIDS TO THE LEARNING PROCESS on evolution featured in the chapter and asks questions that
will help the student develop a focused understanding of
Each chapter opens with a vignette telling the story of one content and ideas.
person’s discovery that relates directly to the central theme
of the chapter. This vignette is intended to draw your stu- INQUIZITIVE is our new ­ game-​­
like, formative, adaptive
dents into the excitement of the topic and to set the stage assessment program featuring visual and conceptual ques-
for the Big Questions that the chapter addresses. tions keyed to each chapter’s learning objectives from the
text. InQuizitive helps you track and report on your students’
BIG QUESTION learning objectives are introduced early in progress to make sure they are better prepared for class.
the chapter to help your students organize their reading and
understand the topic. Join me now in engaging your students in the excitement
of discovering physical anthropology.
CONCEP T CHECKS are scattered throughout each chap-
ter and immediately follow a major section. These aids are
intended to help your students briefly revisit the key points TOOLS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
they have been reading about.
The Essentials of Physical Anthropology teaching and learning
LOCATOR MAPS are placed liberally throughout the book. package provides instructors and students with all the tools
­ ollege-​­level instructors tend to hope that students have a
C they need to visualize anthropological concepts, learn key
good sense of geography, but like a lot of people who do not vocabulary, and test knowledge.

Instructor xxiii
FOR INSTRUCTORS New Videos
InQuizitive This new streaming video service is now available through
Norton Coursepacks and at wwnorton.com/instructors.
New InQuizitive online formative and adaptive assessment
These o ­ne-​­to ­seven-​­minute educational film clips from
is available for use with Essentials of Physical Anthropology,
across the discipline but with an emphasis on paleoanthro-
Third Edition, featuring interactive and engaging questions
pology and primatology help students see and think like
with ­a nswer-​­specific feedback. InQuizitive features ques-
anthropologists and make it easy for instructors to illustrate
tions designed to help students better understand the core
key concepts and spark classroom discussion.
objectives of each chapter. Built to be intuitive and easy to
use, InQuizitive makes it a snap to assign, assess, and report
on student performance and help keep your class on track. Update PowerPoint Service
Options are available to integrate InQuizitive into your To help cover what is new in the discipline, each semester we
LMS or Coursepack. Contact your local W. W. Norton will provide a new set of supplemental lectures, notes, and
representative for details. assessment material covering current and breaking research.
Prepared by Laurie Reitsema (University of Georgia) and
Lab Manual and Workbook for Biological with previous updates from Kathy Droesch (Suffolk County
­A nthropology—​­Engaging with Human Evolution Community College), this material is available for download
by K. Elizabeth Soluri and Sabrina C. Agarwal. at wwnorton.com/instructors.
This new manual captures student interest and illustrates
the discipline with the vivid ­images—​­every chapter contains PowerPoint Slides and Art JPEGs
large detailed figures, photographs that are properly scaled, Designed for instant classroom use, these slides prepared by
and drawings of bones and fossils with an almost t­hree-​ Jeremy DeSilva (Boston University) using art from the text
­dimensional appearance. The labs are grouped into four are a great resource for your lectures. All art from the book is
units of four chapters each: 1) genetics/evolutionary theory; also available in PowerPoint and JPEG formats. Download
2) human osteology and forensics; 3) primatology; and 4) these resources from wwnorton.com/instructors.
paleoanthropology. No topic is o ­ ver-​­or underemphasized,
and the manual is flexibly designed to be used as a whole, or
Instructor’s Manual
as individual labs, and with a school’s cast and photo collec-
tion or with the sample photos provided. Each lab has unique Prepared by Nancy Tatarek (Ohio University) and Greg
Critical Thinking Questions to go with Chapter Review and Laden, this innovative resource provides chapter summaries,
Lab Exercises. This manual is available at student friendly chapter outlines, lecture ideas, discussion topics, suggested
prices, either as a s­ tand-​­alone volume or bundled with this reading lists for instructors and students, a guide to “Writ-
text, or as a custom volume. ing about Anthropology,” suggested answers to Evolution
Matters questions, and teaching materials for each video.
Coursepacks
Test Bank
Available at no cost to professors or students, Norton
Coursepacks for online or hybrid courses are available in a Prepared by Renee Garcia (Saddleback College) and Greg
variety of formats, including all versions of Blackboard and Laden, this Test Bank contains ­multiple-​­choice and essay
WebCT. Content includes review quizzes, flash cards, and questions for each chapter. It is downloadable from ­Norton’s
links to animations and videos. Coursepacks are available Instructor’s Website and available in Word, PDF, and
from wwnorton.com/instructors. ExamView® Assessment Suite formats. Visit wwnorton.com/
instructors.
New Animations
Ebook
These new animations of key concepts from each chapter are
available in either the Coursepacks, or from wwnorton.com/ An affordable and convenient alternative, Norton ebooks
instructors. Animations are brief, easy to use, and great for retain the content and design of the print book and allow
explaining concepts either in class or in a d
­ istance-​­learning students to highlight and take notes with ease, print chap-
environment. ters as needed, and search the text.

xxiv Instructor
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
did even such a militarily unimportant (though cruel) weapon as the
Flammenwerfer (flame-projector). This was certainly due to
ignorance. The French Colonial troops who were caught in the first
cloud-gas attack were far more frightened than the Canadians, and
appear to have had far more casualties, although they mostly ran
away: which the Canadians did not. For the Canadians made some
attempts to improvise respirators, and almost any damp fabric will
reduce the concentration of chlorine passing through it to half or
less. They also breathed less because they did not run. As a matter
of fact, a most efficient respirator against chlorine (though whether
against mustard gas I do not know) can be made by knocking the
bottom off a bottle, filling it with loose earth, placing its neck in the
mouth, and breathing through it. Very great alarm was caused by
the first mustard gas bombardments in France, as no one had ever
seen anything resembling the blisters it caused. But very soon
familiarity bred contempt, or even liking, for aeroplanes dropped
sheaves of pamphlets explaining how any soldier tired of the war
could become a casualty without danger either of death or detection
by allowing earth contaminated with mustard gas to touch the skin
or the clothing. A good many wound-stripes were earned by this
simple and up-to-date method, though, as we had the superiority in
the air and the German soldiers were both more tired and more
confiding than our own, the German casualties from this cause were
probably still greater. But let us tell our civilian population before and
not after they are attacked with blistering gases that the blisters
produced are considerably less dangerous than measles. It was
predicted during the war that the survivors of lung-irritant gases
would get consumption, while those burned by mustard gas would
develop cancer. This has not happened, but it is the sort of rumour
that easily starts.
For, after all, our greatest weapon in chemical warfare is not gas,
but education, and education of all classes. By education I mean a
process which puts people in general in touch with the thought of
the abler minds of their own and past times, whether in literature or
art, in science, mathematics, or music. An educated man knows
enough of science, for example, to be able to distinguish a gas from
a smoke, or a Grindell-Matthews from a Marconi, even if he is not
thoroughly versed in the kinetic theory of gases or the laws
governing radiation through the ether. Educated men are rather rare.
It will be worth while giving some examples of how our uneducated
politicians and soldiers failed to adjust themselves to the scientific
thought of their contemporaries.
In April, 1915, a relatively educated member of the Government
got hold of a physiologist, whose name I suppress as he is a modest
man. He found a rather curious state of affairs. On the Emden, a
German cruiser captured in the Indian Ocean, a German sailor had
been found in possession of a pad of lint with tapes to tie in front of
his mouth. It did not even cover his nose, and, though it might or
might not have been of some value against smoke, it was of none at
all against gas. There was, however, a very prevalent belief at that
time, and may be still, for all that I know, that German men of
science were vastly superior to British. It is perfectly true that there
are more of them, but I think that their average attainments in the
last forty years have been, if anything, slightly below those of our
own. So hypnotized, however, were some of the authorities in this
country by this theory that it was being proposed to issue these
articles to our troops. After pointing out their uselessness, the
physiologist in question was rushed over to France in a destroyer,
along with a chemist. He identified the gas used by the Germans as
chlorine. On his return, he got a cylinder of that gas, let some into
an air-tight chamber, and devised a rough respirator which would
keep most of it out, trying various possible methods on himself. On
his return to the War Office, rather short of breath from the chlorine
he had breathed, he found to his horror that the appeal to the
women of England for home-made respirators had been issued.
Their design was apparently based on the captured German one,
which had very probably been made on the Emden. As they were
quite useless, he secured a promise that they would not be sent out
to France. Things were not made easier by the opinion held in high
military quarters that, offence being more important than defence,
the great thing was to reply to the Germans by gassing them. As,
however, this could not be done in less than five months, while
respirators could easily be made in a week, it led to delay at a
somewhat vital moment. Finally every important decision taken in
England had to pass through the hands of Lord Kitchener, who
naturally had not time to weigh the arguments at all fully. It is not
my intention to attack Lord Kitchener: that the war could be carried
on at all under such a system proves that he was a great man. But,
if he had managed to delegate some of his powers, he would have
proved himself a greater. As the result of all this delay, a great many
of the first respirators had to be made in France.
Convalescent soldiers and the nuns in a convent on the Mont des
Cats were conscripted to make respirators, which, if inelegant, were
fairly efficient. Unfortunately, consignments of “Women of England”
and other home-made respirators were continually appearing in
France, and every now and then led to a battalion or so being wiped
out. I am able to give these details, because at this time I, who
before and after was an honest infantry bombing-officer, made my
brief incursion into chemical warfare. I arrived at St. Omer from my
comfortable trench as being a person accustomed to poisonous
gases in civil life. In a large school there, converted into a hospital,
there was a small glass-fronted room, like a miniature greenhouse,
into which known volumes of chlorine were liberated. We had to
compare the effects on ourselves of various quantities with and
without respirators. It stung the eyes and produced a tendency to
gasp and cough when breathed. For this reason trained physiologists
had to be employed. An ordinary soldier would probably restrain his
tendency to gasp, cough and throw himself about if he were working
a machine-gun in a battle, but could not do so in a laboratory
experiment with nothing to take his mind off his own feelings. An
experienced physiologist has more self-control. It was also necessary
to see if one could run or work hard in the respirators, so we had a
wheel of some kind to turn by hand in the gas chamber, not to
mention doing fifty-yard sprints in respirators outside. As each of us
got sufficiently affected by gas to render his lungs unduly irritable,
another would take his place. None of us was much the worse for
the gas, or in any real danger, as we knew where to stop, but some
had to go to bed for a few days, and I was very short of breath and
incapable of running for a month or so. This work, which was mainly
done by civilians, was rewarded by the grant of the Military Cross to
the brilliant young officer who used to open the door of the motor-
car of the medical General who occasionally visited the experiments.
The soldiers who took part in them could, however, for some time be
distinguished by the peculiar green colour of their brass buttons due
to the action of the gas.
Even when arrangements had been made for the manufacture of
respirators in England, the supply suddenly dried up. It was found
that the girls who made them were working as best they could with
raw and bleeding fingers, and London was being scoured for rubber
gloves. Someone had altered the formula of the mixture in which the
respirators were dipped by substituting for carbonate of soda caustic
soda, which has the property of dissolving the human skin. His
name, needless to say, does not appear in the official history.
Such were some of the difficulties which we incurred in our anti-
gas work, through the ignorance of highly-placed persons. As,
however, our defensive (though not our offensive) measures were
ultimately better than those of any other nation, things must have
been still worse elsewhere. The success of our respirators was
largely due to one man, Harrison, whose name is insufficiently
known to his countrymen. He was an analytical chemist, and author
of that admirable and too little read work Secret Remedies
(published by the British Medical Association). He enlisted as a
private, but was a Lieutenant-Colonel when he died of influenza and
overwork in 1918.
Naturally the ignorance of our private soldiers was of an even
more abysmal character. In the early days they often removed the
respirators from their faces and tied them around their chests, as it
was there that they felt the effects of the gas. Again in 1917 80% of
the mustard-gas cases vomited, while this symptom was rare in
1918. Apparently it took five months for the British Army to realize
that gas-poisoning did not necessarily mean poisoning through the
stomach.
If, then, in future wars we are to avoid gross mismanagement in
high places, and panic and stupidity among the masses, it is
essential that everyone should learn a little elementary science, that
politicians and soldiers should not be proud of their ignorance of it,
that ordinary men and women should not be ashamed or afraid of
knowing something of the working of their own bodies. If we persist
in the belief that we can be saved by patriotism or social reforms, or
by military preparation of the type which would have sufficed in
former struggles, we shall go down before some nation of more
realistic views. We do not know what type of scientific knowledge
will be needed: we can be certain that some type will be. The British
are a tired people: they like to rest “in breathless quiet after all their
ills,” and to pin their faith to the promises of leaders whose eyes are
fixed on the past. It has all happened before.

“Ganz vergessener Völker Müdigkeiten

Kann ich nicht abthun von meinen Lidern,
Noch weghalten von der erschrockenen Seele
Stummes Niederfallen ferner Sterne.”

(“I cannot lift from my eyelids the weariness of quite forgotten

peoples, nor hold away from my terrified soul the dumb downfall of
far stars.”)
The Roman and Spanish Empires appear to have perished largely
from intellectual torpor. Are we to go the same way?
We have got to get over our distaste for scientific thought and
scientific method. To take an example from the war, the physiologists
at the experimental ground at Porton, in Hampshire, had
considerable difficulty in working with a good many soldiers because
the latter objected so strongly to experiments on animals, and did
not conceal their contempt for people who performed them. And yet
these soldiers would have had no hesitation in shelling the horses of
hostile gun-teams, and the vast majority of them were in the habit
of shooting animals for sport. I have never known a physiologist who
went in for shooting animals: physiologists know too much of the
processes which occur in a wounded beast or bird that creeps away
to die. And, though I have seen a good many scientific experiments
on animals, I have never seen one which, so far as concerns the
pain given, I should object to having performed on myself. That this
attitude is not unusual would appear from the following experiment
described by the director of the Porton experimental ground, in
which he wished to compare the effects of hydrocyanic (or prussic)
acid gas on himself and a dog. They both entered a chamber
containing 1 part in 2,000 of the gas.
“In order (he writes) that the experiment might be as fair as
possible and that my respiration should be relatively as active as that
of the dog, I remained standing, and took a few steps from time to
time while I was in the chamber. In about thirty seconds the dog
began to get unsteady, and in fifty-five seconds it dropped on the
floor and commenced the characteristic distressing respiration which
heralds death from cyanide poisoning. One minute thirty-five
seconds after the commencement the animal’s body was carried out,
respiration having ceased and the dog being apparently dead. I then
left the chamber. As regards the result upon myself, the only real
effect was a momentary giddiness when I turned my head quickly.
This lasted about a year, and then vanished. For some time it was
difficult to concentrate on anything for any length of time. It is hard
to say to what extent this was due to the experiment.”
As the result of this work, hydrocyanic acid was given up for use in
the field, as phosgene is effective at fifty times this dilution, and
mustard gas at one thousand times.
One of the grounds given for objection to science is that science is
responsible for such horrors as those of the late war. “You scientific
men (we are told) never think of the possible application of your
discoveries. You do not mind whether they are used to kill or to
cure. Your method of thinking, doubtless satisfactory when dealing
with molecules and atoms, renders you insensible to the difference
between right and wrong. And so you devise the means of universal
destruction, and sell them into the hands of unrighteous and bloody-
minded men.”
I note that the people who make these remarks do not refuse to
travel by railway or motor-car, to use electric light, or to read
mechanically printed newspapers. Nor do they install a well in their
back-gardens to enjoy drinking the richer water of a pre-scientific
age, with its interesting and variegated fauna. But it is quite easy to
show that the destructive and horrible nature of modern warfare is
due, not to the weapons used, but largely to the other applications
of science which constitute the material basis of our civilization. Let
us imagine the Great War fought with all our means of transport and
preventive medicine, but no weapons more complicated than
swords, spears, and possibly a few bows. With fewer munitions the
armies could have been mobilized even more rapidly, and more men
put in the fighting line. The Germans would probably have tried, as
they tried in 1914, to bring about a “Schlacht ohne Morgen,” a battle
on reversed fronts modelled on Cannae. The fighting would probably
have been about as severe as at Cannae, and men would have been
fighting in close order, ten or twenty deep, along a hundred-mile
front. No doubt it would have been over sooner, but the losses would
probably have been just as great. The French and Germans would
doubtless both have gone on fighting until at least half their armies
had become casualties, and, with four years’ fighting compressed
into as many weeks, it would have been impossible to tend more
than a fraction of the wounded. The chief difference might have
been that the Russians would have been victorious by mere weight
of numbers, and the French defeated. In former wars slaughter was
limited by the fact that large armies could not be fed, and developed
epidemic diseases. They also moved very slowly. So it took twenty-
three years (from 1792 to 1815) to wear down the resistance of the
French nation. Moreover, the Great War was the first since the
Second Punic War of the 3rd century B. C. between two great
civilized nations, each fighting with all its might. This fact accounts
for its ferocity. Modern transport and hygiene made its scale
possible; the weapons used merely served to prolong it.
The objection to scientific weapons such as the gases of the late
war, and such new devices as may be employed in the next, is
essentially an objection to the unknown. Fighting with lances or
guns, one can calculate, or thinks one can calculate, one’s chances.
But with gas or rays or microbes one has an altogether different
state of affairs. Poisonous gas had a great moral effect, just because
it was new, and incomprehensible. As long as we permit ourselves to
be afraid of the novel and unknown, there will be a very great
temptation to use novel and unknown weapons against us. Now,
terror of the unknown is thoroughly right and rational so long as we
believe that the prince of this world is a malignant being. But it is
not justifiable if we believe that the world is the expression of a
power friendly to our aspirations, or if we are atheists and hold that
it is neutral and indifferent to human ideals.
It will by now have become clear to you that I am writing
somewhat parabolically. What I have said about mustard gas might
be applied, mutatis mutandis, to most other applications of science
to human life. They can all, I think, be abused, but none perhaps is
always evil; and many, like mustard gas, when we have got over our
first not very rational objection to them, turn out to be, on the
whole, good. If it is right for me to fight my enemy with a sword, it
is right for me to fight him with mustard gas: if the one is wrong, so
is the other. But I have no sympathy whatever for Mr. Facing-both-
ways when he says that, though he is prepared on occasion to fight,
he will not use these nasty new-fangled weapons. Of course I am
not suggesting that we should violate or prepare to violate the
Washington Agreement on this subject. I do, however, believe that
we ought to denounce it at the earliest possible opportunity.
Such are the facts about chemical warfare. They will not be
believed because a belief in them would do violence to the
sentiments of most people. They will not be promulgated, as there is
no money to be made out of them. (Chemical manufacturers make
both high explosive and mustard gas, and the former more easily.)
The views which I have expressed do not coexist in the mind of any
party leader or newspaper proprietor, and must therefore be those of
a crank. But until some stronger argument can be waged against
them than that they are unusual and unpleasant, there remains the
possibility that they are true.

Transcriber’s Notes:
Punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently corrected.
Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.
Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been
preserved.
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