1.
Introduction
Facultyof Electrical and ComputerEngineering
Communication Systems Engineering
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Content
Overview of Signals and Systems
Signal Classification
Some Basic Signals
Elementary Operations on signal
System Properties
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Objectives
Objectives
❖ Introduce, using examples, what is a signal and what is a system
❖ What are continuous-time and discrete-time representations and how are they
related
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1.1 Overview of Signals and Systems
a. What is a Signal?
❖ A signal is a function of one or more variables that conveys information on
the nature of a physical phenomenon.
❖ When the function depends on a single variable, the signal is said to be one
dimensional.
❖ Examples of signal include: Electrical signals
❖ Voltages and currents in a circuit
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❖ Acoustic signals
❖ Acoustic pressure (sound) over time
❖ Mechanical signals
❖ Velocity of a car over time
❖ Video signals
❖ Intensity level of a pixel (camera, video) over time
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b. What is a System?
❖ A system is an entity that manipulates one or more signals to accomplish a
function, thereby yielding new signals.
❖ Figure-Block diagram representation of a system.
❖ Naturally, the descriptions of the input and output signals depend on the
intended application of the system:
❖ In an automatic speaker recognition system, the input signal is a speech
(voice) signal, the system is a computer, and the output signal is the identity
of the speaker.
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1.1 Overview of Signals and Systems
❖ Signals and systems can be applied in several areas and to list some:
❖ Communication Systems
❖Control Systems
❖Microelectromechanical Systems
❖Remote Sensing
❖Biomedical Signal Processing
❖Auditory System
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1.2 Signal Classification
❖ Here we will restrict our attention to one-dimensional signals defined as
single valued functions of time.
❖ Byconsidering different features we can classify signals as follows:
i. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
❖ a signal is said to be a continuous-time signal if it is defined for all time t.
❖ Most signals in the real world are continuous time, as the scale is
infinitesimally fine.
❖ Example: voltage, velocity,
❖ Denote as x(t), where the time interval may be bounded (finite) or infinite
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❖ Figure below represents a continuous-time signal whose amplitude or value
varies continuously with time.
x(t)
Figure-Continuous time signal
❖ a discrete-time signal is defined only at discrete instants of time.
❖ A discrete-time signal is often derived from a continuous-time signal
by sampling it at a uniform rate.
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❖ Let Ts denote the sampling period and n denote an integer that may assume
positive and negative values.
❖ Then sampling a continuous-time signal x(t) at time t = nTs yields a sample
with the value x(nTs).
❖ For convenience of presentation, we write
❖ Adiscrete-time signal is represented by the sequence of numbers . . . , x[ -2],
x[-1 ], x[0], x[ 1 ], x[2], . . . or simply x[n].
❖ Figure below shows relationship between a continuous-time signal x(t) and a
discrete-time signal x[n].
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❖ A discrete-time signal is often derived from a continuous-time signal by
sampling it at auniform rate.
❖ For this course, we use the symbol t to denote time for a continuous-time
signal and the symbol n to denote time for a discrete-time signal. Similarly,
parentheses (•) are used to denote continuous-valued quantities, while
brackets [•] are used to denote discrete-valued quantities.
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ii. Even and odd signals
❖ Acontinuous-time signal x(t) is said to be an even signal(real valued) if
❖ The signal x{t) is said to be an odd signal(real valued) if
❖ symmetric (complex): x(−t) = x∗(t)
❖ anti-symmetric (complex): x(−t) = -x∗(t)
❖ Let x(t) be expressed as the sum of two components xe(t) and xo(t) as follows:
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❖ Define xe(t) to be even and xo(t) to be odd; that is,
and
❖ Putting t = -t in the expression for x(t), wemay write
❖ Solving for xe(t) and xo(t), we thus obtain
❖ And
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1.2 Signal Classification
iii. Periodic signals and nonperiodic signals.
❖ Asignal x(t) is called aperiodic signal if there exist real number Tsuch that:
❖ The smallest value of T that satisfies the above equ. is called the fundamental
period of x(t).
❖ If T =T0,then it is also satisfied forT = 2T0 , 3T0 , 4T0 ,…
❖ The reciprocal of the fundamental period T is called the fundamental
frequency of the periodic signal x(t); it describes how frequently the periodic
signal x(t) repeats itself.
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1.2 Signal Classification
❖ The angular frequency, measured in radians per second, is defined by
❖ Any signal x(t) for which no value of T satisfies the condition of periodicity is
called an aperiodic, or nonperiodic, signal.
a. periodic signal b. aperiodic signal
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❖ Adiscrete-time signal x[n] is said to be periodic if
❖ where N is a positive integer.
❖ The smallest integer N for which above Eq. is satisfied is called the
fundamental period of the discrete-time signal x[n].
❖ The fundamental angular frequency or, simply, fundamental frequency of x[n]
is defined by
❖ which is measured in radians.
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1.2 Signal Classification
❖ These figures show discrete-time square wave alternating between -1 and
+1(periodic) and nonperiodic discrete-time signal consisting of three nonzero
samples.
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1.2 Signal Classification
❖ These figures show discrete-time square wave alternating between -1 and
+1(periodic) and nonperiodic discrete-time signal consisting of three nonzero
samples.
iv. Deterministic signals and random signals
❖ Adeterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time.
❖ deterministic signals may be modeled as completely specified functions of
time.
❖ A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty before it
occurs.
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1.2 Signal Classification
❖ Such a signal may be viewed as belonging to an ensemble, or a group, of
signals, with each signal in the ensemble having a different waveform.
v. Energy signals and power signals
❖ Regardless of whether a given signal x(t) represents a voltage or a current, we
may express the instantaneous power of the signal as
❖ On the basis of this convention, we define the total energy of the continuous-
time signal x(t) as
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1.2 Signal Classification
❖ and its time-averaged, or average, power as
❖ The time-averaged power of a periodic signal x(t) of fundamental period T is
given by
❖ In the case of a discrete-time signal x[n], the integrals are replaced by
corresponding sums.Thus, the total energy of x[n] is defined by
❖ and its average power is defined by
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1.2 Signal Classification
❖ The average power in a periodic signal x[n] with fundamental period N is given
by
❖ Asignal is referred to as an energy signal if and only if the total energy of the
signal satisfies the condition
❖ The signal is referred to as a power signal if and only if the average power of the
signal satisfies the condition
❖ A signal x(t) (x[n]) can not be an energy signal and a power signal
simultaneously.
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1.2 Signal Classification
❖ An energy signal has zero time-averaged power, whereas a power signal has
infinite energy.
❖ periodic signals and random signals are usually viewed as power signals,
whereas signals that are both deterministic and nonperiodic are usually viewed
asenergy signals.
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1.3 Some Basic Signals
i. Sinusoidal Signals
❖ The continuous-time version of a sinusoidal signal
❖ where A is the amplitude, is the frequency in radians per second, and is
the phase angle in radians.
❖ Asinusoidal signal is an example of a periodic signal, the period of which is
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1.3 Some Basic Signals
i. Sinusoidal Signals
❖ Discrete-time form of a sinusoidal signal, written as
❖ In similar fashion as we did for continuous substituting n + N for n
❖ In general, we require that
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❖ Note that, since N represents an angle, it is measured in radians.
❖ Since N is the number of samples contained in a single cycle of x[n], it follows
that is measured in radians per cycle
Figure-Discrete-time sinusoidal signal
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1.3 Some Basic Signals
ii. Exponential Signals
❖ Areal exponential signal, in its most general form, is written as
❖ If a is positive or negative, we may identify two special cases:
❖ Decaying exponential, for which a < 0
❖ Growing exponential, for which a > 0
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❖ Figure-(a)Decaying exponential form of continuous-time signal, (b) Growing
exponential form of continuous-time signal.
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1.3 Some Basic Signals
❖ Discrete time, real exponential signal can be represented as
❖ Figure-(a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal, (b) Growing
exponential form of discrete-time signal.
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❖ It is possible for an exponential signal to be complex valued.
❖ Two commonly encountered examples of complex exponential signals are ejt
and ejn.
iii. Unit StepFunction
❖ The continuous-time version of the unit-step function is defined by
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1.3 Some Basic Signals
❖ The discrete-time version of the unit-step function is defined by
❖ Figure- Discrete-time version of step function of unit amplitude
❖ Example:- Consider the rectangular pulse x(t) shown below. This pulse has an
amplitude Aand duration of 1 second. Express x(t) as a weighted sum of two
step functions.
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❖ Solution
❖ Note that x(t) = x2(t) –x1(t).
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iv. Impulse Function
❖ The discrete-time version of the unit impulse is defined by
Figure- Discrete-time form of the unit impulse.
❖ The continuous-time version of the unit impulse is defined by the following
pair of relations:
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1.3 Some Basic Signals
❖ The total area under the unit impulse is unity. The impulse 5(f) is also referred
to as the Dirac delta function.
Figure-Evolution of a rectangular pulse of unit area into an impulse of unit
strength (i.e.,unit impulse), (b) Graphical symbol for unit impulse, (c)-
Representation of an impulse of strength a that results from allowing the duration
Aof arectangular pulse of area ato approach zero.
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❖ The impulse (t) and the unit-step function u(t) are related to each other in
that if we are given either one, we can uniquely determine the other.
❖ Specifically, (t) is the derivative of u[t) with respect to time t, or
❖ Conversely, the step function n(f) is the integral of the impulse (t) with
respect to time t.
❖ Properties of impulse function
❖ There are many property of δ(t)
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❖ The impulse (t) and the unit-step function u(t) are related to each other in
that if we are given either one, we can uniquely determine the other.
❖ Specifically, (t) is the derivative of u[t) with respect to time t, or
❖ Conversely, the step function n(f) is the integral of the impulse (t) with
respect to time t.
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v. Ramp Function
❖ The integral of the step function u(t) is a ramp function of unit slope.
❖ Equivalently, we may write
❖ The ramp function r(t) is shown graphically
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❖ The integral of the step function u(t) is a ramp function of unit slope.
❖ or, equivalently,
❖ The discrete-time ramp function graphically is
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ We may identify two classes ofoperations.
a. Operations Performed on DependentVariables
❖ Amplitude scaling. Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. Then the
signal y(t) resulting from amplitude scaling applied to x(t) is defined by
❖ where c is the scaling factor.
❖ A physical example of a device that performs amplitude scaling is an
electronic amplifier.
❖ Aresistor also performs amplitude scaling when x(t) is a current, c is the
resistance of the resistor and y(t) is the output voltage.
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❖ For discrete-time signals, we write
❖ Addition. Let x1(t) and x2(t) denote a pair of continuous-time signals. Then
the signal y(t) obtained by the addition of x1(t) and x2(t) is defined by
y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)
❖ Aphysical example of a device that adds signals is an audio mixer, which
combines music and voice signals.
❖ For discrete-time signals, we write
y[n] = x1[n] + x2[n]
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❖ Multiplication:- The signal y(t) resulting from the multiplication of x1(t)
and x2(t) is defined by
y(t) = x1(t)x2(t)
❖ For discrete-time signals
❖ y(n) = x1(n)x2(n)
b. Operations Performed on the Independent Variable
❖ Time scaling:- The signal y(t) obtained by scaling the independent variable,
time t, by a factor a is defined by
y(t) = x(at)
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ If a > 1, the signal y(t) is a compressed version of x(t). If 0 < a < 1, the signal
y(t) is an expanded (stretched) version of x(t).
❖ Figure-Time-scaling operation: (a) continuous-time signal x(t), (b) version of
x(t) compressed by a factor of 2, and (c) version of x(t) expanded by a factor of
2.
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ In the discrete-time case, we write
y[n] = x[kn], k > 0,
❖ which is defined only for integer values of k. If k > 1, then some values of the
discrete-time signal y[n] are lost, as shown in figure below.
❖ Figure- Effect of time scaling on a discrete-time signal: (a) discrete-time signal
x[n] and (b) version of x[n] compressed by a factor of 2, with some values of
the original x[n] lost asaresult of the compression.
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ Reflection:- Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. Let y{t) denote the
signal obtained by replacing time t with -t; that is,
y(t) = x(-t)
❖ The signal y(t) represents a reflected version of x(t) about t = 0.
❖ The following two cases are of special interest:
❖ Even signals, for which we have x(-t) = x(t) for all t; that is, an even
signal is the same as its reflected version.
❖ Odd signals, for which we have x( -t) = -x(t) for all t; that is, an odd
signal is the negative of its reflected version.
❖ Similar observations apply to discrete-time signals.
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ Example:- Consider the triangular pulse x(t) shown in Figure below, find the
reflected version of x(t) about the amplitude axis (i.e., the origin).
❖ Figure-Operation of reflection: (a) continuous-time signal x(t) and (b)
reflected version of x(t) about the origin.
❖ The discrete-time signal
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ Example:- The discrete-timesignal
❖ Find the composite signal
❖ y[n] = x[n] + x[-n].
❖ Time shifting:- Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. Then the time-
shifted version of x(t) is defined by
y(t) = x(t -to)
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ where to is the time shift. If to > 0, the waveform of y(t) is obtained by shifting
x(t) toward the right, relative to the time axis. If to < 0, x(t) is shifted to the
left.
❖ In the case of adiscrete-time signal x[n], we define its time-shifted version as
y[n] = x[n - m],
❖ where the shift m must be apositive or negative integer.
❖ Example- The discrete-time signal
❖ Find the time-shifted signal y[n] = x[n + 3].
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
c. Precedence Rule forTime Shifting andTime Scaling
❖ Let y(t) denote a continuous-time signal that is derived from another
continuous-time signal x(t) through a combination of time shifting and time
scaling; that is,
❖ y(t) = x(at -b)
❖ The proper order is based on the fact that the scaling operation always
replaces t by at, while the time-shifting operation always replaces t by t - b.
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ Hence, the time-shifting operation is performed first on x(t), resulting in an
intermediate signal
v(t) = x(t -b)
❖ Next, the time-scaling operation is performed on v(t), replacing t by at and
resulting in the desired output
v(t) = v(at)
= x(at-b).
❖ Example:- For a triangular pulse signal x(t) depicted in Figure below, sketch
each of the following signals derived from x(t):
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
❖ Example:- Consider a discrete-time signal
❖ Find y[n] = x[2n+3].
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1.4 Elementary Operations on signal
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1.5 System Properties
❖ In mathematical terms, a system may be viewed as an interconnection of
operations that transforms an input signal into an output signal with properties
different from those of the input signal.
❖ The signals may be of the continuous-time or discrete-time variety or a
mixture of both.
❖ Let the overall operator H denote the action of a system. Then the application
of acontinuous-time signal x(t) to the input of the system yields the output
signal
y(t) = H{x(t)}
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1.5 System Properties
❖ For the discrete-time case, we may write
y[n] = H{x[n]}
❖ Graphically
❖ Figure- Block diagram representation of operator H for (a) continuous time
and (b) discrete time
❖ The properties of a system describe the characteristics of the operator H
representing the system.
❖ Some of the most basic properties of systems are:
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1.5 System Properties
i. Stability
❖ Asystem is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable if and
only if every bounded input results in a bounded output.
❖ The output of such a system does not diverge if the input does not diverge.
❖ Operator H is BIBO stable if the output signal y(t) satisfies the condition
❖ whenever the input signals x(t) satisfy the condition
❖ Both Mx and My represent some finite positive numbers.
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1.5 System Properties
❖ We may describe the condition for the BIBO stability of a discrete-time
system in a similar manner.
❖ From an engineering perspective, it is important that a system of interest
remain stable under all possible operating conditions.
❖ Unstable systems are usually to be avoided, unless some mechanism can be
found to stabilize them.
❖ Example:- Consider a discrete-time system whose input output relation is
defined by
❖ where r > 1. Show that this system isunstable.
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1.5 System Properties
❖ Solution: Assume that the input signal x[n] satisfies the condition
❖ We then findthat
❖ With r > 1, the multiplying factor r” diverges for increasing n. Thus the
condition that the input signal is bounded is not sufficient to guarantee a
bounded output signal, so the system is unstable.
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1.5 System Properties
ii. Memory
❖ Asystem is said to possess memory if its output signal depends on past or
future values of the input signal.
❖ The temporal extent of past or future values on which the output depends
defines how far the memory of the system extends into the past or future.
❖ In contrast, a system is said to be memoryless if its output signal depends
only on the present value of the input signal.
❖ For example, a resistor is memoryless, since the current i(t) flowing through
it in response to the applied voltage v[t) is defined by
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1.5 System Properties
❖ where R is the resistance of the resistor.
❖ On the other hand, an inductor has memory, since the current i(t) flowing
through it is related to the applied voltage v(t) by
❖ the memory of an inductor extends into the infinite past.
❖ Another example is the followingmoving average system
❖ has memory, since the value of the output signal y[n] at time n depends on the
present and on two past values of the input signal x[n].
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1.5 System Properties
❖ In contrast, a system described by the input-output relation
❖ is memoryless, since the value of the output signal y[tt] at time n depends only
on the present value of the input signal x[n].
iii. Causality
❖ Asystem is said to be causal if the present value of the output signal depends
only on the present or past values of the input signal.
❖ In contrast, the output signal of a noncausal system depends on one or more
future values of the input signal.
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1.5 System Properties
❖ For example, the moving-average system described by
❖ is causal. Bycontrast, the moving-average system described by
❖ is noncausal, since the output signal y[n] depends on a future value of the input
signal, namely, x[n + 1].
❖ Causality is required for asystem to be capable of operating in real time.
❖ Thus, in the first moving-average system the output y[n] is determined once
the present sample x[n] is received, thereby permitting real-time operation of
the system for all n.
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1.5 System Properties
❖ The second moving-average system has to wait for the future sample x[n + 1]
to arrive before it can produce the output y[n]; thus, this second system can
only operate in anon-real-time fashion.
iv. Invertibility
❖ A system is said to be invertible if the input of the system can be recovered
from the output.
❖ Figure-The notion of system invertibility. The second operator Hinv is the
inverse of the first operator H. Hence, the input x(t) is passed through the
cascade connection of H and Hinv completely unchanged.
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1.5 System Properties
❖ The property of invertibility is of particular importance in the design of
communication systems.
v.Time Invariance
❖ Asystem is said to be time invariant if a time delay or time advance of the input
signal leads to an identical time shift in the output signal.
❖ Characteristics of a time-invariant system do not change with time.
Otherwise, the system is said to be time variant.
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1.5 System Properties
vi. Linearity
❖ Asystem is said to be linear in terms of the system input (excitation) x(t) and
the system output (response) y(t) if it satisfies the following two properties of
superposition and homogeneity:
❖ Superposition: Let the system be subjected to an input x(t) = x1(t),
producing an output y(t) = y1(t). Suppose next that the same system is
subjected to a different input x(t) = x2(t), producing a corresponding
output y(t) = y2(t). Then for the system to be linear it is necessary that
the composite input x(t) = x1(t)+ x2(t) produce the corresponding
output y(t) = y1(t) + y2(t).
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1.5 System Properties
❖ Homogeneity: suppose an input x(t) results in an output y(t). Then the
system is said to exhibit the property of homogeneity if, whenever the
input x(t) is scaled by a constant factor a, the output y(t) is scaled by
exactly the same constant factor a.
❖ When a system violates either the principle of superposition or the property
of homogeneity, the system is said to be nonlinear.
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1.5 System Properties
❖ Figure- The linearity property of a system, (a) The combined operation of
amplitude scaling and summation precedes the operator H for multiple inputs,
(b) The operator H precedes amplitude scaling for each input; the resulting
outputs are summed to produce the overall output y(t). If these two
configurations produce the same output y(t), the operator H is linear.
❖ The system operation described by H must commute with the summation and
amplitude scaling. The commutation can only be justified if the operator H is
linear.
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Refereces
❖ Oppenheim (MIT Professor., Signals and Systems 2nd edition
❖ Simon Haykin and Barry VanVeen Signals and Systems, Second Edition, John,
Wiley &Sons, 2003.
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Thank You
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