Course No: PHY 107

Credit (Contact) Hours: 3.0

Course Title : Physical Optics, Waves & Oscillations and Heat & Thermodynamics
1 credit
Heat & Thermodynamics:

Principle of temperature measurements: Platinum resistance thermometer, Thermo-

electric thermometer, Pyrometer;

Kinetic theory of gases: Maxwell's distribution of molecular speeds, Mean free path,
Equipartition of energy, Brownian motion, Van der Waal's equation of state, Review of
the First Law of Thermodynamics and its application, Reversible and irreversible
processes, Second Law of thermodynamics, Carnot cycle; Efficiency of heat engines,
Carnot’s theorem, Entropy and disorder,

Thermodynamic functions, Maxwell relations, Clausius-Clapeyron equation, Gibbs

phase rule, Third Law of Thermodynamics.
 Assessment Strategy
• Class Participation: Class participation and attendance will be recorded in every class.
• Continuous Assessment: any of the activities such as quizzes, assignment,
presentation, etc. The scheme of the continuous assessment for the course will be
declared in the class.
• Final Examination: A comprehensive term final examination will be held at the end of
the Term following the guideline of academic Council.

Distribution of Marks
Class Participation 10%
Continuous Assessment 20%
Final Examination 70%
Total 100%

Books
• Heat and Thermodynamics by N. Subrahmanyum and Brij Lal
• Physics for Engineers - Part-1 by Giasuddin Ahmad
The thermal state or condition of a body which determines whether a body can give out heat
to or receive heat from another body placed in contact with it, is known as its temperature.

Heat flows of itself from a body at a higher temperature to another at a lower temperature.

A red-hot sewing needle was placed inside a bucket full of water. What will happen?

Temperature can be termed as the degree of hotness or coldness. It is a quantity which can
not be directly measured in the strict sense of the term. Therefore, we measure temperature
indirectly for various purposes using different properties that differ directly at different state of
hotness. Thus, temperature can be expressed according to arbitrary scale depending on
choices.

The branch of science that deals with the measurement of temperature is called
Thermometry
“Therm” means temperature and “metry” means measurement. Temperature is what the
thermometer reads.
 Any physical property that depends on temperature (preferably varies in a uniform
manner), and whose response to temperature is reproducible, can be used as the basis of
a thermometer. The suitable physical properties employed to measure temperature are
called thermometric properties. These include:
• Volume of gas
• Pressure of gas
• Dimensions (expansion of liquid on heating)
• Resistance of metals & semi-conductors
The substances whose thermometric properties are used to construct thermometers are
called thermometric substances.
Fundamentals parts of a thermometer include construction, calibration and sensitiveness.
For construction of a thermometer, it is essential to make proper choice of the thermometric
substance, whose physical property varies uniformly with rise in temperature. After
construction the thermometer needs to be calibrated. For calibration of a thermometer, it is
necessary to record the indication of thermometer at two fixed points. The two fixed points
normally chosen are lower fixed point (melting point of ice) and upper fixed points (boiling
point of water at 760 mm of Hg pressure/melting point of gold/silver). The difference in
temperature between the two fixed points is known as fundamental interval. The centigrade
scale is built by dividing the interval between the melting point of ice and boiling point of
water into 100 equal parts and each represents 1 ℃. Sensitiveness of a thermometer: It can
detect small changes in temperature; it shows temperature of the body in a short time; it
doesn’t take large quantity of heat for its own heating from the body whose temperature is
being measured.

Nowadays, Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are the three commonly
used temperature scales.
The Kelvin scale is the temperature
generally used in science. It is an absolute
temperature scale defined as 0K at the
lowest possible temperature, called absolute
zero. The temperature unit on this scale is
the Kelvin, abbreviated as K. Absolute zero is
the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature
scale; a state at which energy of a cooled ideal gas
reach their minimum value
The Celsius scale (which replaced the
slightly different centigrade scale) has a
freezing point of water 0ºC and a boiling
point of 100ºC. The temperature unit on this
scale is the degree Celsius (ºC).

The Fahrenheit scale (most frequently used

in the United States) has a freezing point of
water is 32ºF, and boiling point is 212ºF. The
temperature unit on this scale is the degree
Fahrenheit(ºF).
There are different types of thermometer according to thermometric substances.
Thermometric substances are substance that is used to fill inside thermometer which
expands or shows effect on changing temperature. It can be listed as:

1. Liquid Thermometer
The thermometer which uses liquid as thermometric substances is called liquid
thermometer. It is based on expansion of liquid on heating. It is of 2 types.
Mercury Thermometer
It uses mercury which expands on heating. On heating the volume of mercury
increases and temperature is noted to that point. It measures temperature between
range -35°C to 357°C. It is not used to measure very high temperature as it starts
vaporizing in case of expanding.
Alcohol Thermometer
It uses alcohol as thermometric substance. On heating the volume of alcohol
increases and temperature is noted to that point. It measures temperature between
range -110°C to 76°C.
2. Gas Thermometer
Thermometer which uses gas as thermometric substance are called as gas
thermometer. H2, N2 and He2 are used as thermometric substance. It can measure
temperature between range -268°C to 1500°C. Gas thermometer are most sensitive,
accurate and used to calibrate other thermometers. It is of 2 types.
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
In this type of thermometer, volume remains constant whereas pressure changes on
changing temperature. It is based on Gay Lussac’s Law (P∝T). Gay-Lussac’s law
states the temperature and pressure of an ideal gas are directly proportional,
assuming constant mass and volume
Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer
In this type of thermometer, pressure remains constant whereas volume changes on
changing temperature. It is based on Charles’s Law (V∝T). the volume of an ideal gas
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at constant pressure
3. Resistance Thermometer
It is a type of thermometer which is based on variation of resistance of conductor with temperature. It is also called
as platinum resistance thermometer due to use of platinum in it. It is based on principal of change in electrical
resistance with rise in temperature or Kirchoff’s or Wheatstone bridge principle. It measures temperature range
between -200°C to 1200°C. It is used to measure temperature inside motor engine.
4. Thermoelectric/Thermocouple Thermometer
It is based on variation of thermo emf in thermocouple with temperature. It is based on principle of Seebeck effect.
It’s range of temperature is between -200°C to 1600°C. It is used to measure rapidly changing temperature.
The process where the temperature difference between two distinct electrical semiconductors or conductors
generates a voltage difference between the two substances is known as the Seebeck effect.

5. Pyrometer
It is based on principle of Stefan’s law. It can measure temperature of source from any distance. It is used to
measure very high temperature. Range of temperature is between -800°C to 4000°C.
“the total radiant power emitted by a surface across all wavelengths is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature” Stefan’s law
6. Vapour Pressure Thermometer
It is based on saturated vapour pressure of liquid varying with temperature. It is used to measure very low
temperature ranging between 0.17 K to 122 K.
7. Magnetic thermometer
It is based on variation of magnetic susceptibility with temperature. It is based on principle of Curie law.
Ferromagnetic substance is used as thermometric substance in it. It is used to measure temperature below 1 Kelvin.
 Constant-volume gas thermometer

[Link] constant-volume gas thermometer operates on the principle that the pressure of
a gas is directly proportional to its temperature when the volume is kept constant.
[Link] provides highly accurate temperature measurements and is often used as a
standard for calibrating other thermometers.
[Link] thermometer typically uses an inert gas like helium or nitrogen to minimize
chemical reactions that could affect readings.
[Link] ideal gas law, PV = nRT, where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of
moles of gas, R is the universal gas constant, and T is temperature in Kelvin,
underpins its operation.
[Link] measure temperature changes accurately, it’s crucial that the volume remains
constant throughout the process.
Constant volume and Constant pressure gas Thermometer working
principles, theories etc.