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EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Introduction

Darwin’s theory of natural selection depended on assumptions that involved many fields of science.
When Darwin published his theory in 1859, scientists in the fields of geology, physics, chemistry,
paleontology, and embryology did not have the understanding or technology to test Darwin’s inferences.
Other fields, such as genetics and molecular biology didn’t even exist. In the 150 years since Darwin
published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, discoveries in all of these fields
have independently supported Darwin’s basic ideas about evolution.

1. Evidence from Biogeography

Biogeography is the study of where organisms live now and where their ancestors lived in the past.
Patterns in the distribution of living and extinct species tell us how modern organisms evolved from their
ancestors. Two biogeographical patterns are significant to Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

Closely Related, But Different Distantly Related, But Similar

• A pattern in which closely related species • A pattern in which distantly related species
differentiate in slightly different environments. develop similar traits in similar environments.

• To Darwin, the biogeography of Galapagos • Darwin noted that similar ground-dwelling

island species suggested that populations on birds inhabit similar grasslands in Europe,
individual islands had evolved from mainland Australia, and Africa.
species. • Differences in body structures indicated that
• Over time, natural selection on the islands they evolved from distant ancestors,
produced variations among the populations however, similarities provide evidence that
that resulted in different, but closely related, similar selection pressures in the
island species. environment caused distant related species
to develop similar adaptations.

2. Evidence from Fossils

Fossils are the preserved remains of plants and animals. Fossils are often found in sedimentary rock,
which is formed by the gradual settling of sediments. The age of fossils found is determined by a
technique called carbon dating. In carbon dating, a sample of plant or animal fossil is tested for the ratio
of a radioactive carbon isotope (carbon-14) to a non-radioactive carbon isotope (carbon-12). By using the
rate of decay of carbon-14 to carbon-12, the age of the fossil can be calculated. The fossil records
contained in layers of sedimentary rock provide reliable evidence of changes in plant and animal species.

Age of the Earth “Missing Links”

• According to Darwin’s theory, evolution • In 1998, Wes Linster (aged 14) uncovered a
takes a long time. If life evolved according nearly perfect skeleton in Montana. This
to his method, then Earth must be very old. bird-like predator was given the name
• Since the invention of radiocarbon dating, Bambiraptor feinbergi. In has a large brain, a
the age of the Earth has been estimated at bird-like sternum, and wing-like arms. This
4.5 billion years old, which is plenty of time fossil is a type of “missing link”. In this case,
for evolution by natural selection to occur. linking reptilian dinosaurs to birds.
3. Evidence from Comparative Anatomy

A comparative study of the bone structures and body systems of animals from different phyla reveals a
great deal of similarity. There are three different forms of evidence that arise from comparative anatomy.

Homologous Structures Analogous Structures Vestigial Structures

• Anatomical structures that • Anatomical structures that • Anatomical structures

look alike although used for share a common function, inherited from ancestors but
vert different purposes. but not structure. have lost much of their
original function.
• For example, the flipper of • For example, the wings of • For example, dolphins have
a whale, the arm of a birds, bees, and bats show rudimentary hipbones
human, and the wing of a anatomical and functional which are not used in their
bird have similar bone similarities as they have aquatic life. Dolphins have
structures, indicating that evolved to help with flight. retained these structures
they have the same However, they have very because they do not affect
evolutionary origin, even different evolutionary the fitness of dolphins, so
though they are used for origins. natural selection has not
different movements. eliminated them.

Homologous Structures – Mammal Limbs Analogous Structures – Limbs for Flight

4. Evidence from Comparative Embryology

Embryology is the study of developing forms or

embryos. Specifically, a comparative study of
seemingly unrelated species of vertebrates
show similar evolutionary origins.

In other words, the early developmental

stages of many vertebrate animals look very
similar. Recent studies have shown that
embryonic cells of very different species of
vertebrates develop in the same order and in the
same pattern, and go on to produce homologous
structures. These results indicate that
vertebrate organisms have evolved from a
common ancestor.
5. Evidence from Genetics and Molecular Biology

The cells of all living organisms have comparable structures that function in similar ways. All eukaryotic
cells have a cell membrane, a nucleus (except mature red blood cells), cytoplasm with energy-producing
mitochondria, and ribosomes where proteins are assembled. The fact that all living things have similar
cell structures that perform the same tasks indicates a common evolutionary origin.

Geneticists suppose that species with similar molecular structures inherited many of the same genes
from a common ancestor. Genes are short segments of DNA, the molecule that holds all of our genetic
information. By comparing sequences of genes of different species, scientists can deduce how closely
related they are. The more similar the sequences of DNA, the more closely related the species are. In
most cases, these relationships between DNA of different species have further confirmed evidence from
body structure, fossils, and homologous structures. Two forms of evidence are summarized below.

A Common Genetic Code Homologous Molecules

• All living organisms use information encoded • Homologous structure is not just limited to
in DNA to carry information from one structures we can see; homologous proteins
generation to the next. share structural and chemical similarities.
• For example, the genetic code is nearly • For example, one homologous protein is
identical in almost all organisms, including cytochrome c, which functions in cellular
bacteria, plants, fungi, and animals. This is respiration. Remarkably, similar versions of
powerful evidence that all organisms evolved this protein are found in nearly all living cells.
from common ancestors that shared this • Another example is the Hox genes, which are
genetic code. a set of ancient genes that determine the
• As another example, the genetic difference head-to-tail axis during embryo development.
between humans and their closest relative, Some form of Hox genes are found in almost
the chimpanzee, is minuscule: only 1.2%! all multicellular animals, from fruit flies to
humans, indicating a common ancestor.

Hemoglobin Gene - % Identical Amino Acids Cytochrome C –Differences in Amino Acids

6. Conclusion

When Darwin published his famous book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in
1859, he outlined his mechanism for evolution. Natural selection is the process by which individuals
with variations most suited for their local environment survive and leave more offspring than less-suited
individuals. Today, evidence from many diverse fields, such as biogeography, genetics and anatomy
have served as independent lines of support for Darwin’s basic ideas about evolution.
 REVIEW - EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
1. What are the five main lines of scientific evidence that support Darwin’s theory of natural selection?

Evidence From…

i. iv.

ii. v.

iii.

2. The appendix, an extension of the large intestine appears, although this is debated, to have little
function in humans. What is the appendix an example of in terms of evidence for evolution?

3. If vestigial structures, such as hip bones in dolphins, have no current function, then why does natural
selection allow them to remain? Explain.

Homologous molecules can be used to deduce relationships among organisms. The diagram below
shows a small portion of the DNA for the gene, Hocx8, in 3 animals – a mouse, a whale, and a chicken.

4. What percentage of the nucleotides in the whale’s DNA is different from the mouse? To do this, first
count the number of nucleotides in one entire DNA sequence. Then count the nucleotides in the
whale DNA that differs from the mouse DNA. Finally, divide the number of nucleotides that are
different by the total number of nucleotides, and multiply the result by 100.

5. What percentage of the nucleotides in the chicken’s DNA are different from the mouse’s DNA?

6. Is a mouse more closely related to a chicken or to a baleen whale? Explain your answer.
 REVIEW - EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
1. What are the five main lines of scientific evidence that support Darwin’s theory of natural selection?

Evidence From…
i. Biogeography iv. Comparative Embryology

ii. Fossils v. Genetics and Molecular Biology

iii. Comparative Anatomy

2. The appendix, an extension of the large intestine appears, although this is debated, to have little
function in humans. What is the appendix an example of in terms of evidence for evolution?

vestigial structure

3. If vestigial structures, such as hip bones in dolphins, have no current function, then why does natural
selection allow them to remain? Explain.

Although vestigial structures have little or no function to the current organism, the presences of
many of these structures do not affect the organism’s overall fitness. Therefore, natural selection
does not act on it to eliminate it.

Homologous molecules can be used to deduce relationships among organisms. The diagram below
shows a small portion of the DNA for the gene, Hocx8, in 3 animals – a mouse, a whale, and a chicken.

4. What percentage of the nucleotides in the whale’s DNA is different from the mouse? To do this, first
count the number of nucleotides in one entire DNA sequence. Then count the nucleotides in the
whale DNA that differs from the mouse DNA. Finally, divide the number of nucleotides that are
different by the total number of nucleotides, and multiply the result by 100.

10%

5. What percentage of the nucleotides in the chicken’s DNA are different from the mouse’s DNA?

20%

6. Is a mouse more closely related to a chicken or to a baleen whale? Explain your answer.

A mouse is more closely related to a whale than a chicken, because it shares a greater percentage of
nucleotides for the Hocx8 gene with the whale than with the chicken. This is likely because the
common ancestor of a whale and a mouse are closer than the ancestor of a chicken and a mouse.