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CHAPTER 7
DOMESTIC WIRING
7.1 Introduction:

In living homes, electricity is being used not only for lighting, but also for
modem
cooking. heating water, pumping water and most of the modem amenities like refrigerator,
television, mixer, grinder and almost all domestic appliances use electricity for their
working. Hence, theknowledge of providing this electricity to the homes through wiring is
very
inportant. The type of wiring to be adopted for taking electrical connections from the
supplying agency
depends on various factors. The important factors to be considered are
)durability
)safety
3) appearance

IN) cost

)accessibility and
V3) maintenance cost

The
type of wiring selected should be of proper specification, so that, it is durable and
does give rise to
not
problems quite often.
Safety very important factor in sclecting a wiring system and the type of
is a
wiring
system selected must be such that, it is fool proof from giving any shocks.

Electrical wiring done should not spoil interior beauty

of the house. Hence, the wiring
system sclected should enhance the
appearance or at least should be concealed, can not if it
gve a
good appearance.
The type of w
iring system selected should not cat much into the budget of the owner, if
be
cannot afford it. One has to look for convenience rather than luxury in selecting a
wiing system.
The various switches provided must be easily accessible and the plug points to be
Connected the various
to
appliances must be provided nearer to the places where the
ppliances usually kept. There must be
are
provision for the extension of the wiring system
or
renewal, if necessary.
The maintenance cost
of the wiring system should be as small as
possible.
7.2 Feeders, Distributors and Service Mains:
The overhead lines that run from
at
substations to pole mounted distribution transformers
1l kV are called
feeders. Each area served by a substation is divided into a number of
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primary secondary distribution systems. The prima
distribution system consists of main feeders, lateral feeders and imary
subfeeders as shown
Fig.7.1.
Main Feeder Sub-station
Lateral Feeder

Distribution transformer

Sub Fecder

Distribution transformer Distribution

transformer
Distribution
LO000J transformer
Distribution
transformer
Fig.7.1. Primary Distribution System
The lateral feeders and
sub-fecders are
supplied by the main
through the entire load area with feeder and extends
connections to distribution
distribution transformer, the voltage is
stepped
transformers. At the
down from 11 kV to 400 V
fed to secondary distribution and p. ver is
system.
The overhead conductors that
run from distribution
very close to the consumer
transformers upto the pole which is
premises and which forms the secondary
distribution are called
distributors. The distributors run across the
are 3 phase, 4 wire
poles laid along the road sidus.
The distributors
circuits, the neutral wire being necessary to
supply single phasc load
The conductors that run from
the nearest pole to the consumer
service mains. Their lengths are premises are called
usually very small, from a few meters to a
and commercial consumers are maximum of
about 50 meters. Most of the residential
single phase supply. Some large and commercial consumers are given with the
A typical secondary distribution given with 3 phase supply.
system is as shown in Fig.7.2. In
distribution system, a neutral line is also run in addition to threc the secondary
voltage of 230 V belween lines and neutral. phase lines to give phase
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11 kV/400v U Distribution transformer

Distributors
400 V bus
TT Service mains
Consumers
Fig.7.2. Secondary distribution system
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6.5 Necessity of Protective Devices

Explain the necessity of protective devlces.

I n electrical and electronic circuits many types of
faults occur which may damage the entire
connected to the
equipments and other devices
faulty equipments.
Excessive high currents in, such equipments can
cause overheating, short circuiting, firing and
damaging of equipments.
Excessive high voltages can cause damage of the
equipments and danger to the operators.
The voltage fluctuations can cause interrupted

operation devices, partial or permanent

of the
damage to the equipments and loss or corruption of
data due to unexpected shutdowns.
 Download VTU Connect App Now From Google Play Store Go Digital, Go Green, Save PaperDomestic Wirng

Basic Electrical Engineering 6-8

1s called kit-kat
arrangement pe
The failure of insulation can cause severe shock to
the base. Suchit. The Fig. 6.6.1 shows uch
fuse
the operators which are life threatening. of
arrangement.
The atmospheric lightening strokes can cause fire
and damage to the buildings and structures. Fuset
base
Due to all these reasons there is need for various
protection methods and protective devices.
-Fuse wir
The various types of protective devices used in
domestic wiring are,
1. Fuse
2. Miniature Circuit Breaker [MCB]
Fuse top
3. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker [ELCB]
4. Resitual Current Circuit Breaker [RCCCB]
Kit-kat type of fuse
5. Earthing Fig. 6.6.1
in domestic wiring and is
This is commonly used
6.6 Introduction to Fuse connected in series with the circuit to be protected.

The phase or incoming wire is inserted from one

What Is fuse ? Why is it used in the electrlc side and connected to terminal while outgoing
circults VTU: Feb.-05; Jan,-07; July-09, Marks6 cornnection is taken from other terminal. The two
The fuse is a protecting device of simplest form. terminals inside the base are connected through fuse
I t consists of a smal piece of metal. When excessive wire.
current flows through it, the metal element melts Fuses cannot be used for large currents as they bear
and the current is interrupted and circuit gets low breaking capacity. The other limitation of this
disconnected from the supply. A small piece of type of fuse is possibility of rewiring of fuse with
metal used in a fuse is called fusing element wrong size or material.
Thus the fuse protects the circuit from dangerous The kit-kat type is of semienclosed type of fuse or
excessive current. So fuse is used to interrupt a fault also called as rewirable fuse. The main
current.
advantage
of this type is if it is blown off, top can be taken
I t is used for overload and short ircuit protection out and fuse wire be Tin-lead alloy
in medium voltage range upto 66 kV.
can
changed.
fuse wires are used 30 A.
upto
The fuse is always connected in series with the
circuit or appliance to be protected.
List the desirable characteristics J u
element.
The fusing element carries the normal working
Current safely but melts due to excessive current The desirable characteristics of any fuse element a
under abnormal conditions like overload and short
circuit. As it is in series, melting of fusing element
1. Low melting point
causes current interruption and breaking of the 2 High conductivity
circuit, protecting the equipment from excessive 3. Free from deterioration due to oxidation
current. 4 Low cost.
Either copper or lead-tin alloy is generally used as a
fuse wire. 6.6.1 Definitions
Instead of connecting fuse wire directly in series
with live wire, a fuse top is used which is having >Defne the following: ) Fusing current
Rated curent Hi)
porcelain base. The porcelain structure containing Fustng Jactor
bridged to the base by fitting top into
VTU : July 08. Mark

fuse wire is
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.Fuse The fuse is
device which a
6-9

mall piece of metal,

which is
consists of Domestic Wirlng
3. The
incuit. When current connected in series operation of fuse is
automatic while crcuit
through it increases breaker needs a
tripping circuit
some predetermined value,
the metal beyond operation.
to
operate for its
interrupt the circuit melts to 4. The minimum
current, which
smaller than thatoperating
protects the time can be made much
drcuit from excessive high current. of circult breaker.
5. Inverse time-current
2.Fuse element: The part of the fuse characteristic enables it to
which melts use for the overload
when excessive current flows
through it is called fuse 9.
protection.
With the
element or fuse wire. help of
fuse, heavy currents can be
a

interrupted without noise, smoke, gas and flame

.Rated curent of fuse: It is that 7. The fuse can
current which fusing element
maximum produce a current limiting effect
can under short circuit conditions.
without any undue normally carry
overheating or melting. 6.6.3 Dlsadvantages of Fuse
t depends on,
1.
Temperature rise of fuse contacts of fuse State the varlous disadoantoges af a fuse.
holder
2 1. The fuse is
Fusing element material required to be replaced or rewired
after its operation.
3. Deterioration of fuse due to oxidation. The
replacement or rewiring of fuse takes a lot of
4 Fusing current The minimum value of the time.
current at which the fuse element melts to 3. Discrimination between fuses in series cannot be
the circuit current is
interrupt
called fusing current. Its value is obtained unless there is much difference in
always more than the current rating of the fuse. relative sizes of the fuses.

5. The current-time characteristics cannot be

Fusing factor: The ratio of the
minimum fusing always
corelated with that of the protected
Curent and the current rating of the fuse is called equipment.
5. It is not possible to
provide secondary protection
the fusing factor. As minimum fusing current is more
than the current factor is
fuses
rating the fusing always
greater than one. 6.7 Miniature CIrcult Breaker (MCB)
Fusing factor Minimum fusing current What is MSB ? Explain tte need and features.
Curent rating of fuse

A miniature circuit breaker is an electromechanical

Ihe small the value of fusing factor, greater it is
device which makes and breaks the circuit in
dificult to avoid the deterioration on due to
normal operation and disconnects the circuit under
Oxidation and overheating at the rated current the abnormal condition when current exceeds
For a household fuse which is semiclosed type preset value.

sing copper wire, this factor is generally 2. MCB is a high fault capaciy current limiting trip

free, switching device with thermal and

automatic
6.6.2 Advantages of Fuse magnetic operation
to provide protection against
overload and short circurt.
State the adoantages of uing Jue as a
MCB because of its following
protecting deolce. I t is necessary to use

t i s simplest and cheapest form of protecting8 features,

and opens in less than
1. Its operation is very fast
device. one millisecond.
t requires no maintenance. and the operation
is necessary
2. No tripping circuit
18 automatic.
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Bimetal carrier

Bimetal stip
T r i p lever

O Solenoid

Angular vents innniL|

Plunger

Arc chute holder

Operational
UODOOOUDO knob

Arc chutes
Toggle Incoming
terminal

Moving contact
Silver graphite
contact ip

Incoming terminal
Fixed contact

Fig. 6.7.1 Construction and appearance of MCB

3. Provides
protection against overload and short
6.7.1 Compariaon of MCcB and Fuse
circuit without noise, smoke or flame.

4 It be reset very
can
quickly after correcting the Compare MCB wlth fuse.
fault, just by switching button. No rewiring is
a

required. Sr.
5. No. Fuse
can not be reclosed if fault MCB
persists.
6. The mechanical life is 1.
upto or more than one The operation of fuse is MCB
lakh operating cycle. highly dependent on instandy
Hence now a days MCBs are used rather than
Selection of its prop discornects the suPP
rewirable fuse. rating. If fuse wire is automatically in the
not selected properly event of short circuit or
Generally MCBs then it results in overload. t thus
rated for a.c.
are non
for single voltage of 240 V
phase, 415 V for three phase operation of fuse even eliminates the risk d
or 220 V in case of
short circuit. fire and prevents
The current d.c.
is
rating available is from 0.5 A
to 63 A.
damage to wiring
available as
Single Pole (SP), Double Pole It system
If the fuse wire
Tripple Pole (TP) with short circuit (DP), after
operation is replac Restarting powe
kA with breaking
capacity from 1 kA to 10
with newer one but
a
supply after tnpPns
frequency. a
rated 80loose due to overload or
dangerous.thenAlso may
it
be
A
typical cross-section view of to easy.
practical appearance is shown in the MCB and its placea blown fuse
between current in
Fig. 6.7.1. Tying Doint
Oints is
dangerous
dark. specially in

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During replacement of No mainternance and Domestic Wiring

fuse wire the exact size Fuse
repaírs is required for Line
of fuse wire may not be MCB. The distribution
available. Also for
8ystem employing MCB Machine
replacement a kit of
hand tools has to be provides satisfactory
operation and lasts for Personn
kept ready years,

The board employin8 The board employing

fuse is not compact MCBs give beautiful
look as it is Neutral
KANT arth
and elegent.
compact

Flg. 6.8.1 Machine is not earthed

68 Earthing the body of the person to earth from the insulation
What ls earthing? VTU Jan.-16,17, resistance, finally to the neutral of the supply.
July-17, Marks 2
For all practical purposes, the earth's potential is
taken zero. Almost all the machinery,
electric poles,
pody R+R body +R 6.8.1)
towers, neutral wires are connected to earth. The
When the insulation of the machine is perfect, the
neutral wire of an a.c. supply and middle wire of
insulation resistance is of the order of few mega
three wire d.c. distribution system are
always ohms and practically can be considered as infinity.
earthed.
SoR . Insulation perfect
The connection of electrical machinery to the
general mass of earth, with a conducting material of -
0 A
body RE +0ot ..(6.8.2)
very low resistance is called earthing or grounding Rbody
So in normal operating conditions, there is no
The earthing of electrical equipment bring the passing through the body of the person and
current
shock hence there is no danger of the shock.
equipments to zero potential and avoid
to the operator, under any fault conditions. But when the insulation becomes weak or defective
or if one of the windings is touching to the frame
6.8.1 Necessity of Earthing directly due to some fault then Ri i.e. insulation
resistance becomes almost zero. Now resistance of
Explain the necesslty of earthing.
15; Feb.-05; July-05; 09; May-10, Marks 4 body and earth are not very high and hence Ipod
VIO Jan.-04, 07, 11,, increases to such a high value that the person
machine which is not
Consider a
single phase receives a fatal shock. Such current is called a
earthed carrying a curTent leakage current. Hence when the machine is not
and neutral is V volts. earthed, there is always a danger of the shock,
The potential between line the frame
the windings and under certain fault conditions.
ne resistance between And be
5 say R called insulation resistance. Rbody Let us see now, what
of person who happens
happens due to earthing. In
ne resistance of the body a
case of earthing, the frame of the machine is
to touch to the machine. earthed as shown in the Fig. 6.8.2.
as
Neutral is generally earthed
at supply system The resistance of the from frame to earth is
path
shown in the Fig. 6.8.1. very very low.
Let Im Machine current and I bodyCurrent When the person touches the
frame, and if there is
of the person.
passing through body touches the
a
leakage due to fault condition, due to
earthing a
the earth
When a person, standing
on
leakage current takes a low resistance path i.e. path
alternative path through from frame
machine, current I gets an to earth, bypassing the person.

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Rasic Electrical Engineering 6-12
Domestic Wirtng
Fuse
UIne 6.9 Mothods of Earthing
Machine
State the varlous methode of earthing.
Person Earthing is achieved by connecting the electrical
appliances or components to earth by employing a
good conductor called "Earth Electrode'.
.This ensures very low resistance path from
Neutral Earth
appliance to the earth.
Path of leakage curent
Earthing o The various methods of earthing are
machine
Fig. 6.8.2 Machine is earthed
1) Plate earthing
So body of the person carries very low current i) Pipe earthing
which is not sufficient to cause
any shock il) Earthing through water main
As earthing resistance is
very very low to compared iv) Horizontal strip earthing
the body of the person, current prefers low
resisstance path.
Thus Iody is v) Rod earthing
negligibly small
compared to earth current. So entire leakage current Let us discuss in detail, the two methods of
passes through the earthing contact bypassing the earthing which are commonly used in practice.
body of the person. The value of Ibody is not
suffident to cause
6.9.1 Plate Earthing
any shock to the person.
Not only this but the earthing current, is Explaln the plate earthing alongulth a net
high due
to which fuse blows off and thus it
helps to isolate diagram.
the machíne from the electric VTU: Jan.-04,07,14,17,18; Feb.-05; July-05,09,16,17:
supply.
May-10, Dec.-11, Marks
6.8.2 Uses of Earthing The earth connection is
provided with the help of
copper plate Galvanized Iron (G.L)
or
plate. The
State the uses
o earthing. copper plate size is 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.18 mm while
Apart from basic use of earthing discussed above, G.I plate size is not less than 60 cm x 60 cm x
the other uses can be stated as mm. The G.I. 6.3
plates commonly usedare
1) To maintain the line voltage constant. now-a-days. The plate is embedded 3 meters (10
2) To protect tall buildings and structures from feet) into the ground. The
vertical.
plate is kept with its face
atmospheric lightening strikes.
The plate is
3) To protect all the
machines, fed from overhead surrounded by the alternate
ines, from atmospheric coke and salt for layer of
lightening minimum thickness of about 15
cm. The earth wire
4) To is drawn
serve as the return conductor for
telephone is through
G.I. pipe and
and traction work. In such case, all the perfectly bolted to the earth
plate. The nuts and
bolts must be of
complications in laying a separate wire and the copper plate and must be ot
actual cost of the wire, is thus
saved.
galvanized iron for G.I. plate.
The earth lead used must be
5) To protect the human
being G.I. wire or G.L.
cross-sectional area to carry the strP
from
death from shock in case the disability
or of sufficient

comes into the contact with the

human body Current safely. The earth
wire is drawn
faui
frame of any pipe of 19 through G.
electrical machinery, appliance or
mm
diameter, at about 60 cm below the
which component, ground.
is electrically charged due to
leakage The G.L.
current or fault. pipe is fitted with a funnel on the top. n
order to have an
effective
earthing, salt water
poured periodically through the funnel.
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30 cm x 30 m

60 om

Funnel covered pipe

with wire mesh 12.7 mm diemeter

19mm
diameter

| 15 cm

sa
Layer of coke and
90 Cm

60 cm x 60 Cmx 6.3 mm
GI.pplate

90 cm

Flo. 6.9.1 Plate earthing

increases with the

increases 6.9.2 Plpe Earthing
ne earthing efficiency, f the
the plate area and depth of embedding. Exqplatn the plpe earthing elongelth e e
* to
esistivity of the soil is high, then it necessaryinto
is
dlogram. 16. June- 10 July- 15 Marks 8
mbed the plate vertically at a greater depth -06.
Jan. 09. 11.
VIU: July-03:
the ground. In this method of earthinga GL pipe of 38 mm
The only disadvantage of this method is that the diameter and 2 meter (7 feet) length is embeddedd
discontinuity of the earth wire from the earthing into the This pipe acts as an earth
vertically ground.
plate below the earth can not be observed electrode. The depth depends on the condition of
physically. This may cause misleading and may the soil.
result into heavy losses under fault condition
The earth wires are fastened to the top secton of
The schematic arangement of plate earthingS the plpe above the ground level with nut and bolts.
shown in the Fig. 6.9.1.
The pit area around the pipe is filled with salt and
coal mixture for improving the condition of the soil
and earthing efficiency. The
schematic arrangement
of pipe earthing systenm is shown in the Fig, 6.9.2
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Basic Electrical Engineering

7TTTTTTTINT

J Cement concrete

2.75 m

Funnel with
wire mesh
60 cm
Lug

.7 mm
Gameter diameter
15 cm 1 5 cm

12 mm diameter

Main Gl. pipe

Alternate alt
of charcoal and salv

Fig. 6.9.2 Plipe earthing

The contact surface of GI pipe with the soil is from time to time. These connections can
more as compared to the plate due to its ciraular
e
checked for performing
section and hence can handle heavier leakage
continuity tests. This isth
important advantage of pipe earthing over the plate
current for the same electrode size. earthing The earth lead used must be G.I. wire
According to Indian standard, the pipe should be sufficient croas-sectional area to carry fault cue
placed at a depth of 4.75 m. Impregnating the coke Sately. It should not be less than electri
with salt decreases the earth resistance. Generally equlvalent of mn
copper conductor of 12.97
alternate layers of salt and coke are used for best Cross-sectional area.
results. The only disadvantage of pipe earthing is thaat the
In summer season, soil becomes dry. In such case embedded pipe length has to be increa
salt water is poured through the funnel connected Suticiently in case the soil specific resistivity
to the main G.l. pipe through 19 mm diameter high order. This increases the excavation
pipe. work
This keeps the sol we hence increased cost. In
The earth wires are connected to the G.I. pipe above
ordinary soil condiion
range of the earth resistance should be 2 to 5
onu
the ground level and can be physically inspected
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Residual Current
6.11
explain the working of
WIth a neat diagram VTUJan.-16. Marks 6
RCCB.
the
circuit breaker is nothing but
Residual current
current operated ELCB.
shown in the Fig. 6.11.1.
The schematic of RCCB is
current transformer
RCCB consists of a small
and neutral wire. The sensing coil1
surrounding live
transformer is connected to a tripping8
on current

coil of circuit breaker.

Under normal condition the current in line

the current in neutral
is as
conductor 1 same

zero hence two

is
conductor
I 4- Hence
cancel each other and
fluxed produce by 1 and Iy
sensing coil does not sense any imbalance.
I f there is a fault, the fault current l, tlows through

the earth conductor hence there is difference

between the currents I and The difference

-Iy is called residual current.

The fluxes produced by I and Iy are no longer
same under fault condition, producing flux in the
core.

Due to the residual flux, e.m.f. gets induced in the

sensing coil which irculates current through the
tripping coil of the circuit breaker
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Phase wW
FauR

Sngle
Sensing earth
phase
ac sunpy NDevlce

Neutl p Enclosure
Curent
transfome p device

RCCB

Ground conductor

Flg. 6.11.1 RCCB

This operahes the cinuit breaker and disconnects the supply from the device.
As the action of trip coil depends on the residual current, the device is called residual current, circuit

breaker
The properly oonnetd RCCB can detect small currents in milliampers and operates in around
5 mx.

G12 Electice Shock

>what s an electrie shock ? State the factors on uwhich severity of the shock depends. vTU: July-07 Marks
A sudden agitation of the nervous system of a body, due to the passage of an electric current is called
an electric shock
The factors affecting the severity of the shock are,

1. Magnitade of current through the body.

2 Path of the current through the body.
3. Time for which the current is passed through the body.
4 Frequency of the current.
5 Physical and psychological condition of the person.
The Table 6.121 shows an electric shock effect chart.

250 V upply curmmt Resistance of body Condition of body Bffect due to

shock
10 600 k9
About 25 mA
Dry skin Mild shock
Ahout 25 mA 1k Wet skin
Strong pful ahoc
of breathing poasible stoppa
death
lore than 5 mA Few hundred ohms Wet skin makng
alr contact with
Ventricular Abrillation,
soppage of breathg
in
muscular cohtracaon, deatn
Table 6.12.1
it is necessary to avoid
the electric shocks
.Thus
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Electrical Enginering 6-17 Domestic Wiring
connection should be always maintained
6.12.1 Elementary First Ald against Shock 3) Earth
n proper condition.
ald ogatnst shock.
Wrtte about elementary first 4) Make the mains supply switch off and remove
VTU: Mar.-01: Jan-04; July-06, Marks 5 the fuses before starting work with any

The first aid can

save the life and reduce severity of installation.
accidents. Hence elementary first aid is
the
5) Fuses must have correct ratings.
important. The first aid against an electric shock
working. Use
involves following steps, 6) Use rubber soled shoes while
under the feet. this
1. Do not panic. Some wooden suPper
removes the contact with the earth.
2 Carry the affected person and lay him in a

comfortable position and call the doctor 7) Use rubber gloves while touching any
insulation layer from a
immediately. terminals or removing
conductor.
3. Look for stoppage of breathing.
to check whether a live'
if 8) Use a line tester
4 Start giving him artificial respiration better method
terminal carries any current still
breathing is stopped.
1s to use a test lamp.
to the person to drink
5. Never give anything insulated screw drivers, pliers, line
when the person is unconscious. 9) Always use

testers etc.
The artificial should be continued
6. respiration Never touch two different terminals at the
for longer time.
10)
same timne.
flashes should
7. The burns caused due to electric the plug by pulling the wires
and then 11) Never remove
be covered with sterile dressing connected to it.
bandaged. 12) The sockets should be fixed at a height beyond
and let patient get
8. Do not make crowd round the reach of the children.
fresh air.

6.12.2 Safety Precautions against

Electric
6.13 University Questions with Answers
Shock
taken
Wrte about precautionary
measures
Jan. -2010
gainst electic shock.
15, Marks 4 various
VTU: July-07, 11, June-12, Jan.-13, Q.1 Mention amd describe tn brief types of
safety precautions wiring systems. [Refer section 6.3]
observe some
t necessary too
is
0.2 With the help of circuit diagram, explain the wo
to avoid serious
while using the electric supply
hazards. vay and three way control of lamps.
problems like shocks and fire
are as follows:
Refer section 6. (51
Some of the safety precautions
used must be
the conductors
1) Insulation of
good condition. If it is not so the May-2010
proper and in
carried by the
conductors may leak out.
O.3 Explain the necessity of earthing
Current
comtact with such faulty [Refer section 6.8.1]
The person coming in
receive a shock.
insulated conductors may a4 Explain the plate earthing alongwith a neat
tests should be conducted and diagram. Refer section 6.9.11
2) Megger
insulation must be checked. With the help of
al the tests discussed above must be June-2010
megger
on the new winng before starting
performed, Q.5
it. Explain the pipe earthing alongwith a neat
se d1agram. DRefer section 6.9.2]

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thnust

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9.2 Tariff
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a
consumer is known as tariff.

Although tariff should include the total cost of

producing and supplying electrical energy plus the
profit, yet it cannot be the same for all types of
consumers. It is because the cost of producing
electrical energy depends to a considerable extent

upon the of electrical energy consumed

magnitude
by the user and his load conditions. Therefore, in all
fairness, due consideration has to be given to
different types of consumers (e.g, industrial,
domestic and commercial) while fixing the tariff. This
makes the problem of suitable rate making highly

complicated.

9.3 Objectives and Requirements of Tariff

.Electric utilities derive their income from customers

bills. The main objective of the

through electricity
tariff is to distribute equitably the cost of supplying
the various classification of use. A
energy among
tariff must fulfill the following objectives and
requirements:
investment in generation,
1. Cost of capital
transmission and
distribution equipment must be
recovered.

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operation, supplies, maintenance and
losses must be recovered.
3. Cost of metering, billing collection and
miscellaneous services must be recovered.
4. A satistactory net return the
on
capital investment
must be ensured.
5. It should be simple and
comprehensible to the
public.
6. It should be uniform over large population.
7. It should be such that
and relatively
personscreating a
desirable
inexpensive type of load make full
use and benefit of the electrical appliances.
8. It should
provide incentive for using
during the off-peak hours. power
9. It should
have a
provision for higher demand
charges for high loads demanded at
10. It should
have a
system pèak.
power factors.
provision of penalty
for low
11.It should
apportion
the different equitable the cost of service
categories of consumers.
9.4 Principal Factors Affanti
 residential and small commercial consumers.
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4. Two part tariff or Hopkinson demand rate: When
the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of
maximum demand of the consumer and the units
consumed, it is called a two-part tariff.
In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made
from the consumer is split into two
components
viz., fixed charges and running charges. The fixed
charges depend upon the maximum demand of
the consumer while the running charges depend
upon the number of units consumed by the
consumer. Thus, the consumer is charged at a
certain amount per kW of maximum
demand plus
a certain amount
per kWh of energy consumed
ie
Total charges (bxkW+cx kWh)
where b is the charge per kW of maximum
and c Charge per kWh
demandd
of energy consumed.
.This type of tariff is
mostly applicable too
industrial consumers who have appreciable
maximum demand.
Advantages
a. It is easily understood by the consumers
b. It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon
the maximum demand of the consumer but are
independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages
a. Download
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The consumer VTUhasConnect
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App
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theFrom Google
fixed Play Stor
charges
he has consumed
irrespective of the fact whether
or not consumed the electrical energy.
b. There is always error in assessing the maximum

demand of the consumer.

5. Maximum demand tariff: It is similar to two-part

tariff with the only difference that the maximum

demand is actually measured by installing maximum
demand meter in the premises of the consumer. This
removes the objection of two-part tariff where the
maximum demand is assessed merely on the basis of
the rateable value. This type of tariff is mostly

applied to big consumers. However, it is not suitable

for a small consumer (e.g, residential consumer) as a
separate maximum demand meter is required.

Power factor tariff: The tariff in which power

factor
6.
of the consumer's load is taken into onsiderationis

known as power factor tariff.

In an a.c. system, power factor plays an important

increases the rating of

role. A low power fäctor
station equipment and line losses. Therefore,
a

consumer having low power factor must be

penalized. The following are the important types

ofpower factor tariff:

a. kVA maximum demand tariff: It is a modified

form of two-part tariff. In this case, the

fixed

are made on the basis of

maximum
charges
demand in kVA and not in kW. As
kVA is

inversely proportional power factor, therefore

to

a consumer having low power factor has to

contribute more towards the fixed charges. This

type of tariff has the advantage that it encourages

the consumers to operate their appliances and
machinery at improved power factor.
as
b. Sliding8 scale tariff: This is also known

average factor tariff. In this case, an

power
average power factor, say 0.8 lagging, is
taken as
the reference. If the power factor of the consumer
falls below this factor, suitable additional charges
are made. On the other hand, if the power factor
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9.7 Desirable Characteristics of a Tariff
A tariff must have the following desirable
characteristics
a. Proper returm: The tariff should be such that it
ensures the proper return from each consumer. In
other words, the
total receipts from the
consumers must be equal to the cost of
producing
and supplying electrical energy plus reasonable
profit. This will enable the electric supply
company to ensure continuous and reliable
service to the consumers.
b. Fairness: The tariff must be fair so that different
types of consumers are satisfied with the rate of
charge of electrical energy. Thus a big consumer
should be charged at a lower rate than a small
consumer. It is because increased energy

consumption spreads the fixed

charges over a
greater number of units, thus reducing the overall
cost of producing electrical energy.- Similarly, a
consumer whose load conditions do not deviate

much from the ideal (i.e, non variable) should be

at lower rate than the one whose load

charged a

conditions change appreciably from the ideal.

be that an
C.Simplicity: The tariffshould simples
can easily understand it. A
ordinary consumer
from
tariff may cause an opposition
complicated
distrustful of supply
the public which is generally
companies.
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d. Reasonable profit profit element in the tariff
: The
should be reasonable. An electric supply
company is a public utility company and

generally enjoys the benefits of monopoly.

Therefore, the investment is
relatively safe due to
non-competition in the market. This calls
for the
profit to be restricted to 8 % or so per annum.
e. Attractive: The tariff should be
attractive so that
a
large number of consumers are
encouraged to
use electrical energy. Efforts should be made to
fix the tariff in such a way so that consumers
can
pay easily.
 9.8 Solved Numericals
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Ex. 9.8.1: A consumer has a

maximum demand of
200 kW at 40 % load factor. If the tariff is 100 kW of
per
maximum demand
plus 10 paise per kWh, find the
overall cost per kWh.
Sol.

Units consumed/year Maximum demand *L.F.

x
Hours in a year
> 2 4 x 3 l S
-
(200) (0.4) x8760
x

7,00,800 kWh
Annual charges =
Annual M.D. charges
+Annual energy charges
=
T (100 x
200+0.1x 7,00,800)
= 90,080

So, Overall 90080

cost/ kWh =

700800=0.1285
= 12.85 Paise
Ans.
Ex. 9.8.2: The maximum demand of a consumer is 20 A
at 220 V and his total
energy consumption is 8760 kWh.
If the energy is
charged at the rae of 20 paise per unit
for 500 hours use of the maximum
demand per annum
plus 10paise per unit for additional units, calculate
1) Annual bil i) Equivalent flat
rate.
Sol.: Assume the load factor
and power factor
unity. to be
Maximum Demand 220x 20x1L.44 kW
1000
i)Units consumed in 500 hrs 4.4x
An up thrust for
500-2200 kWh
knowledge
-
 9-8
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Economics
Power Generation and 2200-7 440
kWh -
70.2
Charges for 2200 kWh
8760- 2200-6560
units
Remaining
6560 kWh
-F0.1 x
6560-R 656
Charges for T 1096
bill (440+ 656)-
Totalannual
1096
0.125 12.5 paise
Equivalent fat rate
8760

offered:
two tariffs are
Ex. 9.8.3: The following
a) 100 plas 15 paise per unit;

b)A flat rate

of 30 paise per unit,
is first tanitf oconomical ?
At what consumption
to both tariffs become equal. Then,
Sol.: Letxe the number of units
at which charges due
100 0.15x 0.3x

0.15 100
Or

X 100 666.67 units *

0.15
Therefore, tanitf (a) is economical if consumption is more than 666.67 units.

Ex. 9.5.4: The daily load of an industrial consumer is as follows

100 LW fr 9 hours, 125 1W for 6 bours, 50 kW for 7 hours and 5 kW for 2 hours. The tariff rate is R 800 per kW
demand per year plus T 2.50 per kWh. Determine the energy consumption per year (365 days) and yearly bill.
ofma
Sol: Daily energy consumption 100x9+12.5 x
6+50 x 7+5*2
900+750+350+ 10 2010 kWh
Annual energy consumption 2010 * 365 733,650 kWh Ar
-
Maximum demand 125 kW
Demand charges per annum 7 800 125- 100, 000
Energy charges per annum - 72.50 x733,650 1,834,125

Yearly bill Demand charges per annum+ energy

7
charges per annum
100,000 7
1,835,125
-

7 2,834,125 nAns
 eration and o

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consumption Google Play Store ,+2+2x2-10.56 kWh
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1000

Monthly consumption 10.56 30- 316.8 kWh or units

Disocount)
(Energy charges+Constant charges) (1
-

Monthly bill
0.3+2.5) (1-0.05)
(20 0.5+30 x04+(316.8-50)
*
- x

- (10+12 +80.04+2.5) (0.95) Ans.

. .

- 799.31
maximum
demand p
pru
The charge is 7 100/kW of
A cOnsumer has an annual consumption of 70,080 kWh.
.9.8.6:
paise/kWh.
40 %.
overali cost per kWh if the load factor is
Find the annual bill and the load factor?
by 25% with the
same

of the
kWh consumption was reduced
What is the cost per
overall

sol.: i)
Annual energy consumption 70,080 kWh
Annual load factor 40 % or 0.4
Consumpion700808 kW
Average load unua ener8Y 8760
8760

Maximum Demand Average load

Load factor 0.4
20 kW

Bill
Annual Yearly Consumption annum+ Energy charges per anmum
- Demand charges per
20+0.05 x 70080
-
7 100x Ans.

- 5504
Annualenergy consumption bill
kWh=
Overall cost per Annual energy consumption
.Ans.
5504-0.0785 or 7.85 paise
70080

(1-0,25) x
70080 52560 kWh
n)
Annual energy consumption
- 6 kw
Average load8760
Demand,
D=Average loaa --15 kw
Maximum 04
Load factor

Bill
Annual Yearly Consumption Demand charges per annum + Energy charges per annum

- 7100 x15+0.05 x 52560

- 7 1500+7 2628
- 7 4128

Overall cost per kWh 4128

S50
52560
- 70.0785 or 7.85 paise - Ans.

hain a t r a t -An up thruat for knowledg

 asc O0th th
e
chergy consumption and maximum demands are reduced in the same ratio and tneretore, the fixed and
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running charges.
EX. 9.8.7: An industrial
undertaking has connected load of 200 kW. The maximum demand is 150 kW.
On averao
each machine works for 70% of if the tariff is
erage
time. Find yearly expenditure on electricity 3000 +
700 per k
of mavimum demand
per year+ 0.60 per kWh.
Sol. Yearly energy consumption 200 x 0.7x 365 x 24 1,226,400 kWh
Fixed
charges per annum -
R 3000
Demand charges
per annum 700 x 150 7 105,000
Energy charges per annum -
70.60 1,226, 400-7 735,840
Yearly expenditure on electricity 7 3000+7 105,000+ 735,840-R 843,840 Ans.
Ex.9.8.8: The annual consumption of domestic consumer is 1500 1c'units and the annual load factor is 40%. What
will be the
saving in the average unit cost if the load factor
improves to 100 % ? The two part tariff
is 500
mavimum demand per year + 40 paise
per kW of
per kWh
SolL: Annual energy
consumption 1500x 10'kWh
Average load Annual energy
365
consumption 1500000171.233 kW
365 x 24

Maximum Demand, MD = Average load 171.233 428 kW

Load factor 0.4
Incase the consumer improves the load factor to 100 percent, his maximum demand will be reduced to
171.233
1
ie. 171.233 kW
Annual energy bill with 40 % load factor
-
7 500x 428+7040x 1500000=R 814,000
Unit cost 814,000
1500000
-T0.5427 or 54.27 paise

Annual energy bill with 100 % load factor

500x 171.2337 0.40 x
1500000-7 685,616.50
Unit cost
685,616.30z0.4571
1500000 or 45.71 paise
Saving in the average unit cost- Paise 54.27- Paise 45.71
- Paise 8.56/kWh
Ans.
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Cm and Eoonomics
9-11 Ei Ta
- Votage xMaxiun dermand of caratx pfxWarking b
1000
230 x40x 1x2x) _552 kWh
1000
Cost of energy corresponding to maximum demand ? 350 552- 1952
Energy cost for remairing energy consumpion
-7180 2020-552)-7 264240
Total monthly bill 7 1932 7 -Ans
4514.40o 264240 7

Average Tanf Monthly energy cost

Monthly energy consumpoon
-7 2020 -72265 per kWh - Ans

98.10: Calculate total energy consumed per annum and annual bill of a consumer whose maimunm demand s
0 iW, p. f -0.8 lagging and load factor =60 % The tariff used is 775 per kVA of maximum demand plus 15 paise
e kWh onsumed Also workout the overall aost per kWh consumed
sol:
Units consumed/year - Maximum demand x LF.x Hours in a year

- (100) (0.6 (8760) kWh

- 5.256x 10 kWh **AnsS

Maximum Demand, MD (KVA) = 100 1 2 5 kVA

08
Annual bill - Maximum demand charges+ EnerEy charges

-75x 125+70.15 5256x 10

- 7 9375+78,840=788,215 Ans

Overall cost per kWh supplied 736125

5.256x10
0.167 or 16.76 Paisee Ans

m e r takes a steady load of 250 kW at a power factor of 0.8 lagging for 10 hours per day and 300
the anmual paymernt under each of the following tariffs
days per annum. Estimate

per kVA per annum

i) 1.20
per kWh+1,200
i) 1.20 per kWh+71200 per kW per annum + 25 paise per kVARh
SoL
Maximum Demand, MD 250 kWW
Annual energy consumption -Steady load in kW Working hours per day
x

Working days per annum

-
250x 10 x300
750, 000 kWh
Maximum Demand, MD (kVA) = 3125kVA
0.8

consumed per
annum=kwh * tan (cos power factor)
KVARh