Chemistry S2

8F
Atomic structure
• atom - basic unit of matter
• Elements - atoms w different properties
Physical Change - ductility, malleability, Mb/Bp, density, conduction of heat/
electricity
Chemical Change - color change, gas being formed, energy being released.
• Compounds - 2+ atoms chemically bonded
• Mixture - 2+ substances not chemically bonded
• Chemical reactions - atoms rearrange to make new substances

:
Stuff around us

Matter

Pure S
Separation Impure-mixtures
techniques

Pass electricity
through it
Elements Compound

Most basic All elements

form of made up of
matter atoms
 Alkaline
Alkali earth Diatomic Noble
metals metals Metalloid halogen gas
+ 1 + 2 + 3 -
3 -
2 -0

&
Transition metals
~ia
ht

side of
periodic
table

Rows

• Atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons.

Chemical Bonding
• all particles have a desire to become more stable mass
• Stable - full valence shell or full octet (8) not
• chemical bonding
Y outer most when
nucleon
- ionic - electrons transferred (left + right)
- covalent - electrons shared (right + right) nucleum-proton
Noble gas
• max no. of electron valence shell holds = neutron
electron
• No sharing give reciev-
out
• Stable already -"give 10 t
Ionic Bonding = x
0

• formed by ions
• Atom gains or loses electrons and become electrically charged particles
• Pawsitively charged ions = cations
• Negative charged ions = anions
• Metal lose electrons to become cations To become more stable
• Non-metals gain electrons to become anions and achieve full shell
• Electrons are transferred from a metallic atom to a non-metallic atom,
resulting in two ions being formed
lose electrons- positive
Gain electrons - negative
Chemical formulas
Na O Nonmetal
2

Metal Subscript A substance made up of two or more different

elements chemically join together
Naming Simple lonic Compounds
• Metal (cation) written first
• Non-metal (anion) written second
• The ending of the anion's name is changed to "-ide"
• E.g. Naz is sodium oxide instead of 'sodium oxygen'
Chemical Formulae of Ionic Compounds
1) Find the elements' symbols and ion charges from the periodic table (metal is
always 1st) Li+ and O2-
2) "Criss-cross" the ion charges
3) Reduce subscripts to lowest terms when possible (subscripts of "1" are not
written)

Change of states

Gas
M
Evaporation Sublimation
Deposition
Condensation

Liquid Freezing Solid

Melting

• Left to right - atomic size decrease

• Left to right - protons and electrons increase - increases the electrostatic
force of attraction between the positive nucleus and the negative electron
shells, pulling the shells closer to the center. Size decrease.
• When you go down a group of- mp/bp decrease, atomic size increase. - Distance
between positive nucleus and sea of delocalized valence electrons(move
freely) increase. - weakens the electrostatic force of attraction, - less
energy to bond with each other. My/bp decrease
• Mp/Bp increase when going down the group - larger atoms and molecules have
stronger intermolecular forces(forces of attraction/repulsion) holding non-
metals together.
• As you go down the group, elements become more reactive due to the increasing
atomic size, which weakens the attraction between nucleus and the outer
electrons, making it easier for elements to lose electron.
Reactions of metals
Metal reacts with oxygen
• Metal + oxygen → metallic oxide
• High mp/bp solids at &room temp
• Conducts electricity in liquid state only
• alkaline
Non-metals with oxygen
• nmetals + oxygen → nmetallic oxides
• low mp/bp gases at room temp
• Cannot conduct electricity
• Mostly acidic
L to R across a period
• Metallic character decreases
• Alkaline to acidic
Alkali Metals - Physical Properties
• solid at room temp
• Silver & shiny
• Soft; can be cut by knife ,

• Low density
• Low mp/bp
Chemical Properties
• high reactive - least number of valence electrons, lose 1 makes it more
reactive metals in periodic table
• Reactivity increases - valence electron becomes further from nucleus -
weaker electrostatic force of attraction, easier for metal to lose electron
during reaction
• Cold water - bubbles + floats + gets smaller + explode + catch fire
Electronic configurations
Li - 2,3 Ni- 2,6
Electronic configurations diagram

Li N

Ionic Compound diagram

↑
Non-metal

Meet a gain electora

anions
Biology CA1
• Enzymes are made of protein and act as catalyst because they increase the
rate of chemical reactions, but are not changed in those reactions.
• Amylase speeds up the digestion of starch to maltose. Trypsin continues the
chemical digestion of protein begun by the enzyme pepsin in the stomach
Protein food test: Biuret test (protein) (blue-purple/violet)
1. Add the same amount of (2cm) of Biuret solution into a test tube and mix the
solution (with sample)
2. Observe the colour change.
DCPIP test - Vit C
• Add 2cm of
Independent - change (type of sample)
Dependent - Results (colour change of DCPIP)
Control Variable - Keep the same.
Less drop more concentrate
More drops diluted
Benedict Test
• blue to brick-red precipitate
Reducing sugars
Disaccharides
• sucrose - glucose + fructose
• Lactose - Galactose + glucose
Monosaccharides
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
Polysaccharides (complex molecules)
• Cellulose
• Starch
• Glycogen
Biology 8A
Enzymes and Metabolism

B
Active site
.
Site when substrate can binds to produce enzyme-substrates
complex
Enzyme - Helps lessen the energy barrier (made up of protein)

&
- factors that affect Temperature complex
Substrate pH
Concentration of substance
• Protein - Help make new cells, for growth and repair the body
- containing amino acids
- held by bonds
- can be broken (enzymes loses their shape and become denatured)
• Catalyst - Speed up metabolic reactions
• Substrate + Enzymes = Enzyme-substrate complex

Enzyme pH Neutral
-
• Saliva (amylase - ph7) Acidic
-
• Stomach (pepsin/remin - ph2)
• Small intestine (trypsin - ph8)
HCL - to kill the bacteria
Alkaline
Revision
• Fats - fatty acids + Glycerol
• Protein - Amino acids
• Carbohydrate - glucose

Enzyme + Temperature
Optimum temperature • The best temperature for enzyme to
function - 37

*
• Enzyme is denatured - why? - the shape of
active changes and the substrate cannot
fit into the active site.
• The damage is irreversible
• The substrate and enzyme is completely
denatured
Lose structure, function • The substrate and enzyme are not
complementary to each other.
Tests
• Buriet test becomes violent when • Vitamin C DCPIP
there is presence of protein

Procedure
• Add Buriet to the substance
• mix it well
• Positive: Becomes purple

Amylas + Starch = maltose

Lack of iron-anema
Physics
7l Sound - Lesson 1 & 2
• Sounds are made by something vibrating
• Loud & soft - intensity
• High & low - pitch
• Number of vibrations each second - frequency
• Units for frequency - hertz (Hz)
• Size of vibrations - amplitude
• How to make sounds - vocal folds across your windpipe, vibrates when air
moves across them
• Sound can only travel through medium (solid, liquid or gas)
• Sound cannot travel through vacuum
• Substance are made out of particles
• Moving vibrations form sound wave Pressure waves -
• Air particles squashed together - higher pressure repeating pattern of
• Air articles spread out - Lower pressure 3 high and low pressure
areas

longitude wave - direction of wave parallel to direction of particles

Water wave/transverse wave - direction of wave perpendicular to direction

of particles Water
Lesson 3
• The frequency of sound wave - No. waves passing per second
• Amplitude - Distance moved by air particles as sound wave passes
• Amplitude- Sound
• Pressure wave (eg. sound waves) - Transfer energy from one place to
another. Does NOT transfer particles.
• Sound - Energy transferring
• Sound waves spread our from a source
• Further you get from source, the energy carried by sound wave spreads out
further causing less energy for you ear to detect the sound
• Sound travels with different materials.
• Vibrations passes easily when particles in material are closer together
• Sound travels faster in solid - liquid - gas
Speed of sound equation Without echo With echo
• With echo
Speed = 2distance/time
V = 2d/t
• Without echo
Speed = distance/time
V = d/t
• We use certain materials to absorb some of the energy transferred by sound
waves.
• Microphone -
Lesson 4
• Sound waves are sometimes converted to electrical signals and then back to
sound waves.
Transferring energy
• Sound waves are transferred by energy which can be transmitted though
materials to be absorbed/reflected
• High frequency - treat injuries + Clean jewellerys
Echo
• Reflected sound - echo
• Echolocation- find ways around at night, find food (animals)
Lesson 5
•
7J electricity
• The bulb can be lighted up if the circuit is closed / complete
• Source - power supply, cell, battery
• Load - bulb, resistor
• Circuit without load is known as short circuit
Circuit symbols;

fixed
~ on 0

as power supply

• What are the circle things inside the wire called in pHET?
Charges
• When charges are not moving that means the switch is
open
• When the charges move that means that the switch is
closed. One physical quantity is current.
• The direction of conventional current is how a positive
charge would flow
• In a common conductor is due to the motion of negatively
charged electrons
• Direction of conventional is the direction of motion of
electrons
Current and Ammeter
• Which physical quantities does ammeter measure?
Current (i)
• SI unit: Ampere (A)
• Current is defined as the rate of flow of charges
• How to connect ammeter: Always in series
• Important scientific language: Current is flowing
through
7J Electricity
• A resistor is a component in an electric circuit which provides current
• Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree
• SI unit of resistance (R) is ohm (c)

• Energy is needed for bulb to light up

• Source is providing it
• Charge is carrying it
• Is “it” constant throughout the circuit? Energy higher before load,
energy lower before load
• Which physical quantities does voltmeter measure? Voltage /
potential difference (pd) (V)
• SI unit: volt (V)
• These physical quantities are related to energy carried by each
charge
• How to connect voltmeter: (always) in parallel
• These physical quantities can be referred to amount of energy inside
the basket carried by charge / energy in backpack
• Important scientific language: pd across bulb / resistor or e.m.f
across battery
Parallel Series

↑
• Current and resistance in the circuit: When resistance increases, Current
↓ decreases (vice Vera) for series circuit
• The reading on the ammeter shows the amount of current flowing around the
circuit
• The current is the same everywhere in the circuit (series). The current is not
used up by the bulbs
7Ja
How do we measure electricity?
• The current is the amount of electricity that is flowing around a circuit
• The current carries energy to bulbs or other components
• In electricity experiments the current in a circuit is provided by a cell or
power pack
• There must be a complete circuit or the current will not flow
If one of the bulbs in circuit C breaks, the other bulb will go out. This happens
because the broken bulb makes a gap in the circuit
• bulbs light up because the electricity flowing through them makes the
filament glow
• If you add more bulbs to the circuit, all the bulbs in the circuit will be
dimmer
Measuring current
• We measure the current using an ammeter
• The units for current are amperes (A)
• It does not matter where the ammeter foes in the circuit
• Current is not used up as it goes around the circuit, so the current is the
same everywhere
Current - amount of electricity flowing around a circuit
Ammeter - the instrument that measures the amount of electricity
Cell - makes electricity flow in a circuit
Filament - the part of a light bulb that glows
Switch - a component that can stop or start the current flowing
Battery - two or more cells used together
All the current flows through all the components - series circuit
If one bulb breaks, the other go off - series circuit
The bulbs do not become dimmer if you add more of them - parallel circuit
All the bulbs are either on or off together - series circuit
Each bulb can be switched on or off separately - parallel circuit
The current is the same everywhere in the circuit - series circuit
If you add more bulbs to the circuit, they all become dimmer - series circuit
If one bulb breaks, bulbs in other branches stay on - parallel circuit
• In a series circuit, current is always the same (rate of flow of charges is
constant)
• In a parallel circuit, current split (split equally if resistance same)
(conservation of charges) At a junction, total current in = total current
out
Summary (parallel circuit)

• current flowing through source is called the main current (other: branch
current)
• At junction, total current IN = total current out; (sum of branch current =
main current) (reason: conservation of charges)
• If you add bulb in series, bulb brightness decreases as current decreases
• If you add bulb in parallel, bulb brightness no change as current flowing
through each bulb stays the same
• Main current is always higher than branch current
• Current split at junction
• When resistance in branch increases, current flowing that branch decreases
Series and parallel recap
• A circuit with all the bulbs in one loop is called a series circuit
• If the bulbs are in separate branches of a circuit, it is a parallel circuit
• Parallel circuit can have lots of branches. Each branch can have more that
one component in it
Parallel circuits are useful because each light can be switched on and off
separately from the others
The two types of circuit behave in different ways
• in a series circuit, if one bulb breaks all the others go out, because the
broken bulb makes a gap in a circuit
• In a parallel circuit, if one bulb breaks the bulbs in the other branches stay
S

on
circuits (series, parallel)

• The current is the same everywhere in a series circuit, but in a parallel

circuit in the current from the cell splits up when it comes to a branch. The
currents in all the branches add up to the current in the main part of the
circuit
• If you add more bulbs to a series circuit the current gets smaller and the
bulbs get dimmer. In a parallel circuit, if you add more branches with bulbs
in, the bulbs stay bright. It is easier for the surrenders to flow with more
branches, because there are more ways for the charges to go. The currents
in the main part of the parallel circuit increases