AWM
3 JUL 09 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
© Jeppesen, 2002, 2009. All Rights Flight Procedures (Doc 8168) -
Reserved. General Principles
Extracted from ICAO Document 8168, Volume I - Fifth Edition — Flight Procedures, PROCEDURES FOR AIR
NAVIGATION SERVICES — AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS, herein known as PANS-OPS.
1 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 GENERAL
1.1.2 Procedures contained in PANS-OPS assume that all engines are operating.
NOTE: Development of contingency procedures is the responsibility of the operator.
1.1.3 All procedures depict tracks. Pilots should attempt to maintain the track by applying corrections to heading for
known wind.
1.2 OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
1.2.1 Obstacle clearance is a primary safety consideration in the development of instrument flight procedures. The
criteria used and the detailed method of calculation are covered in PANS-OPS, Volume II. However, from the
operational point of view it is stressed that the obstacle clearance applied in the development of each instrument
procedure is considered to be the minimum required for an acceptable level of safety in operations.
1.3 AREAS
1.3.1 Where track guidance is provided in the design of a procedure, each segment comprises a specified volume of
airspace, the vertical cross-section of which is an area located symmetrically about the centre line of each segment.
The vertical cross-section of each segment is divided into primary and secondary areas. Full obstacle clearances are
applied over the primary areas reducing to zero at the outer edges of the secondary areas (see Figure I-2-1-2).
1.3.2 On straight segments, the width of the primary area at any given point is equal to one-half of the total width. The
width of each secondary area is equal to one-quarter of the total width.
1.3.4 The minimum obstacle clearance (MOC) is provided for the whole width of the primary area. In the secondary
area, MOC is provided at the inner edges reducing to zero at the outer edges (see Figure I-2-1-2).
Figure I-2-1-2. Relationship of minimum obstacle clearance in primary and secondary areas in
cross-section
1.4 USE OF FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)/AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) EQUIPMENT
1.4.1 Where FMS/RNAV equipment is available, it may be used to fly conventional procedures provided:
a. the procedure is monitored using the basic display normally associated with that procedure; and
b. the tolerances for flight using raw data on the basic display are complied with.
1.4.2 Lead radials
Lead radials are for use by non-RNAV-equipped aircraft and are not intended to restrict the use of turn anticipation by
the FMS.
2 ACCURACY OF FIXES
2.2 FIX FORMED BY INTERSECTION
Because all navigation facilities and waypoints have accuracy limitations, the geographic point which is identified is not
precise but may be anywhere within an area called the fix tolerance area which surrounds its plotted point of
intersection. Figure I-2-2-1 illustrates the intersection of two radials or tracks from different navigation facilities.
2.3 FIX TOLERANCE FACTORS
2.3.1 The dimensions of the fix tolerance area are determined by the system use accuracy of the navigation aid(s) on
which the fix is based, and the distance from the facility.
2.3.2 System use accuracy is based on a root sum square calculation using the following tolerances:
a. ground system tolerance;
b. airborne receiving system tolerance; and
c. flight technical tolerance (FTT).
See Table I-2-2-1 for system use accuracies and Table I-2-2-2 for the tolerances on which these values are based.
2.4 FIX TOLERANCE FOR OTHER TYPES OF NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
2.4.1 Surveillance radar
Radar fix tolerances are based on radar mapping accuracies, azimuth resolution, flight technical tolerance, controller
technical tolerances, and the speed of aircraft in the terminal area. The fix tolerances are listed below:
a. terminal area surveillance radar (TAR) within 37 km (20 NM): fix tolerance is ±1.5 km (0.8 NM); and
b. en-route surveillance radar (RSR) within 74 km (40 NM): fix tolerance is ±3.1 km (1.7 NM).
2.4.2 Distance measuring equipment (DME)
Fix tolerance is ±0.46 km (0.25 NM) + 1.25 per cent of distance to the antenna.
2.4.3 75 MHz marker beacon
Use Figure I-2-2-2 to determine the fix tolerance for instrument landing system (ILS) and “z” markers for use with
instrument approach procedures.
2.4.4 Fix tolerance overheading a station
[Link] Very high frequency omnidirectional radio range (VOR)
Fix tolerance overheading a VOR is based upon a circular cone of ambiguity generated by a straight line passing
through the facility and making an angle of 50° from the vertical, or a lesser angle as determined by flight test. Entry into
the cone is assumed to be achieved within such an accuracy from the prescribed track as to keep the lateral deviation
abeam the VOR:
– d = 0.2 h (d and h in km); or
– d = 0.033 h (d in NM, h in thousands of feet).
For a cone angle of 50°, the accuracy of entry is ±5°. Tracking through the cone is assumed to be within an accuracy of
±5°. Station passage is assumed to be within the limits of the cone of ambiguity. See Figure I-2-2-3 for an illustration of
fix tolerance area.
[Link] Non-directional beacon (NDB)
Fix tolerance overheading an NDB is based upon an inverted cone of ambiguity extending at an angle of 40° either side
of the facility. Entry into the cone is assumed to be achieved within an accuracy of ±15° from the prescribed track.
Tracking through the cone is assumed to be within an accuracy of ±5°.
2.5 AREA SPLAY
2.5.1 The construction of area outer boundaries is derived from the fix tolerance of the facility providing track. This value
is multiplied by a factor of 1.5 to provide a 99.7 per cent probability of containment (3 SD).
2.5.2 The area width at a facility is:
a. 3.7 km (2.0 NM) for VOR; and
b. 4.6 km (2.5 NM) for NDB.
2.5.3 The area splays from the facility at the following angle:
a. 7.8° for VOR; and
b. 10.3° for NDB.
Table I-2-2-1. System use accuracy (2 SD) of facility providing track guidance and facility not providing track
guidance
VOR1 ILS NDB
System use accuracy of facility providing track ±5.2° ±2.4° ±6.9°
System use accuracy of facility NOT providing track ±4.5° ±1.4° ±6.2°
NOTE:
1. The VOR values of ± 5.2° and ± 4.5° may be modified according to the value of a) in Table I-2-2-2, resulting from
flight tests.
Table I-2-2-2. Tolerances on which system use accuracies are based
The values in Table I-2-2-1 are the result of a
combination, on a root sum square basis, of the VOR ILS NDB
following tolerances
a) ground system tolerance ±3.6° ±1°1 ±3°
b) airborne receiving system tolerance ±2.7° ±1° ±5.4°
c) flight technical tolerance2 ±2.5° ±2° ±3°
NOTE:
1. Includes beam bends.
2. Flight technical tolerance is only applied to navigation aids providing track. It is not applied to fix intersecting
navigation aids.
Figure I-2-2-1. Fix tolerance area
Figure I-2-2-2. ILS or “z” marker coverage
NOTE : This figure is based on the use of modern aircraft antenna systems with a receiver sensitivity setting of 1000
V up to 1800 m (5905 ft) above the facility.
Figure I-2-2-3. Fix tolerance area overhead a VOR
NOTE : Example with a cone angle of 50°.
3 TURN AREA CONSTRUCTION
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.2 The turning point (TP) is specified in one of two ways:
a. at a designated facility or fix — the turn is made upon arrival overhead a facility or fix; or
b. at a designated altitude — the turn is made upon reaching the designated altitude unless an additional fix or
distance is specified to limit early turns (departures and missed approach only).
3.2 TURN PARAMETERS
The parameters on which the turn areas are based are shown in Table I-2-3-1. For the specific application of the
parameters in the table, see the applicable chapters in this document.
3.3 PROTECTION AREA FOR TURNS
3.3.1 As with any turning manoeuvre, speed is a controlling factor in determining the aircraft track during the turn. The
outer boundary of the turning area is based on the highest speed of the category for which the procedure is authorized.
The inner boundary caters for the slowest aircraft. The construction of the inner and outer boundaries is described in
more detail below:
– Inner boundary — The inner boundary starts at the earliest TP. It splays outward at an angle of 15º relative to
the nominal track.
– Outer boundary — (See Figure I-2-3-1.) The outer boundary is constructed in the following sequence:
a. it starts at Point A. The parameters that determine Point A are:
1. fix tolerance; and
2. flight technical tolerance
b. then from Point A, there are three methods for constructing the curving portion of the turn outer boundary:
1. by calculating the wind spiral;
2. by drawing bounding circles; and
3. by drawing arcs; and
c. after the curved area is constructed, a straight section begins where the tangent of the area becomes parallel to
the nominal track (Point P). At this point:
1. if there is no track guidance available, the outer boundary splays at 15º; or
2. if track guidance is available after the turn, the turning area may be reduced. The outer edges of the
turning area end where they intersect the area splay of the navaid giving track.
3.3.2 Turn area using wind spiral
[Link] In the wind spiral method, the area is based on a radius of turn calculated for a specific value of true airspeed
(TAS) and bank angle.
[Link] The outer boundary of the turn area is constructed using a spiral derived from the radius of turn. The spiral
results from applying wind effect to the ideal flight path. See Figure I-2-3-3.
Table I-2-3-1 Turn construction parameter summary
FTT (seconds)
Segment or c (seconds)
Speed Bank
fix of turn Altitude/height Wind
(IAS)1 angle2
location Bank Pilot Outbound
establishment reaction timing
time time tolerance
15° until
305 m
Turn at (1000 ft)
Final
altitude/height:
missed 20°
approach Specified between
altitude/height 95%
IAS + 305 m
omnidirectional
10%, see (1000 ft)
Departure Turn at turn wind or 56 3 3 N/A
point: and 915
Table km/h (30 kt)
m (3000
I-4-1-1 or for wind spirals
A/D elevation + ft)
Table height based
on 10% climb 25°
I-4-1-23
from DER above
915 m
(3000 ft)
95%
585 km/h Specified probability
En route 15° 5 10 N/A
(315 kt) altitude wind or ICAO
standard wind4
Tables
I-6-1-1 Specified ICAO standard
Holding 23° N/A 5 N/A
and altitude wind4
I-6-1-21
Initial
approach Table
ICAO standard
–reversal I-4-1-1 or Specified
wind4 or 25° 5 0–6 10
and Table altitude
statistical wind
racetrack I-4-1-2
procedures
CAT A,
B: 165 to
335 km/h
(90 to CAT A, B: 1500
ICAO standard
Initial 180 kt) m (5000 ft)
approach – wind4
CAT C, CAT C, D, E: 25° 5 0–6 N/A
DR track
DR leg: 56
procedures D, E: 335 3000 m (10000
km/h (30 kt)
to 465 ft)
km/h
(180 to
250 kt)
See
Tables
I-4-1-1
and
I-4-1-2
Use
initial
approach 95%
speed for Specified omnidirectional
IAF, IF, FAF 25° 3 3 N/A
turn at altitude wind or 56
IAF or IF km/h (30 kt)
Use
maximum
final
approach
speed for
turn at
FAF
Table
I-4-1-1 or
Missed A/D elevation +
56 km/h (30 kt) 15° 3 3 N/A
approach Table 300 m (1000 ft)
I-4-1-23
Visual See
manoeuvring Tables
A/D elevation +
using I-4-1-1 46 km/h (25 kt) 25° N/A N/A N/A
300 m (1000 ft)
prescribed and
track I-4-1-2
See
Tables
A/D elevation +
Circling I-4-1-1 46 km/h (25 kt) 20° N/A N/A N/A
300 m (1000 ft)
and
I-4-1-2
GENERAL NOTES:
1. For the specific application of the parameters in the table, see the applicable chapters in this document.
2. The rate of turn associated with the stated bank angle values In this table shall not be greater than 3°/s.
NOTE 1: Where operationally required to avoid obstacles, reduced speeds as slow as the IAS for intermediate missed approach may be
used. In this case, the procedure is annotated “Missed approach turn limited to ___ km/h (kt) IAS maximum”.
NOTE 2: The conversion from IAS to TAS is determined using a temperature equal to ISA at the corresponding altitude plus 15°C.
Holding procedures are an exception: the calculation formula appears in PANS-OPS, Volume II, Part II, Section 4, Chapter 1, Appendix
A, paragraph 6.
NOTE 3: Where operationally required to avoid obstacles, reduced speeds as slow as the IAS tabulated for “intermediate missed
approach” in Tables I-4-1-1 and I-4-1-2 increase by 10 per cent may be used. In this case, the procedure is annotated “Departure turn
limited to ___ km/h (kt) IAS maximum”.
NOTE 4: ICAO standard wind = 12 h + 87 km/h (h in 1000 m): 2h + 47 kt (h in 1000 ft)
Figure I-2-3-1. Start of construction of outer boundary
Figure I-2-3-3. Wind spiral
