MICROWAVE MEASUREMEN TS

MICROWAVE MEASUREM. EN TS Vs. LOW

FREQUEN CY MEASUREMEN TS

. it is convenient to measure voltage, current,

In ac circuits, at low frequencies,
frequ~~cy ~nd ~ower. However, at [Link] _frequ~nci~s, th~_!lleasurement of these
qµant1t1es 1s d1ffictdt because they vary with position. For example in f
· · 1· h case o
transm1ss1on me, t e voltag~ and current are functions of distance and are not easily
measurable. Therefore, at microwave frequencies it is more convenient_to -measure
power instead of voltage and current.
··--Uniike7owrrequericf -measurements, many quantities measured at microwave
frequencies are relative and it is not necessary to know their absolute value. For
example, in power measurement, it is usually sufficient to know the ratio of input and
output powers.
Much of the properties of devices and circuits at microwave frequencies are
obtained from the Jl}easurement of S-parameters, power, frequency, phase shift, VSWR
and noise figure.
In laboratory the me_asurement of 4i:fferent param~ters _at microwave-frequencies
are not .,.convenient. Henc~ he microw~ [Link]-YsuaLLy...JnQdU~ with square
wave ·modulating signal at l k.H~ surements are possible at this frequency oy
demodulating The signa[ --

Ill •Mf,OROWAVE 'n;ST;BE~(;H·.

The general set up for measurement of any parameter in microwave is nonnally
done by a microwave bench. The general set up of a microwave bench is shown in fig. (1)
The bench consists of the following parts :
a( Signal generator : It is a microwave source 'Yhose outputis of the .order of
milliwatts. It may be a gtl!1'1 diode oscillator, a bas kward oscill¥1Pr o_r_a_i:et}exJ,!)!£tron
tube. Its function is tQJ2rovide a continuous wave (CW) or c!_Square wave modul~at
an audio rate which is normall).:'. l kHz.
~ ij--Variable precision ~'i,i;;ator : Its function is to provide O to 50 dB
attenuation above~ [Link] loss. - · ·
~- ~ ) -VOriable flat attenuator : In addition to variable precision attenuator a
variable flat attenuator is also used. Its calibration can be checked again~~reading ~ the
precision atte~uator.
 Standing wave
indicator

Variable flap
attenuator [e]
... --------~~., Crystal
1 detector
mount

Termination
Variable Frequency
line
precision attenuator meter

Fig. (1) General set up of microwave bench

(iv) Frequency meter: This meter is used for direct reading of frequency. This
is,s~ t ~ upled to ~ veguide. The slotted line is described in the next article.
(v) Crystal detector: - The crystal detector is inserted in the E probe of the
r"slo~e_d line. This !s ~onta~ned in~~J!c!lde_te_ctormoWlt at th.e en~ o( waveguideJUn.
This 1s used to detect the moaulate_clsignal. ·
,..-(vi) Standing wave ;:f;o (SWR) indicator: Basically, this is a sensitive tuned
voltmeter. This provides the direc~re~~i!1g of SWR or its equivalent value in

• SLOTIED LIN E CARRIAGE" .

A slotted line carriage is shown in fig. (2).
~ - Probe depth
adjustment

'
• -
(a)
Coaxial output

Coaxial output

:
Centre conductor Probe
Waveguide
Outer conductor
(c)
(b)

(a) Schematic diagram of slotted line carriage

(b) Cross-section of coaxial slotted line
(c) Cross-section of rectangular waveguide slotted line
,-- -
It consist of the following parts :
fiJ Slotted section of a transmissio~ line (waveguide)
_}i'i) A travelling probe carriage,. and
_Jiji) Facility' for _attachin~ a dete~ting instr~ment.
,_vti) ,The [Link]!
. 1s. made m the centre of the board face of the wavegu1'de
parallel to_the ax1_s _o f wave~m~e. Th~ sl2_t s~ould be narrow enough to avoid an
distortion m the ongmalliel~ _i9.e...fue wavegmde. TheJ wo ends of the sl ~ ta
- . h CC: - f d' . . Ot are taperea
to zero w1am ror reducing t_e_§.pect o _ iscontmu1ty.
. (ii) ~:?~ set on a carri~ge plate~ctrcan move on the top surface of the
Waveguide · It 1s important to mention here that the probe extends into the slot c - .
. . . . . ommg
quite close to the mner conductor of the hne but not touchmg 1t. This loose coupling is
sufficient for measurement purposes.
(iii) The probe ~ ge co~i!_l~ a_stu_b t~ b~e coaxial probe crystal detector to
0 ~~q!!._ency modulat1~g- ~~-n~l. ou~! to sc-ope or [Link]. ----.
The probe is_ made to ~ove long1tudmally alo~g the waveguide slot. The output
from..the..cietector 1s propor_t1onal._!o the square of the mput v..oJtage at the [Link] ohhe
p~or different-positions-, the output fs proportional to the standing wave P~ m
inside the wavegui~ . Therefore, the square root of the_ ratio of maximum..[Link]
mi ni!"_!'~n output when the travelling probe is moved along the slot_give~ voliage
standing wave ratlo (VSWR). -
- The slotted line with tunable detector is used to measure the following_parameters :
__,,r.· VSWR and standing wave pattern
A . Wavelength
. -3. Impedance, reflection coefficient and return loss measurements by minima
shift method.

Ill VOLTAGE STANDINGJ,VAVE I½.TIO (VSWR) METER_]

A VSWR meter is a sensitive high gain, high Q ,and low_noise_filll.Qlifier. This
amE!_ifier~f[lally~ nefatafixed fyeque'"ncyof 1 kHz at which the_!!~i~E?~ si~l
is moaufated. . --~ ---- ·· -- -
The input of VSWR meter is a detected signal output of a microwave ditector. The ·
input is amplified by VSWR meter and the same ·fa given as output to calibrated
voltmeter. The probe carriage is m_0ved to giv~ maximum [Link] VSWRme ter
by adjusting the pad. This full scale deflection (FSD) corresponds to a VSWR of 1 as
shown in fig. (3).
1.4 SWR

o,,
-?"'q/

\ qi)
, '-' -S o '1,,1(1e(1
"' 0 ~-lb
Scale of the VSWR indicator o:"%(1

Fig. (3) Scale of VSWR meter

/
 Let us consider the example that a full scale deflection corresponds to a VSWR of
1. T~e travelling probe is adjusted to get the minimum reading on the metre. If this
readmg corresponds to 5 mV, then VSWR =10 mV/5 mV =2.
There are following three scales on the VSWR meter:
~ ,if' \Vhen VSWR is between 1 and 4, the reading is taken from the top SWR
normal scale. . - ·
_Jji)· \Vllen VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, the bottom SWR normal scale is used.
1
This scale is graduated in dB.
J iii) When VSWR < 1.3, a more accurate reading can be taken by selecting the
expanded scale which is graduated from 1 to 1.3.
The actual VSWR meter looks like a~ shown in fig. (4). It has different control
knobs.

C)

lJ
[Link]=
·
6) ,, -.#-f.
•cRMODEL vs:.,i 1 ~ C)

' I'
f,-

$;
h~-
. ' ' ,
ON

"°""'' =-
@
20 30 40,
10• • • • • so
<:.J:21 °· ··60 - ~

Fig. (4) VSWR meter ,._ _(

MICROWAVE POWER MEASUREMEN TS
TECHN IQUES ·
Consider a circuit at low frequencies. The voltage and current at any point in the
circuit can be measured and therefore, the corresponding power can be calculated. Bur
an microwave freq~ ncies tt_js not possible to m~ s_}lr~ i~ec~[Link]
because the circuit elements are distributed. So, at microwave frequencies the_eower is •
.l:!2~.~-~~-~e~ ctly_Mld it is not calculated by ;J;easuring""ihe voltage and curre~
Depending on power level, there are three different methods for measuring
microwave power.
l. Measurement of very low power (< I mW)
2. Measurement of low microwave power (< IO mW)
3. Measurement of high microwave power (Io' mW to IO W)
__j
 5.5-1 MEASUREMEN TOFVERYLOWPOWER(< 1 mW)
Thermocouple Sensor
. A thennocouple is_~junc.tion_o[two dissimilar metals-or semiconductors (n-type
S1). When the two ends of a thennocouple are maintained at different temperature
.
;,·mt f. IS.M~aled. - - _ _ : --S.,_illl
_
Fig. sci shows a thennocouple sensor.
C1
_ ____,, I - - . - - - - - ,

- R.F.
-power
Thin film
n-Si
resistor
Cold-

<>-------'---....1------0To de
. :' · voltmeter

Fig. (5) r i~~~ple power sensor

The thin film resistor fonns one Jtectrode of the thennocouple as shown in the
fig. (5)1/ . ·
--when microwave power is incident on thin film resistor it causes the difference in
the temperature of the two junctions of the thennocouple.
The difference of temperature causes thenno-emf whic9 e..roe~rtiqpal to the
incident [Link] powJ!I-to-he...[Link]. Th~ ...[Link] in the parallel
!'Fiennncruiples-a~[Link]:..aQ"oss conclenset..C.r-
The output meter reads pur~ d.c. voltage eroportional to the input microwave
~ wer.
5.5-2 MEASUREMEN T OF LOW MICROWAVE POWER (< 10 mW)
For the measurement of~w microwave power, the devices such as bolometers
and thermocouples are usedJ.:these devices are based_ on the _erinciple t_!iat Jheir
resistance ch~ e ~ith applied power. Bolometers are most widely used among them.
(?J) Bolometer~ ; t ~ era~r; : ~itive ~lement and when microwave power faHs on
., i'r,'its temperature -rrses7falls which results in the- Wire ·· ·
change of resistance. Basically, it ~ nsists [Link]~
( ,\ Jenpb of fine'"'.ire mounted in .• ~•rtridge jujJ liJ<e
U an oJ dinacy-electrtc fuse. Trus1s shown m fig. (6).
Ji---t,____L +

"fir
Bolometers are of two types : Fig. (6) Bolometer
(i) Barretters and (ii) [Link]
(i) Barretters h~5! po~iti~e te1~_1perature. coeft}cient (say platinum wife) and their
resistance ii}creases with the increase in_temperaJure as s~own in fig..: Qa). .
---
 (ii) Thermisters have negative tem~ rature coef!!.ci_en!..{~ a semiconductor) and
their resistan~e_decr..eases.._w_ifu i!!cr.e_!se in temp_eratuce_as_shmvn in fig. (7b ).

t t
8C 8C
i
"iii
i
1/)
Q)
Q)
[Link] [Link]

Temperature - - Temperature - -
(a) Barretter
.
(b) Thermistor

Fig. (7) Bolometer characteristic

Measurement of power using bolometer

For the measurement of power using bolometer, a balanced bridge circuit is used.
The balanced bridge circuit is shown in fig. (8) .
.---------1 / J.-..---,

Microwave'\.
power",

Bolometer" d.c. bias

adjustment

1Bolometer
- d.c. bias

(Power meter)
Voltmeter calibrated
to read power

Fig. (8) Showing balanced bridge circuit of bolometer

As shown in fig. (7), the bolometer is connected in one arm of the bridge circuit.
[Link] is calibrated to read power directly.? i.e.,,J ts-detl¢eti0n records the power.-
Followin~psare used to measure the power : .
~ , -The microwave power is not allowed to incident on bolometer. Now the
resistors of the bridge are selected in .such a way ..thru:_vol~meter records zero. In this
pQsition the bridge is balanced.
'- ,(bf The micrnwave power is'allowed to fall on bolometer. The bolometer absorbs
the power and its resistance is changed. As a result th~ bridge becomes unbalanced. So,
the voltmeter shows a deflection. .
- ~ e deflection ~ es the direct indication of power because the voltmeter is
already calibrateg_ in tel]!l_s~ ower:. · - -

Disadvantages of single bridge and their elimination

A single bridge has many disadvantages such as :
./4' The change of resistance due to mismatch at the microwave input port.
1}11) Effect to ambient temperature on the thermistor resulting in false reading.

A
 The above mentioned problems can be eliminated by using double bridge as
shown in fig. (9).

Bridge
_ amplifier

RF input Bridge
v2 amplifier

DC voltmeter
calibrated to power
1k
Thermistor
(Temperature-..-. ....
compensation)

· Fig. (9) Double bridge for power measurement

In double bridge method, the upper bridge measures the microwave power. The
lower bridge c~cuit compensates the effect of ambient temperature variation.
5.5-3 MEASUREMEN T OF HIGH POWER L< 10 mW)
The measurement of high power is done by using calorimeter wattmeter device.
The calorimeter wattmeter works on the principle of conversion of microwave
energy into heat. The heat is absotbed by~ fluid (usually water). By measuringlhe~rise~
--~
oftemperature, t he,,,mi<;xo~ ave pq_wer-c; ~ caJsu la~~d. -- .. ---~::,._ '
Fig. (10) shows a circulating calorimeter. In this calorimeter, water is constantly
flowing through water load. A part of the tube (in which water is flowing) is placed
between waveguide. Microwave power is allowed to incident on this part.
Outlet
Flowmeter temper~ture Inlet
Water temperature
out...._
Pump

Microwave
power input

Glass tube
for water flow
Water in
Fig. (10) Circulating calorimeter
 I'
·I D ue t o m1cr?wave
. power, the heat is introduced in the fluid . ~ . t_!,~eratu~ f
~ tlet becomes higher than the temperature of-inlet. Me<!suring the temperature rise, the
1
! ~ erage power can be ca1culated by the fo~ ula
, · P = 4.187 v p C P T watt
] where, v = rate of flow of calm'fmeter fluid iri cc7sec
I
•I p= specific gravity of the fluid in glee
I
, C P = specific heat in cal/g
T = rise in temperature in °C
l

Normally a self balancing bridge technique shown in fig. (11) is employed.

Amplifier

Bridge

"vi - - - - - - - - - i __ Comparison
J Temperature
sensitive resistor · - - -
(gauge)
Excitation gauge

Microwave
power o----+-'-'-c-~'-N:'i/lN Comparison power

l
input -
Sensitive -- Comparison
element
(Input load) ' ~ ---1 I
load

') ·.·.•.~ :-:•:-:-·.······ :

I
Pump
I
I
I

I
I

, Heat exhanger :
t______ __________ ___ l
Fig. (11) Self balancing bridge technique
It consists of two a~s. The input arm contains input load resistor and a
temperature sensitive resistor or gauge. Both are placed close to each other. The other
arm also contains an identical comparison load and an identical comparison gauge.
Both these are also placed close to each other.
There is an amplifier and indicating wattmeter.
The unknown input power is applied to the input load. As a result, heat 10
_is
generated in the load which raises the temperature of the gauge. This reSults
unbalancing the bridge.
,,,- The signal due to inbalance is amplified and then applied to the compariso~ loa~.
The heat generated in this resistor is transferred to comp~rison gauge. Now the bri<lge is
rebalanced.
 The meter measures the amount of power that is supplied to the comparison load
in order to rebalance the bridge. It can be calibrated directly in terms of input
microwave power.
For quick balancing of the bridge and for efficient heat transfer from loads to
gauges, the components are immersed in an oil stream.

'- ', .-·m MEASUREMEN T OF FREQUEN CY

Microwave frequency can be measured by either mechanical or electronic
techniques. Frequency counter and cavity wavemeter are commercially available_to
measure microwave frequency. Following methods are used for the measurement ~
frequency. 1: ~ :ft'_ -t
( o..) 5.6-1 SLOTTED LIN E TECHN IQUE
We have studied that when a waveguide is mismatched by a lq_ad,A ~t~ din~
is set up in the wave_gYide .. The stanclingwaves set ~£_ j.------ Ag ------~
in stottec11ine (transmission lip~_prqduce ma~ima or
!11.!!!LUl~- The ~ t every h«;!lf wavel_e~th apart
from maxima as shown in fig. (12).
The_detector isj nserted into the slotted line and
detected output is observed on stal}ding wavemeter. ..--A_g/2 -,-.1

-
Thedistarice- between maxima arid minima Jfi min ) is I I

notea:- - - -- Fig. (12) Maxima and minima

of wave

, mm \>@ the distMtee betwcea

.Le&-tJ.:: ,. t\v:o s\:lceessi¥@ HHH:ima. This distance is equal to
half wavelength 'A. g /2. Therefore,
'A.·
__.!_ = d mm
. or ... (1)
2
For a waveguide
... (2)
8(o-J< J.;_'r ;ycvv--i
- -
-~
__. I

For TE 10 mode, Ac =2 a where a = width of w~veguide.

·- - -- -- -~- -- ·-- i -o -· ~---
N ow ' 2dm;, = ll-(~: )') ... (3)

I
Solving this equation, we get the value of AO because d min is also noted with the
help of detector.
The frequency can be calculated by the following formula

if i _=- :
0
where c=velocity oflight ... (4)

I
 - •.,..., J
5.6-2 RESON AN T CAVITY TECHN IQUE OR WAVEMETER METHOD,
A typical wavem~ter is_ i sylindrical cavity ,;ith a variable sho~ circuit
~ ~ination (s~ pl~ ger)_~hic,!i .Y!IY_.the cavity_by_a~j!:'sting the <;avity l~ngth
[fig. (1 3)f In other words, a calibrated reso'!._af!!_cavity _!~ us__e d as_a wavemete!__jo
measure the f requency_.
Fig. (13) shows the wavemeter method of frequency measurement.
Calibrated
./ plunger

Waveguide

Resonant
cavity - -

Coupling hole
(Iris)

Fig. (13) Wavemeter method of frequency measurement

It consists of a resonant cavity attached with the calibrated plunger. With the help
of adjustable calibrated plunger the cavity size can be varied. The cavity is resonant
only at a _particular frequency for its definite size. The cavity is coupled toa waveguide·
tF'rough an iris (coupling hole). · · -
The cavity is piac;d between the source and the calibrated frequency meter as
shown in fig. (14).

Microwave
frequency ......... Attenuator 1---+
Wave-
meter
r-+
Slotted '--+
line
Detector i--
Frequency
signal source meter
.

Fig. (14) Set up for frequency measurement

With the help of calibrated plunger, the size of the cavity is varied to tune it with
the ~ oming frequency. When the cavity is-hinea, tne-cavftya bsorbs t he power wliich
causes a dip in the output power level. . -- -. -. . . ·- - -
T he freque ncyis- determined by reading the micrometer which is calibrated
directly in terms of frequency.

e '
, ( ( .cJ(.... V'l ~•<...U
5.6-3 DOWN coNVERsioN METHOD /
j ,,
Principle
This is an electronic t~~hnique. The--pri-neiple-is..llJHE!.. on tJ.,e comJ!_arison °1
un}!nown micro~ uenE'y""With a harmonic ofknown frequency by a frequency
he!!!.__odyn e sys7em.
 ,- . . -

A block diagram of this method is shown in fig. ( 15).

Unknown
frequency (f)

Variable fc Harmonic
frequency generator Mixer Output
source frequency
(fo)
Fig. (15) Down conversion method

As the frequency n le is known and frequency lo is measured, the unknown

frequency is given by

Detailed Circuit
A detailed circuit of frequency measurement is shown in fig. (16).

~ - - - - -::....,_----, C.R.O.
Horizontal
Vertical

Low pass filter

Directional
coupler

Harmonic Frequency
generator standard

Sweep Adjustable
generator Wave-
attenu.~tor meter
~-

Fig. (16) Detail.~d circuit of frequency measurement

The _swee~ generator is used to sweep the horizontal input of oscilloscope . .:!Eis
also rov1des signal to adjustable att t -
Th ..,..___ en U<!lQr •
. e a ~u~tal::i eafienum-~rattenuates the signal coming from sw~ep g~nerator. Jhe ,,.
output 1s applied to wavemet _ __ _ _ . _ - -
er.
The signal from th · t'onal
coup Ier. e wavemeter passes to mixer through_ main- arm of_gjrec
- 1

Through the auxiliary arm 0 f d ' . nic

generator passes to the mixer. a Irectiona! c;qupler, a_f!.other signal from...hanno
The mixer gives the differen l'....
The- signal
.- from mixer ce 11enuenc Y of ti1e a.b_ov_e two s1gna
- -p~-:...::..:i. . Is. .
ses tothed t , . ·~.,,, l is.
used to control the vertical input of th e ~ctor through low pass filter.
e osc11loscope.
 The amplitude levels corresponding to the difference in sweep generator
frequency and hannon_ic frequency7sootamed m C.R.O.
-·- ·
Knowing the amplitude level, the unknown frequency can be calculated.
/'

- MEASUREMEN T OF WAVELEN GTH

The wavelength can be measured directly by . u_gn_g co-axial slotted lines. The
schematic diagram is shown in fig. (17). '

Indicator

Local
oscillator

,...................., Detector
Frequency Low pass
generator filter Attenuator $lotted line Load

Fig. (17) Schematic diagram for measurement of wavelength

First of all, the signal from [Link]..generator is ~ -~ ough a low pass filter.
The low [Link] J~..!!!Qyes an_y harmonic [Link] Qie signal. After this tlie s1gnal is
passed through attenuatoLwhich _reduces_th~_J2owe[ of unknown sigI?,al.
The load connected to-the [Link]~ctS.J@_signal to the slotted line. Now
the detector is moved along the [Link]-t-i-1-1-two adjac.ent_minimas are detected.
~.teacli_max1mum: f ~ing is noted. The differenc~ e a dings
giv~ the ~_:asurement of half the wavelengtb,} This -signal is mixed with a signal
com mg from loca1oscr11ato~ . •- I •

An attenuator is used to reduce the power of the signal passing to the indicator.
~e~nwhile the signal before going to indicator is amplified by I.F. amplifier. Jhe
md!.£_~ ives the direct measurement of wavelength. ·

SlJREMEN T OF IMPEDAN CE AN D REFLECTION

EFFICIEN T,

Fo~~ihg methods are used to measure the impedance at microwave frequency:

~Usmg magic T .
~ n g slotted line, and
~ n g reflectometer.
Here we shall discuss the slotted line and reflectometer methods for impedance
rneasurement. .
5.8-1 MEASUREMEN T OF IMPEDAN CE USIN G SLOTI'ED LIN E
Incident and reflected waves will be present proportional to the mismatch of the
load under test resulting in standing wives:-- ----
Impedan~ atmicr_Qwave frequ~rrcy £~n be_~und ~Y dete~ n_ing the VSWR of
unknown [Link] in a slotted line. Fig.( 18) sbows the ctrcmt arrangement.
Tunable
probe detector VSWR meter

Microwave Unknown
Filter Attenuator Slotted line
source load

Fig. (18) Impedance measurement using slotted line

~ sing slotted waveguide and with unknown load in the circuit, the position of
Vmax ancrv;::can b~ ~te~in~a] - - ---- -
Now the unknown load is replaced by a short circuit as shown in fig. (19).
Tunable
probe detector VSWR meter

Microwave
Filter Attenuator Slotted line / Shorted ;
source termination ,
I /

'----~
Fig. (19) Slotted line with short circuit

----
' - - - --- -
[Link] the above circuit, the shift in the minimum is measurea!
.

----
If the ajnimuro..is-shifted-t('.)-the-le-ft-as-shown in fig ..,(20), then [Link] is
inductive. _,. --
I f the m~ f ted to the rigE_t, the impedance~ acitive.
Vmax
With
unknown load
impedance

With short circuit

termination

f--
I
Inductive
I
With short
circuit termination

'7apacitive

Fig. (20) Output standing wave

 Unknown impedance can b~ oEtain_ed by u~iqg_d~ta recorded and using a Smit
charl fJotb- ;,«pedunce M.d:eflection co~[Link] can be obtained in magnitude and
phase.
5,8-Z IMPEDAN CE MEASUREMEN T USIN G REFLECTOMETER
A typical set up of reflectometer technique is shown in fig. (21 ).
Reflectometer
P= [ Reflected power]
Incident power

Tuned Tuned
detector detector '~

Microwave Unknown
Forward " Reverse
power directional ..---~ directional load
source P; coupler coupler
impedance
ZL

Fig. (21) Impedance measurement using reflectometer

In this method two ide1:1tical ~!rec,tional cou~~ used. The !~~~M~re~tional

c~upler s~ h.e inciden t 29wer Pi while the ~ rs_~ djrecfforiaf couruer samples the
reflected power Pr from the unknown load,_ '------ ·
It is important to mention that due to directional property of couplers, there will be
no interference between forward and reverse waves.
The magnitude of reflection coeff]:.c.(e'!.!._ P.. can . be obtained directly on
reflectometer. · - - -- - ·

... (!)

Knowing the value of p, the u~1:.}mJ!,~[Link] (Zt, ) can be calculated by using

the following formula ·
p=ZL-Zg ... (2) ,
ZL +Zg

----
The reflectometer
' -
where Zg =;,known wave impedance.
indicates the magnitude of impedance but not the phase angle.

~ SUREMEN T OF VOLTAGE STAN DIN G WAVE

- ~IO(VSWR)
-
Any mismatched load causes the reflection of wav~s_:_!ht~J:esults ~ -~ta n<lindg
W ave. ~
Measurement of VS WR -- expresses
-- tl'ie uegree o f m1sma
::-::--;1- · -tch between the load
. .an.
- . . . . l . the
transm1ss1on hne. The ratio ofmaximum to mm,mum vo ri!l8! g,ves__ :;;,--- VSIJ!B. fh1s ,s
shown in fig. (22). · . . .

b,
 t Vmax
Vmax

Q)
g> Vmin -----V,--min I
I
I
I I
I

I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I

A
:-;rg
I I I
_.) !.- I Ag-
I :
:.-- Ag __ .:
2
Fig. (22) Showing VSWR

Therefore,

where p is reflection coefficient.

p = p reflected
, pincident

Asp varies from Oto oo and hence S varies from 1 to oo. So, the minimum value of S
is unity.
Following methods are used for the measurement of VSWR
1. Slotted line techniques for VSWR < 10
2. Double minimum method for VSWR > 10

5.9-1 SLOTTED LIN E TECHN IQUE (S < 10)

The set up for the measurement of VSWR is shown in fig. (23).
Microwave Variable Slotted Load under
source Attenuator
\ line t~st
Signal
generator
Crystal
detector Meter

Fig. (23) Low VSWR measurement set up

·------~
impedance --
When the line is tenninated with unmatched impedance of the characteristic
- - and- refl ected waves set a st~ding wave on the H
of line; the mc1d~nt ~~-
First of all the Q!"9be on the slotted waveguide is-adjusted- to give- [Link]-
XQJ_tage}correspond-ing- to-V-01ax-~an.d detector is tuned to give maximum~output.. The
attenuator is now adjusted to get ful f scale deflection on the meter. The full scale
reading is noted. Ne~t, the probe on tfie slotted line i~ adjusted toget minimum ~~ading
on the meter corresponding to V111 in • This reading is also. noted.
The rati~ f Vmax t_o V01 i0 _givesJ he .Y.S WR.

5.9-2 DOUBLE MIN IMUM METHOD (S > 10)

Jn this method, the probe is inserted in the slotted line to a depth to get minimum
reading.
 The probe is now moved upto a point where th_e power g; twice t1!_e minimum
value. Let this distance ~e d.i.;_ -
- -The probe is further moved to other side of minimum to get twice the power point
as shown in fig. (24). Let this distance is denoted by d;. .
Q)
C) Twice minimum
power point
I
,,\
/ '
Vx= "2 Vmin
I
I
I
I
I
I

---------1--
I
Vmin
1
I
I

0
Distance (cm) -

Fig. (24) Showing twice minimum power point.

-----
-
-
The VSWR can be determined by using the following formula
--· ·· .__ 'A,
-
VSWR= g
1t(d2 -di)

where A. g = wavelength along the transmission system.

Examples

Example 1 Two identical directional couplers are used in a waveguide to sample

the incident and reflected powers. The output of the ·two couplers is found to be
2.5 mW and0.15 mW. Find th<::value ofVSWR in the waveguide. ·
Solution The reflection coefficient p is given by

I
p= ~) = O~l:) = =0.244

VSWR = I + p = I + 0.244 = 1.244 = 1.64

1- p 1-0.244 0.756

Example 2 Calculate the VSWR of a transmission system operating at 8 GHz The

distance between twice minimum power points is 0.99 mm on a slotted line whose
velocity factor is unity.
Solution We know that
10
3xl0
C
"- =-=---=3.75cm=37.5mm
g f 8xl0 9
According to twice minimum method
 VSWR= Ag =~
1t(d2 -di) 1t 11.d

= 37.5 = 13.3
3.14x0.9

Example 3 A slotted lin,e is used (o' measure the frequency and itw
distance between .the nulls is l.85 cm. Given the guide dimensions as{oundthatth
Ca/cu/ate thefrequency. ·, '".' , '. '.i,., as [Link]
' -} ·J; ,· , •
Solution Here Ac =2 a =2 x 3 =6cm

Ag=fill
and Ag =2'1.d=2xl.85=3.7cm
Now

or 3. 7 =--;::::=A=o==

[,-(A6 o rJ
Solving, we get A 0 =3.14cm

Now, 3 1010
f = _:'._ = x =:=9.52 x 10 9 Hz
A0 3.14
= 9.52GHz
Example 4, , ~a/cu/ate the vswa ;;J,ff~~~f!l!;;;r0;'1,1
wJ!;~~rii-~ltP~iaxt;1;}(t2'i~
Assume TE10 w~e tra~mission i1J~~
de·~,iaye~idi (~j)Jtfr1}~st~ll~:";~-/=i §wl'awl'
b =2.5 cm. The diSlfJnce measured between·twic,e powe,;jj,offll.$,:;/s,Anlln/ Qfl ,Q;,l{qffeq:
line. , , / ,,;..n ;
/ :- .4 / .;. ..

Solution For TE 10 mode, A C =2a=2x4=8cm

Now 3x}0 10
C
1i. 0 = - = - - - =3cm
f I0xI0 9
We know that

')... g =

= 3.236cm

Now

---
3 236
VSWR = ~ = · =10.3
1t !J.d 1tX (l X 10- )
1
JI IN SERTION LOSS AN D ATfEN {,lATION
MEASUREMEN TS
Microwave components and devices
.
. almost _pr.ovide
1· some
Let a device or network is inserted in the transm1ss1on me.
degree of attenuation.
Suppose

p . = input signal power '

p: = power reflected at the input terminal, and
p 0 = output signal power
The remaining power at the input = P; - Pc
This power actually enters the ~ twork. But due !o ~ttenuation of network, the
output p o ~o is less than input powerP;.
· - ~p:.:o:..;.:..,:.___
iffi_ere'!'~ .m
The insertion l 5-. ,s "ile fined --/Jy~th_e ..!!!__ wer _ _ _-=--
arriving at-the
term,~ nd with~ut the network m c1rcu1t.

Now
- -t.-"'--_;:yo
--
--::P;-- Pr x Po
p.I p.I P,- -Pr

or IOlog(Po)=lOlog(1-pr )+lOlog( -~ )
P; P; P, Pr
:. Insertion loss= reflection loss+ attenuation loss
--- P.
Therefore, insertion loss =10 log ___Q_
pi

and attenuation loss = 10 log ( )

pi pr
For a perfect matching, Pr =D ~ ertio~ loss is eq~ -~~1:!..e nuation loss.
Following are the two methods used for the measurement of attenuation.
l. Power ratio method
2. R.E substitution method
' -
5.10-1 POWER RATIO METHOD
. This method involv,..e s the m easurement of ontpuL~ ithout and with the
device whose attenuation is to be measured. The experimental set up for o offi th e cases
are shown in fig. 25 (a and 1:>) respectively. Let the powers be P and P • Then the ratio
1 2
of Powers (P1 I P2 ) expressed in decibels gives the attenuation.
P 1 watt
Crystal Thermistor Power
detector mount meter

Frequency Slotted Matched

meter line termination
(a)
 P2 watt
Power
meter
!I
Crystal Thermistor
detector mount

Device whose
Microwave Frequency attenuation Slotted
source meter is to be line
measured

(b)

Fig. (25)

The drawback of this__method_is that attenuation measured corresponds to two

power positions on power meter with crystal detector. Thecrystal detectorw orks on
~square law ana nence 1lsc narac tenstics are non.:finear. Due to this reason, the two
powers (P1 and P2 ) measured and attenuation calculated will not be accurate.
The two powers should be measured under matched conditions. In unmatched
condition, it is not possible to calculate accurately how much power reduction is due to
mismatch and how much is due to attenuation of the network.

5.10-2 R.F. SUBSTITUTION METHOD

The b~ ethod is that Ol!_tQut powe_r_(E.) oLunkn_Q)Y.D.__de..Yi~
network is measured. The network is then replaced by a calibrated attenuator which is
adjusteo to get the same power (P). Under this condition, the attenuation of unknown
device is same as indicated by calibrated attenuator.
Fig. (26a) shows the circuit arrangement when the network whose attenuation is to
be measured is included in the circuit. Fig. (26b) shows the circuit arrangement when
network is replaced by calibrated attenuator.
CrysJal Power (P)
detector meter

ork whose
Microwave Frequency attenuation Slotted Matched
source meter is to be line termination

I measured

(a)

Crystal Power (P)

detector meter

Microwave Frequency Matched

Calibrated Slotted
source meter attenuator termination
/ L-.----J line

(b)

Fig. (26)
 - MEASUREMEN T OF AN TEN N A CHARACTERIS~ICS
1· portant parameters required to be measured to determine the
The. mosht :cteristics of microwave antennas are radiation amplitude patterns,
[ormance
. th , cmp
perarn w1d • arut impedance, bandwidth, · · d" f ity etc •
. . radiation efficiency, gam, irec 1v ,
Be
Here we sha II discuss the few charactenst1cs. _
_ RADIATION PATTERN MEASUREMEN T . .
5 11 1
. (27 ) shows an experimental set u£Ig_r the .[Link].e_menCQfrad1aJ1on.pattem-of
· Fig.
an~ · Transmitting Antenna under test
---- antenna (Receiving antenna)

Microwave Output
power Transmitter Detector power
source J.----- R --- -...j meter

Calibrated
rotating system
Fig. (27) Radiati9n pattern measurement set up

The two antennas are at a fixed distance. The [Link]..antenna is fixed w ile
the test antenna is attacheawith-a-calibYatecfrotatin.g system. .
~ ~s-r..otated-step:[Link]-in_closewise_ and _amicJockwis,e_
direction. For every position of antenna, etevation angle 0-R_ , [Link].)-aHEl
~ espowiog ce~-power (Pr ) are noted,.[Link] -v-alues-are-noted--in-observawn

-
tableJt should be rememb~ e~ that~ ~t~d rot~ ng sys~e~ ated_fro~ +9Q0 to
-90°.
A plot of received power (Pr) as a function of0 R gives the radiation pattern of
antenna. The radiation pattern is shown in [Link].. q8). ·
i . "<-M°;;lm 1obe
?

Fig. (28) Radiation pattern

of an antenna

or 10:~ be~mwidth of the an~enna is calculated from the angle subtended by the 3 dB
points on the both side of radiation maximum in the main lobe.
5 11 2
· • GAIN MEASUREMEN T BY DIRECT COMPARISON METHOD
The [Link] com
input p P1tres an actual antenna with any particular antenna. _for the same
ower of both antennas, the gain G rs -defined-as · ..__ _ -
G == maximum radi ation intensity of test antenna
maximum radiation intensity of reference antenna
/
 The exp~rimental set up for measuring gain is shown in fig. (29).
Standard

r
VJ'
s j
Calibrated Power
Microwave Fixed Detector
variable meter
power attenuator
source attenuator

Fig. (29) Gain measurement l

I
In comparison method, the me~sur~ment of gain is done by comparing the_signal
strength received with unknown gain antenna and a standard gain antenna. The
st!mlffiF<lgaiiiairtenna usua
is tenna:i"he transmitting antenna may be of
!'
any type. ,
The input of the transmitting antenna is set to a convenient level. I
I

..
~e standar~[Link].s..[Link] to the receiver with the help of switch S. It is I

point d towards the transmitting antenna to gef maximum signal [Link].

- ---;:-:-----,;~- - by--:--.-.- -- (Wi) are I
power (P ) an.-- - -- I
The transmitter power received standard antenna
1 I
l
noted. ----
With the help of switch S, the standard antenna is replaced by test antenna. ,The test
antenna is adjusted to receive the maximum ·power. --
.
/

_
Now, the transmitted input power (P2 ) [ P 2 = P1 ] is noted. Let the power received
by the test _::._-
antenna-is. W2 •
The gain is given by

fl
cP
·v-~ _ef
.... oY' . G (dB) ~10 log(~ J
4· ~-Y
\ ! I ,4 .,)>',;

\ /
y · (WWi PJ
G (dB) =10 log -
2 1
x. -
P2
\\"• ,'
Q;, ')
- MICROWAVE LIN K,DESIGN
Microwave link design is a methodical and systematic process which includes the
following calculations :
1. Loss/attenuation calculations
2. Fading and fad margins calculations
3. Frequency planning and interference calculations
4. Quality and availability calculations

1. Loss/attenuation calculations
The Joss/attenuation calculations are composed of the following two jmain
contributions :
- - -
 (i) Propagation losses
(ii) Branching losses
The propagation losses are due to earth's atmo~phere while branching losses come
from the hardware used t()delivet: the ti:ansriirtter/receiveroutpttt to/[Link].
The propagation losses are :
-
(a) Free space loss
(b) Obstacle loss or diffraction attenuation
(c) Gas absorption (water vapour and oxygen in atmosphere)
(d) Rain attenuation
2. Fading and fad margins calculations
Fading is defined as the variation of the strength of a received radio carrier
signal due to atmospheric changes and/ar ground and water reflections in the
propagation path.
There are four types of fading
(a) Multiple fading
(i) flat fading and (ii) frequency-selective fading
(b) Rain fading
(c) Refraction-diffraction fading. ·

3. Frequency planning calculations

The objective offrequency planning is to as-sign frequencies to a network using
as few frequencies as possible. The assignment is such that the quality and availability
of the radio link path is least affected by interference. -

4. Quality and availability calculations

The main purpose of the quality and availability calculations is to set up
reasonable quality and availability objectives for the microwave path.a_..{1-(,.J'-- _..-,v--
~ A 1/ • • \~