1 1

KEY POINTS

1
Unit V - VI
 Physical Quantity Formulae Used SI Unit

Quantization of charge q = + ne C
kq12q
Coulomb’s force | F| = N
r2
kq12q → = kq12q 
In vector form = r21 . r 21
r213 r212

Dielectric constant (or relative KD = ∈r = = = Unit less

permitivity) =

Hence F0 > Fm as free space has

minimum permitivity

Linear charge density λ= Cm–1

Surface charge density σ= Cm–2

Volume charge density ρ= Cm–3

Electric field due to a

 Innumerical,weuseE= kq1 
point charge  r 2 


2
Unit V - VI
The components of electric field, Ex = = NC–1

Ez =

Torque on a dipole in a uniform (or τ = pE sin θ) Nm

electric field
→
Electric dipole moment p = q ⋅ (2)a or Cm

Potential energy of a dipole in a U= (or U = – pE cos θ) J

uniform electric field

Electric field on axial line of an Eaxial = NC–1

electric dipole

When 2a << r, Eaxial =

Electric field on equatorial line Eequatorial =

of an electric dipole
When 2a << r, Eequatorial

dV →→
Electric field as a gradient of E= − orE ⋅ dr =−dV
dr
potential

Electric potential differences V A – VB = Volts (or JC–1)

between ponts A & B

Electric potential at a point VA = =

3
Unit V - VI
 CV
11
+CV
2 2
Common potential V=
CC1
+ 2

Electric potential due to a V=

system of charges
1 p cos θ
V = 4πε
0 ( r −a cos θ)
2 2 2

Electric potential at any point due When, θ = 0° or θ = 180°,

to an electric dipole V=

If r >> a, V =

When, θ = 90°, Vequi = 0

qnet
Total electric flux through a φe = = ∈ Nm2C–1
0

closed surface S qnet = Net charge enclosed by a

⇒ Gaussian surface

Electric field due to line charge E= NC–1 (or V/m)

Electric field due to an infinite E=

plane sheet of charge

Electric field between two infinitely E =

charged plane parallel sheets
having change density +s and –s
Electric field due to a uniformly E=

charged spherical shell

When r = R, E0 =

When r < R, E × 4πr2 = 0

⸫ E
=
4
Unit V - VI
Loss of energy (in Parallel 1 CC
12 2
compinaton of two capacitors DU = 2( C1 +C)2 (V1 −V)2

Electrical capacitance C= F(SI Unit)

Capacitance of an isolated sphere C0 = 4π∈0 r

Capacitance of a parallel plate C=

Capacitors in series

Capacitors in parallel C = C1 + C2 + C3

Capacitance of a parallel plate C=

capacitor with dielectric slab
between plates

Capacitance of a parallel plate

capacitor with conducting slab
between plates

Energy stored in a charged U= J

capacitor

Resultant electric field in a where Cm–1

polarised dielectric slab

= Applied electric field and

= Electric field due to
polarization

Polarization density P = ∈0 χE Vm–1 or Nc–1

Dielectric constant (in terms of KD = 1 + χ

electric susceptibility or atomic Where K is dieletric
polarisability) Contant

5
Unit V - VI
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
IMPORTANT FORMULA

6
Unit V - VI
 r1 and r2 are their internal
resistances respectively
Equivalent Cu
rrent I= n = no. of cells in series.

13. Cells in parallel Equivalent e.m.f.

Eeq =

Equivalent resista
nce

req =

Equivalent Curre
nt I= m = number of cells in parallel

14. Kirchoff’s Laws Σi = o (at a junction) i = Current

ΣiR = ΣE or ΣiR = 0 R = Resistance
(in a closed loop
)
E = e.m.f.
15. Wheatstone Bridge P, Q, R and S are resistances in
(balanced condition) Ohm in four arms of Wheatstone
Bridge.

16. Slide wire Bridge or S = R

metre Bridge
17. Potentiometer

Comparison of Emf l1 and l2 are balancing lengths

on potentiometer wire for cells
E1 and E2

Internal Resistance r= l1 andl2 are balancing lengths on

potentiometer wire for emt E and
Pot. diff. V across R.
=

7
Unit V - VI
KEY POINTS

8
Unit V - VI
 Physical Quantity Formulae SI Unit

Biot-Savart’s Law = Tesla (T);

= 104 Gauss = 1T

Magnetic field due to a straight B= T

current carrying conductor

Magnetic field at the centre of B= T

a circular loop B= (For n loops)

Magnetic Field at a Point on the B= T

Axis of a current carrying loop

When, x = 0, B =

For a << x, B =

For n loops, B =

Ampere’s Circuital Law T– m

Unit III - IV 55

9
Unit V - VI
Magnetic field due to a long B = µ0nI T
straight solenoid
At the end of solenoid,

B= µ0nI

If solenoid is filled with

material having magnetic
permeability µr
B = µ0µr nI
Magnetic field due to a toroidal B = µ0 nI T
solenoid 2
qE  x 
Motion of a charged particle y= m
2mv x 
inside electric field

(v ×B)
→
Megnetic force on a moving = q N
charge
Or F = qn B sin θ

(v ×B)
→
Lorentz Force (Electric and = N
Magnetic)
The Cyclotron

mv
Radius of circular path r= B
q

The period of circular motion T=

The cyclotron frequency v=

1 2 B222
qr
Maximum energy of the positive mvmax = =qV = qV
2 2m
ions

The radius corresponding to r=

maximum velocity

10
Unit V - VI
 11
Unit V - VI
The maximum velocity Vmax =

The radius of helical path when

v and are inclined to each

mv sin θ
other by an angle θ r=
qB
→→
 
Force on a current carrying cond- = I  l ×B  N
uctor placed in a magnetic field  

Force per unit length betwen two f= Nm–1

parallel current carrying
conductors

Magnetic dipole moment = Am2 or JT –1

Torque on a rectangular current

carrying loop ABCD =

= MB sin α
If coil has n turns,
= n B I A sin α
α → angle between
normal drawn on the
plane of loop and
magnetic field

Period of oscillation of bar T= S

magnet if external magnetic

field

The potential energy associated U=– = – MB cos θ

with magnetic field

Current through a galvanometer I= A

φ→ angle by which the coil G→ galvanometer constant

rotates

12
Unit V - VI
 Unit V & VI
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
AND OPTICS

KEY POINTS
1. EM waves are produced by accelerated (only by the change in speed)
charged particles.

2. and vectors oscillate with the frequency of oscillating charged

particles.
3. Propagation of wave along x-direction.

4. Properties of em waves :
(i) Transverse nature
(ii) Can travel though vacuum.

= =λ =E
E0 v C
C → Speed of EM waves.
(iii) B0 B
(iv) Speed of em wave C = 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum and

C= (in vaccum)

(v) In any medium V =

Where µ = µr µ0 ε = εr εo
= n refractive index of medium
13
Unit V - VI
 Also V =

(vi) A material medium is not required for the propagation of e.m.

waves.

(vii) Wave intensity equals average of Pointing vector I =

.

(viii) Average electric and average magnetic energy densities are

equal.

UE = and UB =
(ix) The electric vecotr is responsible for optical effects due to
electro magnetic wave. For this reason, electric vector is called
light vector.

 In an em spectrum, diffferent waves have different frequency and

wavelengths.
 Penetration power of em waves depends on frequency. Higher, the
frequency larger the penetration power.
 Wavelength λ and frequency v are related with each other ν = νλ. Here V is
the wave velocity.
 A wave travelling along + x axis is represented by
Ey = E0 cos(ωt – kx)

Bz =B0=cos(ωt – kx)

ω= = 2πv

= λv = V = C wave speed

k=

=
v → frequency wave number.

14
Unit V - VI
Electromagnetic Soectrum

Name Wavelength range Production Uses

Gamma Rays < 10–12 m Gamma rays produced in treatment of cancer

in radio active decay of and to carry out
nucleus nuclear reactions.
–9 –12
x-rays 10 m to 10 m x-ray tubes or inner used as diagnostic tool shell
electrons in medical to find out fractures in bones. to find crack, flaws in metal
part of machine UV rays 4 × 10–7 to 10–9 m by very hot bodies like in water
purifier
sun and by UV lamps in detection of forged
documents, in food
preservation.
–7
Visible light 7 × 10 m to by accelerated tiny to see every thing
–7
4 × 10 m (electrons) charge around us
particles
IR rays 10–3 m to due to vibration of in green houses to keep
–7
7 × 10 m atoms plant warm to reveal secret writings on walls in photography
during fog and smoke
–1 –3
Microwaves 10 m to 10 m produced in klystron in RADAR
Valve and magnetron in microwave ovens
Valve
Radio waves > 0.1 m by accelerated charged in radio telecommuni
particles excited cation system in radio
electrical circuits astrology
excited
Displacement Current—Current produced due to time varying electric field
or electric flux.
I φ
= D , e is electric flux
Modified Ampere’s Circuital law by Maxwell
→→  dφe 
d∅
∮ ⃗B . d⃗l = μ0 I C + μ 0 ε 0 d t E
Ic → Conduction current

15
Unit V - VI
 IC = ID
OPTICS RAY OPTICS
GIST
1. REFLECTION BY CONVEX AND CONCAVE MIRRORS

a. Mirror formula where u is the object distance, v is the

image distance and f is the focal length.
v f −v f
b. Magnification m = – = = m is –ve for real images
u f f −u
and +ve for virtual images.
c. Focal length of a mirror depends up only on the curvature of the

mirror . It does not depend on the material of the mirror or

on wave length of light.
2. REFRACTION
a. Ray of light bends when it enters from one medium to the other,
having different optical densities.
When light wave travels from one medium to another, the wave length and
velocity changes but frequency of light wave remains the same.
b. Sun can be seen before actual sunrise and after actual sun set due
to Atmospheric refraction.
c. An object under water (any medium) appears to be raised due to
refraction when observed obliquely.

n= n ® refractive index
and normal shift in the position (apparent) of object is

x = where t is the actual depth of the

medium.
d. Snell’s law states that for a given colour of light, the ratio of sine of
the angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is a constant,
when light travels from one medium to another.

16
Unit V - VI
 n1 sin q1 = n2 sin q2
e. Absolute refractive index is the ratio between the velocities of light
in vacuum to velocity of light in medium. For air regractive
index is 1.003 for practical uses taken to be 1

n=
3. T.I.R.
i. When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium and if the
angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, the ray of light is
refiected back to the denser medium. This phenomenon is called
total internal refiection. (T.I.R.)

sin C =
Essential conditions for T.I.R.
1. Light should travel from denser to rarer medium.
2. Angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle
( i > iC)
[Link] has a high refractive index, resulting with a low critical
angle (C = 24.40). This promotes a multiple total internal reflection
causing its brilliance and luster. Working of an optical fibre and
formation of mirage are the examples of T.I.R.
4. When light falls on a convex refracting surface, the relation among, u,
−
v and R is given by n2 − n1 = n2 n1 .
v u R
5. Lens maker formula for thin lens formula is given by

For Convex Lens R1 + ve; R2 – ve and Concave lens R1 –ve; R2 + ve.

The way in which a lens behaves as converging or diverging
n n
depends upon the values of 2 and 1.
6. When two lenses are kept in contact the equivalent focal length is given
by

17
Unit V - VI
 1 1 x
and= Power
+ P =– P1 + P2
f1 f 2 ff12
Magnification m = ml × 2 m

7. The lens formula is given by

Sign convention for mirrors and lenses → Distances
in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive. All the
mesurement is done from pole
(P).

8. When ray of light passes through a glass prism it undergoes refraction,

then A + δ = i + e and, the expression of refractive index of glass prism

n=
As the angle of incidence increses, the angle of deviation decreases, reaches a
minimum value and then increases. This minimum value of angle of
deviation is called angle of minimum deviation “δm”.
9.

Where d is minimum, i = e, refracted ray lies parallel to the base. For a small
angled prism d min = (n – 1)A.
10. When white light is passed through a glass prism, it splits up into its
constituent colours (Monochromatic). This phenomenon is called
Dispersion.
11. Scattering of light takes place when size of the particle is very small as
compared to the wavelength of light.

18
Unit V - VI
 Intensity of scattered light is
The following properties or phenomena can be explained by scattering.
(i) Sky is blue.
(ii) Sun looks reddish at the time of sunrise and sunset.
(iii) Red light used in danger mark.
(iv) Clouds are white.
Compound Microscope :

Objective : The converging lens nearer to the object.

Eyepiece : The converging lens through which the final image is seen.
Both are of short length. Focal length of eyepiece is slightly greater than
that of the objective.
4. Angular Magnification or Magnifying Power (M) :
M = M e × Mo
(a) When final is formed atleast distance of distinct vision.

– LD
(b) When final image is formed at infinityM=
fO fe
(Normal adjustment i.e. image at infinity) Length of tube
L = |vo| + |ue|
5. Formation of Image by Astronomical Telescope : at infinity Normal
Adjustment Position)

19
Unit V - VI
 Focal length of the objective is much greater than that of the eyepiece.
A perture of the objective is also large to allow more light to pass through
it.
6. Angular magnification or Magnifying power of a telescope.
(a) When final image is formed at infinity (Normal adjustment)

(fo + fe = L is called the length of the telescope in normal adjust-

ment).

(b) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision.

20
Unit V - VI
7.

8.
Limit of resolution and resolving power Compound Microscope

WAVE OPTICS
Wave front :
A wavelet is the point of disturbance due to propagation of light.
A wavefront is the locus of points (wavelets) having the same
phase of oscillations.
A perpendicular to a wavefront in forward direction is called a ray.

21
Unit V - VI
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
Young’s Double Slit Experiment

The waves from S1 and S2 reach the point P with some phase
difference and hence path difference
∆ = S2P – S1P

S2P2 – S1P2 =

(S2P – S1P) (S2P + S1P) = 2 yd S P2 ≈ S P1 ≈ D

∆ (2D) = 2 yd

22
Unit V - VI
 ∆ =
Interference phenomenon
1. Resultant intensity at a point on screen

IR = R (a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cos f)

IR = I1 + I2 + Where I1 =
I2 =

If I1 = I2 = Io, then IR =

2. Imax = If I1 = I2 = I0, Imax = 4I0

Imin =
If I1 = I2 = I0, Imax = 0

=
3.

=
4.

= = 1
5. , w and w2 are widths of two slits

6. Constructive interference

Phase difference, φ = 2nπ Where


Path difference, x = nλ n = 0, 1, 2,
3, .......

Destructive interference 

23
Unit V - VI
 Phase difference φ = (2n + 1)π

Path difference x = 

=

7. Fringe width (dark or bright) β =

Angular width of fringe ∆θ =

Distribution of Intensity

Conditions for Sustained Interference :

1. The two sources must be coherent.
2. The two interfering wave trains must have the same plane of
polarisation.
3. The two sources must be very close to each other and the pattern must be
observed at a large distance to have sufficient width of the fringe λD b
= d Angnlar width a = l/d

4. The sources must be monochromatic. Otherwise, the fringes of different

colours will overlap.
5. The two waves must be having same amplitude for better contrast
between bright and dark fringes.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT AT A SINGLE SLIT

:

24
Unit V - VI
Width of Central Maximum :

y1 =
Since the Central Maximum is spread on either side of O, the width is

Fresnel’s Distance :

y1 =

At Fresnel’s distance, y1 = d and D = DF

So, = d or DF =

KEY POINTS
 Light consists of individual photons whose energies are proportional to their
frequencies.
 A photon is a quantum of electromagnetic energy : Energy of photon

E = hv =

25
Unit V - VI
 Momentum of a photon

Unit VII
=
Dynamic mass of photon

=
=
Rest mass of a photon is zero.
 Photoelectric effect : Photon of incident light energy interacts with a single
electron and if energy of photon is equal to or greater than work function,
the electron is emitted.
 Max. kinetic energy of emitted electron = h(v – v0) Here v0 is the frequency
below which no photoelectron is emitted and is called threshold frequency.
 If ‘V’ is the stopping potential of photoclectron emission, then max.
kinetic energy of photo electron EK = qV

26
Unit V - VI
 Wavelength associated with the charge particle accelerated through a
potential of V volt.

h
λ=
√2 mqV
 Wavelength associated with electron accelerated through a potential
difference
12.27 o
λ= A
√V

 Stopping potential versus frequency graph

vs

v0 v

v0 → thershold frequency
h
slop of the curve gives
e
The intercept on vs axis gives φ i.e. Work function
e e
 A moving body behaves in a certain way as though it has a wave nature
having wavelength,
h h
= p=
λ = 2m E k
where EK is kinetic energy of movign particle 
Einestein’s Photoelectric equation
1 2
2 mvmax = hn – hn0 or

eV0 = hn – hn0

27
Unit VII - VIII
 Unit VIII
ATOMS AND NUCLEI

KEY POINTS
 Gieger-Marsden α-scattering experiment established the existence of
nucleus in an atom.
Bohr’s atomic model
(i) Electrons revolve round the nucleus in certain fixed orbits called
stationary orbits.
(ii) In stationary orbits, the angular momentum of electron is integral
multiple of h/2π.
(iii) While revolving in stationary orbits, electrons do not radiate
energy. The energy is emitted (or absorbed) when electrons jump
from higher to lower energy orbits, (or lower to higher energy
orbits). The frequency of the emitted radiation is given by hv = Ef
– Ei. An atom can absorb radiations of only those frequencies that
it is capable of emitting.
 As a result of the quantisation condition of angular momentum, the electron
orbits the nucleus in circular paths of specific radii. For a hydrogen atom it
is given by

nh22 ε0
rn = = π 2
me
⇒ rn ∝ n 2

The total energy is also quantised : En = – 13.6eV/n =

2

The n = 1 state is called the ground state.

In hydrogen atom, the ground state energy is – 13.6 eV.
 de Broglie’s hypothesis that electron have a wavelength λ = h/mv gave an
explanation for the Bohr’s quantised orbits.
 Neutrons and protons are bound in nucleus by short range strong nuclear
force. Nuclear force does not distinguish between nucleons.

28
Unit VII - VIII
 The nuclear mass ‘M’ is always less than the total mass of its constituents.
The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents is called the mass
defect.
∆M = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – M and
∆Eb = (∆M)c2
The energy ∆Eb represents the binding energy of the nucleus.
For the mass number ranging from A = 30 to 170 the binding energy per
nucleon is nearly constant at about 8MeV per nucleon.
KEY POINTS ELECTRONIC DEVICES

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
1. Solids are classified on the basis of

(i) Electrical conductivity Resistivity Conductivity

Metals ρ(Ωm) σ(Sm–1)

10–2 – 10–8 102 – 108

Semi-conductors 10–5 – 106 10–6 – 105

Insulators 1011 – 1019 10–19 – 10–11

(ii) Energy Bands (a) Metals →

Fig. (a)

29
Unit VII - VIII
 (b) Insulators →

Fig b)
(c) Semiconductors →

Fig c)
2. Types of Semi-conductors

2 Types of semi-conductors
|
| |

Elemental

Compound
Si, Ge |
| |
Inorganic Organic, Anthracene

CdS, GaAS,

Doped Pthalocyamines etc.

30
CdSe, InP etc.
3. In intrinsic semiconductors (Pure Si, Ge) carrier (electrons and
holes) are generated by breaking of bonds within the
semiconductor itself. In extrinsic semiconductors carriers (e
and h) are increased in numbers by ‘doping’.

Unit VII - VIII

4. An intrinsic semiconductor at 0 K temperature behaves
as an insulator.
5. Pentavalent (donor) atom (As, Sb, P etc) when doped to
Si or Ge give n-type and trivalent (acceptor) atom (In,
Ga, Ag, etc) doped with Si or Ge give p-type
semiconductor. In n-type semiconductor electrons are the
majority charge carriers & in p-type holes are the
majority charge carriers.
6. Net charge in p-type or n-type semiconductor remains zero.
7. Diffusion and drift are the two processes that occur during
formation of p-n junction.
8. Diffusion current is due to concentration gradient and drift
current is due to electric field.
9. In depletion region movement of electrons and holes depleted
it of its free charges.
10. p-n Junction is the most important semiconductor device
because of its different behaviours in forward
biasing (as conductor for V > Vb) and reverse biasing (as
insulator for V < VB) a p-n junction can be
used as Rectifier, LED, photodiode, solar cell etc.
Differences between FB and RB junction
diodes :

Forward Bias
Reverse

Lower resistance Higher resistance Bias

31

R → deal diods
0 ideal Depletion
layer is decreased

Depletion layer is increased

Unit VII - VIII

 Current due to majority Current due to minority
charge carrier. charge carrier.
11. In half wave rectifier frequency output pulse is same as that
of input and in full wave rectifier frequency of
output is double of input.
Rectifier p-n junction diode

32

Unit VII - VIII