Artificial

Intelligence
 Marking Scheme of the
subject:
1. Theory :80 Marks.
2. Internal Assessment: 20 Marks.
3. Oral / Practical: 25 Marks.
4. Term-work: 25 Marks.
 Syllabus:

1. Module 01: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

2. Module 02: Intelligent Agents
3. Module 03: Problem Solving
4. Module 04:Knowledge and Reasoning
5. Module 05: Planning and Learning
6. Module 06: AI applications.
 Text Books
► 1. Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig, Artificial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 2nd Edition,
Pearson Education.
► 2. Elaine Rich, Kevin Knight, Shivshankar B Nair,
Artificial Intelligence, McGraw Hill, 3rd Edition
► 3. Judith S. Hurwitz, Marcia Kaufman, Adrian
Bowles, Cognitive Computing and Big Data
Analytics, Wiley India
► Deepak Khemani, A First Course in Artificial
Intelligence, McGraw Hill Publication
 Module 01

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

 History of Artificial
Intelligence
1. Maturation of AI (1943 – 1952)
2. Birth of AI ( 1952 – 1956)
3. The golden years (1956 – 1974)
4. Boom of AI (1980 – 1987)
5. Emergence of intelligent systems(1993 – 2011)
6. Era of Deep Learning, Big Data and General
Artificial Intelligence (2011 – present)
 Introduction to Artificial
Intelligence
John McCarthy who has coined the word “Artificial
Intelligence” in 1956, has defined AI as “the science
and engineering of making intelligent machines”,
especially intelligent computer programs.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is relevant to any intellectual
task where the machine needs to take some decision
or choose the next action based on the current state
of the system, in short act intelligently or rationally.
As it has a very wide range of applications, it is truly a
universal field.
 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

► In simple words, Artificial Intelligent System works

like a Human Brain, where a machine or software
shows intelligence while performing given tasks;
such systems are called intelligent systems or
expert systems. You can say that these systems
can “think” while generating output!!!

► AI is the study of how to make machines do thing

which at the moment people do better.
 Four Approaches
► to define AI
Acting Humanly : The Turing Test Approach
► Thinking Humanly : The Cognitive
Modelling Approach
► Thinking Rationally : The “Laws of
Thought” Approach
► Acting Rationally : The Rational
Agent Approach
Acting Humanly : The Turing Test Approach

► Definition 1 : “The art of creating machines that

perform functions that requires intelligence
when performed by people.” (Kurzweil, 1990)

► Definition 2 : “The study of how to make computers

do things at which, at the moment, people are
better.” (Rich and Knight, 1991)
Turing Test Environment
 For this test, the computer would
need to possess the following
capabilities
1.Natural Language Processing (NLP) : This unit enables computer to
interpret the English language and communicate successfully.
2.Knowledge Representation : This unit is used to store knowledge
gathered by the system through input devices.
3.Automated Reasoning: This unit enables to analyze the knowledge
stored in the system and makes new inferences to answer questions.
4.Machine Learning: This unit learns new knowledge by taking current
input from the environment and adapts to new circumstances, thereby
enhancing the knowledgebase of the system.
 Turing Test

► To pass total Turing test, the computer will also need to

have computer vision, which is required to
perceive objects from theenvironment and
Robotics, to manipulate those objects.
 Thinking Humanly : The
Cognitive Modelling
Approach
Definition1 : “The exciting new effort to make computers
think ... machines with minds, in the full and literal sense”.
(Haugeland, 1985)
Definition 2 : “The automation of activities that we associate
with human thinking, activities such as decision making,
problem solving, learning ...” (Hellman, 1978)
Cognitive science :It is interdisciplinary field which combines
computer models from Artificial Intelligence with the
techniques from psychology in order to construct precise and
testable theories for working of human mind.
 Three ways using which
human’s thinking pattern can
be caught
1.Introspection through which human can catch their own
thoughts as they go by.
2.Psychological experiments can be carried out by
observing a person in action.
3.Brain imaging can be done by observing the brain in
action.
By catching the human thinking pattern, it can be
implemented in computer system as a program and if the
program’s input output matches with that of human, then it
can be claimed that the system can operate like humans.
 Thinking Rationally : The “Laws
of Thought” Approach
Definition1 : “The study of mental faculties through the use of
computational models”. (Charniak and McDermott, 1985)
Definition2 : “The study of the computations that make it possible
to perceive, reason, and act”.
It also includes reasoning and “right thinking” that is irrefutable
thinking process. Also computer programs based on those logic
notations were developed to create intelligent systems.
 There are two problems in
this approach :

1.This approach is not suitable to use when 100%

knowledge is not available for any problem.
2.As vast number of computations was required
even to implement a simple human reasoning
process; practically, all problems were not
solvable because even problems with just a few
hundred facts can exhaust the computational
resources of any computer.
Acting Rationally : The Rational Agent
Approach

Definition 1 :“Computational
Intelligence is the study of the design of
intelligent agents”. (Poole et at, 1998)
Definition 2:“Al ... is concerned with
intelligent behaviour in
artifacts”.(Nilsson, 1998)
Rational Agent

► Agents perceive their environment through sensors over

a prolonged time period and adapt to change to create
and pursue goals and take actions through actuators to
achieve those goals.
► A rational agent is the one that does “right” things and
acts rationally so as to achieve the best outcome even
when there is uncertainty in knowledge.
 Advantages of rational-agent
approach

1.As compared to other approaches this is the

more general approach as, rationality can be
achieved by selecting the correct inference from
the several available.
2.Rationality has specific standards and is
mathematically well defined and completely
general and can be used to develop agent designs
that achieve it. Human behavior, on the other
hand, is very subjective and cannot be proved
mathematically.
Categorization of Intelligent
Systems
► Artificial Narrow Intelligence/ Weak AI
► Weak AI is AI that specializes in one area. It is not a general
purpose intelligence. An intelligent agent is built to solve a
particular problem or to perform a specific task is termed as
narrow intelligence or weak AI.
► For example, it took years of AI development to be able to
beat the chess grandmaster, and since then we have not been
able to beat the machines at chess.
But that is all it can do, which is does
extremely well.
Categorization of Intelligent
Systems
► Artificial General Intelligence / Strong AI
► Strong AI or general AI refers to intelligence
demonstrated by machines in performing any
intellectual task that human can perform.
Developing strong AI is much harder than
developing weak AI.
► Using artificial general intelligencemachines
demonstrate
can human abilities like reasoning,
planning, problem solving, comprehending complex
ideas, learning from self experiences, etc.
 Categorization of Intelligent
Systems
► Artificial Super Intelligence
► As defined by a leading AI thinker Nick Bostrom, “Super
intelligence is an intellect that is much smarter than the
best human brains in practically every field, including
scientific creativity, general wisdom and social skills.”
► Super intelligence ranges from a machine which is just a
little smarter than a human to a machine that is trillion
times smarter.
► Artificial super intelligence is the ultimate power of AI.
 Components of AI

1. Perception
2. Knowledge representation
3. Learning
4. Reasoning
5. Problem solving
6.Natural language processing
(Language-understanding)
Components of AI
 Perception
► In order to work in the environment, intelligent
agents need to scan the environment and the
various objects in it.
► Agent scans the environment using various sense
organs like camera, temperature sensor, etc. This
is called as perception.
► After capturing various scenes, perceiver analyses
the different objects in it and extracts their
features and relationships among them.
 Knowledge representation

► The information obtained from environment

through sensors may not be in the format required
by the system.
► Hence, it need to be represented in standard
formats for further processing like learning
various patterns, deducing inference, comparing
with past objects, etc.
► There are various knowledge representation
techniques like Prepositional logic and first order
logic.
Learning

► Learning is a very essential part of AI and it happens in various

forms. The simplest form of learning is by trial and error.
► In this form the program remembers the action that has given
desired output and discards the other trial actions and learns
by itself. It is also called as unsupervised learning.
► In other case, solution to few of the problems is given as input
to the system, basis on which the system or program needs to
generate solutions for new problems. This is known as
supervised learning.
Reasoning

► Reasoning is also called as logic or generating inferences form the

given set of facts. Reasoning is carried out based on strict rule of
validity to perform a specified task. Reasoning can be of two types,
deductive or inductive.
► The deductive reasoning is in which the truth of the premises
guarantees the truth of the conclusion while, in case of inductive
reasoning, the truth of the premises supports the conclusion, but it
cannot be fully dependent on the premises.
► In programming logic generally deductive inferences are used.
Reasoning involves drawing inferences that are relevant to the given
problem or situation.
Problem-solving

► AI addresses huge variety of problems. For example, finding out

winning moves on the board games, planning actions in order to
achieve the defined task, identifying various objects from given
images, etc.
► As per the types of problem, there is variety of problem solving
strategies in AI. Problem solving methods are mainly divided into
general purpose methods and special purpose methods.
► General purpose methods are applicable to wide range of
problems while, special purpose methods are customized to
solve particular type of problems
 Natural Language
Processing(NLP)
► Natural Language Processing, involves machines or
robots to understand and process the language that
human speak, and infer knowledge from the speech
input. It also involves the active participation from
machine in the form of dialog
► i.e. NLP aims at the text or verbal output from the
machine or robot. The input and output of an NLP
system can be speech and written text respectively.
Applications of Artificial Intelligence
 Applications of Artificial Intelligence

1. Education
Training simulators can be built using artificial intelligence
techniques. Software for pre-school children are developed
to enable learning with fun games. Automated grading,
Interactive tutoring, instructional theory are the current
areas of application.
2. Entertainment
Many movies, games, robots are designed to play as a
character. In games they can play as an opponent when
human player is not available or not desirable.
 Applications of Artificial Intelligence

3. Medical
► AI has applications in the field of cardiology (CRG),
Neurology (MRI), Embryology (Sonography), complex
operations of internal organs, etc. It can be also
used in organizing bed schedules, managing staff
rotations, store and retrieve information of
patient. Many expert systems are enabled to predict
the disease and can provide with medical
prescriptions.
Applications of Artificial Intelligence

4. Military
► Training simulators can be used in military applications. Also
areas where human cannot reach or in life stacking conditions,
robots can be very well used to do the required jobs.
► When decisions have to be made quickly taking into account an
enormous amount of information, and when lives are at stake,
artificial intelligence can provide crucial assistance.
► From developing intricate flight plans to implementing complex
supply systems or creating training simulation exercises, AI is a
natural partner in the modern military.
Applications of Artificial Intelligence

5. Business and Manufacturing

Latest generation of robots are equipped well with the
performance advances, growing integration of vision
and an enlarging capability to transform manufacturing
6. Automated planning and scheduling
Intelligent planners are available with AI systems,
which can process large datasets and can consider all
the constraints to design plans satisfying all of them.
Applications of Artificial Intelligence

7.Voice technology
► Voice recognition is improved a lot with AI. Systems are designed to take voice
inputs which are very much applicable in case of handicaps. Also scientists are
developing an intelligent machine to emulate activities of a skillful musician.
► Composition, performance, sound processing, music theory are some of the
major areas of research.
8. Heavy industry
► Huge machines involve risk in operating and maintaining them. Human robots are
better replacing human operators.
► These robots are safe and efficient. Robot are proven to be effective as compare
to human in the jobs of repetitive nature, human may fail due to lack of
continuous attention or laziness.
Module 02

Intelligent Agents
 What is Agents?

► Agent is something that perceives its environment through

sensors and acts upon that environment through effectors or
actuators
► Take a simple example of a human agent. It has five senses :
Eyes, ears, nose, skin, tongue. These senses sense the
environment are called as sensors. Sensors collect percepts or
inputs from environment and passes it to the processing unit.
► Actuators or effectors are the organs or tools using which the
agent acts upon the environment. Once the sensor senses the
environment, it gives this information to nervous system which
takes appropriate action with the help of actuators.
Agent and Environment
Generic robotic agent architecture
Sensors and actuators in human
and robotic agent
 Agent program

► Agent program is a computer program that implements

agent function in an architecture suitable language.
► Agent programs needs to be installed on a device in order
to run the device accordingly. That device must have some
form of sensors to sense the environment and actuators to
act upon it.
► Hence agent is a combination of the architecture hardware
and program software.
► Agent = Architecture + Program
 Vacuum cleaner agent

There are two blocks A and B having some dirt. Vacuum cleaner agent
supposed to sense the dirt and collect it, thereby making the room
clean.
 Vacuum cleaner agent

► Hence the sensor for vacuum cleaner agent can be

camera, dirt sensor and the actuator can be motor to
make it move, absorption mechanism. And it can be
represented as :
[A, Dirty], [B, Clean], [A, absorb],[B, Mop], etc.

► Based on the percepts, actions will be performed. For

example : Move left, Move right, absorb, No Operation.
 Intelligent Agent

► Intelligent agent is the one which can take input from the
environment through its sensors and act upon the environment
through its actuators. Its actions are always directed to achieve a
goal.
► In case of intelligent agents, the software modules are responsible
for exhibiting intelligence. Generally observed capabilities of an
intelligent agent can be given as follows:
► Ability to remain autonomous (Self-directed)
► Responsive
► Goal-Oriented
Structure of Intelligent Agents
 Real life example

► Let’s understand this working with a real life example. Consider

you are an agent and your surroundings is an environment. Now,
take a situation where you are cooking in kitchen and by mistake
you touch a hot pan.
► We will see what happens in this situation step by step. Your
touch sensors take input from environment (i.e. you have touched
some hot element), then it asks your brain if it knows “what
action should be taken when you go near hot elements?”
► Now the brain will inform your hands (actuators) that you should
immediately take it away from the hot element otherwise it will
burn. Once this signal reaches your hand you will take your hand
away from the hot pan.
Features of an intelligent agent

► An intelligent agent is one that is capable of

taking flexible self-governed actions”.
► Flexible means three things:
► 1. Reactiveness
► 2. Pro-activeness
► 3. Social Ability
Reactiveness

► It means giving reaction to a situation in a stipulated

time frame. An agent can perceive the environment
and respond to the situation in a particular time
frame.
► In case of reactiveness, reaction within situation time
frame is more important.
► You can understand this with above example, where,
if an agent takes more time to take his hand away
from the hot pan then agents hand will be burnt.
 Pro-activeness

► It is controlling a situation rather than just

responding to it. Intelligent agent show goal-directed
behavior by taking the initiative.
► For example : If you are playing chess then winning
the game is the main objective. So here we try to
control a situation rather than just responding to
one-one action which means that killing or losing any
of the 16 pieces is not important, whether that action
can be helpful to checkmate your opponent is more
important.
 Social ability

► Intelligent agentscan interact with

other agents(also humans). Take
automatic car driver example
► where agent might have to interact
with other agent or a human being
while driving the car.
Few more features of an intelligent agent.

► Self-Learning : An intelligent agent changes its

behavior based on its previous experience. This
agent keeps updating its knowledge base all the
time.
► Movable/Mobile : An Intelligent agent can move
from one machine to another while performing
actions.
► Self-governing : An Intelligent agent has control
over its own actions.
 Rational Agent

► For problem solving, if an agent makes a decision

based on some logical reasoning, then, the decision
is called as a “Rational Decision”
► A rational agent is an agent that has clear
preferences, can model uncertainty via expected
values of variables or functions of variables, and
always chooses to perform the action with the
optimal expected outcome for itself from among all
feasible actions
Rationality depends on four main
criteria

► Performance measure which defines the

criterion of success for an agent
► Agent's prior knowledge of the
environment
► Action performed by the agent
► Agent's percept sequence to date.
 Performance measure

► For every percept sequence a built-in

knowledge base is updated, which is very
useful for decision making, because it stores
the consequences of performing some
particular action.
► If the consequences direct to achieve desired
goal then we get a good performance measure
factor, else, if the consequences do not lead to
desired goal state, then we get a poor
performance measure factor.
Example…

(a) Agent's finger is hurt while using (b) Agent is using nail and hammer
nail and hammer efficiently
 Rational agent

Rational agent can be defined as an agent who makes use of its percept sequence, experience and
knowledge to maximize the performance measure of an agent for every probable action. It selects the
most feasible action which will lead to the expected results optimally.
Environments Types / Nature of
Environment / Agent
Environments
Fully observable vs. Partially observable

► The first type of environment is based on the observability.

Whether the agent sensors can have access to complete state
of environment at any given time or not, decides if it is a fully
observable or partially observable environment.
► In Fully observable environments agents are able to gather all
the necessary information required to take actions.
► Also in case of fully observable environments agents don’t have
to keep records of internal states.
► For example, Word-block problem, 8-puzzle problem, Sudoku
puzzle, etc. in all these problem , the state is completely
visible at any point of time.
 Partially observable

► Environments are called partially observable when sensors

cannot provide errorless information at any given time for
every internal state, as the environment is not seen completely
at any point of time.
► Also there can be unobservable environments where the agent
sensors fail to provide information about internal states.
► For example, In case of an automated car driver system,
automated car cannot predict what the other drivers are
thinking while driving cars. Only because of the sensor’s
information gathering expertise it is possible for an automated
car driver to take the actions.
Single agent vs. Multi-agent

► The second type of an environment is based on the number of agents

acting in the environment. Whether the agent is operating on its own
or in collaboration with other agents decides if it is a Single agent or
a multi-agent environment.
► For example : An agent playing Tetris by itself can be a single agent
environment, whereas we can have an agent playing checkers in a
two-agent environment.
► Or in case of vacuum cleaner world, only one machine is working, so
it’s a single agent while in case of car driving agent
► There are multiple agents driving on the road, hence it’s a
multi-agent environment.
Co-operative multi-agent and
Competitive multi-agent
► Now, you might be thinking in case of an automated car driver system which type
of agent environment do we have?
► Let's understand it with the help of an automated car driving example. For a car
driving system 'X', other car say 'Y' is considered as an Agent. When 'Y' tries to
maximize its performance measure and the input taken by car ‘Y’ depends on the
car 'X'. Thus it can be said that for an automated car driving system we have a
cooperative multi-agent environment.
► Whereas in case of “chess game” when two agents are operating as opponents,
and trying to maximize their own performance, they are acting in
competitive multi agent environment.
Deterministic vs. Stochastic

► An environment is called deterministic environment, when the next state of the

environment can be completely determined by the previous state and the action
executed by the agent.
► For example, in case of vacuum cleaner world, 8-puzzle problem, chess game
the next state of the environment solely depends on the current state and the
action performed by agent.
► Stochastic environment generally means that the indecision about the actions is
enumerated in terms of probabilities. That means environment changes while
agent is taking action, hence the next state of the world does not merely
depends on the current state and agent’s action. And there are few changes
happening in the environment irrespective of the agent’s action.
► An automated car driving system has a stochastic environment as the agent
cannot control the traffic conditions on the road.
Strategic

► If the environment is deterministic except

for the actions of other agents, then the
environment is strategic. That is, in case of
game like chess, the next state of
environment does not only depend upon the
current action of agent but it is also
influenced by the strategy developed by
both the opponents for future moves.
Episodic vs. Sequential

► An episodic task environment is the one where each of the agent's

action is divided into an atomic incidents or episodes. The current
incident is different than the previous incident and there is no
dependency between the current and the previous incident. In each
incident the agent receives an input from environment and then
performs a corresponding action.
► Generally, classification tasks are considered as episodic. Consider an
example of pick and place robot agent, which is used to detect
defective parts from the conveyor belt of an assembly line. Here,
every time agent will make the decision based on current part, there
will not be any dependency between the current and previous
decision.
Sequential environments

► In sequential environments, as per the name suggests, the

previous decision can affect all future decisions. The
► next action of the agent depends on what action he has taken
previously and what action he is supposed to take in future.
► For example, in checkers where previous move can affect all
the following moves. Also sequential environment can be
understood with the help of an automatic car driving example
where, current decision can affect the next decisions.
► If agent is initiating breaks, then he has to press clutch and
lower down the gear as next consequent actions.
 Static vs. Dynamic

► You have learnt about static and dynamic terms in previous

semesters with respect to web pages. Same way we have static
(vs. dynamic) environments. If an environment remains
unchanged while the agent is performing given tasks then it is
called as a static environment. For example, Sudoku puzzle or
vacuum cleaner environment are static in nature.
► If environment is not changing over the time but, an agent's
performance is changing then, it is called as a semi-dynamic
environment. That means, there is a timer exist in the
environment who is affecting the performance of the agent.
 Static vs. Dynamic

► For example, In chess game or any puzzle like block word problem or
8-puzzle if we introduce timer, and if agent’s performance is
calculated by time taken to play the move or to solve the puzzle, then
it is called as semi-dynamic environment.
► Lastly, if the environment changes while an agent is performing some
task, then it is called dynamic environment.
► In this type of environment agent's sensors have to continuously keep
sending signals to agent about the current state of the environment so
that appropriate action can be taken with immediate effect.
► Automatic car driver example comes under dynamic environment as
the environment keeps changing all the time.
Discrete vs. Continuous

► You have seen discrete and continuous signals in old semesters. When
you have distinct, quantized, clearly defined values of a signal it is
considered as discrete signal.
► Same way, when there are distinct and clearly defined inputs and
outputs or precepts and actions, then it is called a discrete
environment.
► For example : chess environment has a finite number of distinct
inputs and actions.
► When a continuous input signal is received by an agent, all the
precepts and actions cannot be defined beforehand then it is called
continuous environment. For example : An automatic car driving
system.
 Known vs. Unknown

► In a known environment, the output for

all probable actions is given.
► in case of unknown environment, for an
agent to make a decision, it has to gain
knowledge about - how the environment
works.
Examples….
Examples….
Types of Agents
Simple Reflex Agents
Simple Reflex Agents

► You can understand simple reflexes with the help

of a real life example, say some object
approaches eye then, you will blink your eye. This
type of simple reflex is called natural/innate
reflex.
► Consider the example of the vacuum cleaner
agent. It is a simple reflex agent, as its decision is
based only on whether the current location
contains dirt.
Few possible input sequences and outputs for vacuum
cleaner world with 2 locations are considered for
simplicity.
Model-Based Reflex Agents
Model-Based Reflex Agents

► An agent which performs actions based on the current input and one
previous input is called as model-based agent.
► Partially observable environment can be handled well by model-based agent.
► once the sensor takes input from the environment, agent checks for
the current state of the environment.
► After that, it checks for the previous state which shows how the world is
developing and how the environment is affected by the action which was
taken by the agent at earlier stage. This is termed as model of the
world.
► Once this is verified, based on the condition-action protocol an action is
decided. This decision is given to effectors and the effectors give this
output to the environment
Model-Based Reflex Agents

► Consider a simple example of automated car driver

system. Here, the world keeps changing all the time.
You must have taken a wrong turn while driving on some
or the other day of your life. Same thing applies for an
agent.
► Suppose if some car “X” is overtaking our automated
driver agent “A”, then speed and direction in which “X”
and “A” are moving their steering wheels is important.
Take a scenario where agent missed a sign board as it
was overtaking other car. The world around that agent
will be different in that case.
Model-Based Reflex Agents

► Internal model based on the input history should be maintained by

model-based reflex agent, which can reflect at least some of the
unobserved aspects of the current state.
► Once this is done it chooses an action in the same way as the simple
reflex agent
Goal-Based Agents
Utility-Based Agents
Utility-Based Agents

► Take one example; you might have used Google maps to find out a route
which can take you from source location to your destination location in
least possible time.
► Same logic is followed by utility based automatic car driving agent.
►  Goals utility based automatic car driving agent can be used to reach
given location safely within least possible time and save fuel.
► So this car driving agent will check the possible routes and the traffic
conditions on these routes and will select the route which can take the car
at destination in least possible time safely and without consuming much
fuel.
Learning Agents
Components of learning agent

1. Critic
2. Learning element
3. Performance element
4. Problem generator
 Components of learning agent

1.Critic : It is the one who compares sensor’s input specifying effect of agent’s
action on the environment with the performance standards and generate
feedback for leaning element.
2.Learning element : This component is responsible to learn from the
difference between performance standards and the feedback from critic.
According to the current percept it is supposed to understand the expected
behavior and enhance its standards
3.Performance element : Based on the current percept received from sensors
and the input obtained by the learning element, performance element is
responsible to choose the action to act upon the external environment.
4.Problem generator : Based on the new goals learnt by learning agent,
problem generator suggests new or alternate actions which will lead to new
and instructive understanding.
PEAS representation for an agent

► PEAS: PEASstands for Performance

Measure, Environment, Actuators, and
Sensors.
► It is the short form used for
performance issues grouped under Task
Environment.
PEAS

► Performance Measure : It the objective function to judge the

performance of the agent. For example, in case of pick and
place robot, number of correct parts in a bin can be the
performance measure.
►  Environment : It the real environment where the agent need
to deliberate actions.
►  Actuators : These are the tools, equipment or organs
using which agent performs actions in the environment. This
works as the output of the agent.
►  Sensors : These are the tools, equipment or organs
using which agent captures the state of the environment. This
works as the input to the agent.
(A) Automated car driving agent
► 1. Performance measures which should be satisfied by the automated car
driver:
► (i) Safety : Automated system should be able to drive the car safely without
dashing anywhere.
► (ii) Optimum speed : Automated system should be able to maintain the
optimal speed depending upon the surroundings.
► (iii) Comfortable journey : Automated system should be able to give a
comfortable journey to the end user, i.e. depending upon the road it should
ensure the comfort of the end user.
► (iv) Maximize profits : Automated system should provide good mileage on
various roads, the amount of energy consumed to automate the system
should not be very high, etc. such features ensure that the user is benefited
with the automated features of the system and it can be useful for
maximizing the profits
2. Environment

► (i) Roads : Automated car driver should be able to drive on any kind of a
road ranging from city roads to highway.
► (ii) Traffic conditions : You will find different set of traffic conditions for
different type of roads. Automated system should be able to
efficiently in all types of traffic conditions. Sometimes traffic conditions
drive
are formed because of pedestrians, animals, etc.

► (iii) Clients : Automated cars are created depending on the client’s

environment. For example, in some countries you will see left hand drive
and in some countries there is a right hand drive. Every country/state can
have different weather conditions. Depending upon such constraints
automated car driver should be designed.
3. Actuators

Actuators are responsible for performing actions/providing

output to an environment.
► In case of car driving agent following are the actuators :
► (i) Steering wheel which can be used to direct car in desired
direction (i.e. right/left)
► (ii) Accelerator, gear, etc. canbe useful to increase
or decrease the speed of the car.
► (iii) Brake is used to stop the car.
► (iv) Light signal, horn can be very useful as indicators for an
automated car.
4. Sensors

► Totake input from environment in car

driving example cameras, sonar system,
speedometer, GPS, engine sensors, etc. are
used as sensors.
(B) Part-picking ARM robot

► (i) Performance measures : Number of parts in correct

container.
► (ii) Environment : Conveyor belt used for handling parts,
containers used to keep parts.
► (iii) Actuators : Arm with tooltips, to pick and drop parts
from one place to another.
► (iv) Sensors : Camera to scan the position from where
part should be picked and joint angle sensors which are
used to sense the obstacles and move in appropriate
place.
(C) Medical diagnosis system
► (i) Performance measures
► a. Healthy patient: system should make use of sterilized
instruments to ensure the safety (healthiness) of the patient.
► b. Minimize costs : The automated system results should not
be very costly otherwise overall expenses of the patient may
increase. Medical diagnosis system should be legal.
► (ii) Environment : Patient, Doctors, Hospital Environment
► (iii) Sensors : Screen, printer
► (iv) Actuators : Keyboard and mouse which is useful to make
entry of symptoms, findings, patient's answers to given
questions. Scanner to scan the reports, camera to click
pictures of patients.
(D) Soccer player robot

► (i) Performance measures : Number of goals,

speed, legal game.
► (ii) Environment: Team players, opponent team
players, playing ground, goal net.
► (iii) Sensors: Camera, proximity sensors, infrared
sensors.
► (iv) Actuators : Joint angles, motors.
Problem Formulation

► Given a goal to achieve; problem formulation is the process of deciding what

states to be considered and what actions to be taken to achieve the goal.
This is the first step to be taken by any problem solving agent.
►  State Space Representation : The state space of a problem is the set of all
states reachable from the initial state by executing any sequence of
actions. State is representation of all possible outcomes.
► The state space specifies the relation among various problem states
thereby, forming a graph in which the nodes are states and the links
between nodes represent actions
Problem Formulation

► State Space Search: Searching in a given space of states pertaining to

a problem under consideration is called a state space search.
► Path : A path is a sequence of states connected by a sequence of actions, in
a given state space.
Well-Defined Problems and
Solutions
Problem can be defined formally using five components as follows :
► 1. Initial state
► 2. Actions
► 3. Successor function
► 4. Goal test
► 5. Path cost
Well-Defined Problems and
Solutions
► 1. Initial state : The initial state is the one in which the agent starts in.
► 2. Actions : It is the set of actions that can be executed or applicable in all
possible states. A description of what each action does; the formal name for this is
the transition model.
► 3. Successor function : It is a function that returns a state on executing an
action on the current state.
► 4. Goal test : It is a test to determine whether the current state is a goal state. In
some problems the goal test can be carried out just by comparing current state
with the defined goal state, called as explicit goal test. Whereas, in some of the
problems, state cannot be defined explicitly but needs to be generated by carrying
out some computations, it is called as implicit goal test.
► For example : In Tic-Tac-Toe game making diagonal or vertical or horizontal
combination declares the winning state which can be compared explicitly; but in
the case of chess game, the goal state cannot be predefined but it’s a scenario
called as “Checkmate”, which has to be evaluated implicitly.
Well-Defined Problems and
Solutions
► Path cost : It is simply the cost associated with each step to be taken to
reach to the goal state. To determine the cost to reach to each state, there is
a cost function, which is chosen by the problem solving agent.
► Problem solution : A well-defined problem with specification of initial state,
goal test, successor function, and path cost. It can be represented as a data
structure and used to implement a program which can search for the goal
state.
► A solution to a problem is a sequence of actions chosen by the problem
solving agent that leads from the initial state to a goal state. Solution quality
is measured by the path cost function.
► Optimal solution : An optimal solution is the solution with least path cost
among all solutions.
Example of 8-Puzzle
Problem
► A typical scenario of 8-puzzle problem. It has a 3 X 3 board with tiles having
1 through 8 numbers on it. There is a blank tile which can be moved
forward, backward, to left and to right. The aim is to arrange all the tiles in
the goal state form by moving the blank tile minimum number of times.
Example of 8-Puzzle
Problem
► This problem can be formulated as follows :
►  States : States can represented by a 3 x 3 matrix data structure with
blank denoted by 0.
► 1. Initial state : {{1, 2, 3},{4, 8, 0},{7, 6, 5}}
► 2. Actions : The blank space can move in Left, Right, Up and Down directions
specifying the actions.
► 3. Successor function : If we apply “Down” operator to the start state in
the resulting state has the 5 and the blank switched.
► 4. Goal test : {{1, 2, 3},{4, 5, 6},{7, 8, 0}}
► 5. Path cost : Number of steps to reach to the final state.
Example of 8-Puzzle
Problem
► Solution :
► {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 8, 0}, {7, 6, 5}}
► {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 8, 5}, {7, 6, 0}}
► {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 8, 5}, {7, 0, 6}}
► {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 0, 5}, {7, 8, 6}}
► {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 0}, {7, 8, 6}}
► {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 0}}
► Path cost = 5 steps
Example of Missionaries and
Cannibals Problem
►  The problem statement as discussed in the previous section. Let’s
formulate the problem first.
►  States : In this problem, state can be data structure having triplet (i,j,k)
representing the number of missionaries, cannibals, and canoes on the
left bank of the river respectively.
► 1. Initial state : It is (3, 3, 1), as all missionaries, cannibals and canoes are on
the left bank of the river.
► 2. Actions : Take x number of missionaries and y number of cannibals
► 3. Successor function : If we take one missionary, one cannibal the other
side of the river will have two missionaries and two cannibals left.
► 4. Goal test : Reached state (0, 0, 0)
► 5. Path cost : Number of crossings to attain the goal state.
Example of Missionaries and
Cannibals Problem
<M,C,B>
Example of Missionaries and
Cannibals Problem
Example of Missionaries and
Cannibals Problem
Example of Missionaries and
Cannibals Problem
► Solution :
► The sequence of actions within the path :
► (3,3,1) → (2,2,0) →(3,2,1) → (3,0,0) → (3,1,1) → (1,1,0) → (2,2,1) → (0,2,0)
→ (0,3,1) → (0,1,0) → (0,2,1) → (0,0,0)

► Cost = 11 crossings