NETWORKS

Lesson:
1ST TRIMESTER | S.Y. 2024-2025
TRANSCRIBED BY: JDC​
PROFESSOR: ​ ​ EMAIL:

Outline
●​
○​
Source encoder​
○​
Information source is analog
●​ Transmission medium is digital

CODEC coder and decoder

Main Topic VECODER voice coder

SNIR signal-to-noise plus

interference rate
Subtopic
BER bit error rate

MODEM modulator
Sub subtopic hahaha demodulator

ADSL asynchronous digital

Important words from professor's discussion subscriber line / cable
(italicized) modem

Simple format lang ginagamit ko para hindi LAN/s local area network/s

nakakatamad. BTW, naka A4 ito.

MAN/s Metropolitan area
network/s
Note: Kumuha lang din ako dati ng inspo from
tiktok sa paggawa nito. WAN/s Wide area netwrok/s

Gbps gigabits per second

SDH synchronous digital

You can change the color per subject
hierarchy

PABX private automatic

branch exchange

QoS quality of service

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 OFDM Orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing
OSI-RM Open system
interconnection ATM Asynchronous transfer
reference model mode

TCP/IP stack Transmission control

protocol

IP Internet protocol

PAR Positive
acknowledgement Signals are transmitted not data
with retransmission

NAK Negative 1.1.3 Transmission Mediums

acknowledgement Examples of cable transmission mediums
-twisted pair cables
ACK Acknowledgement -coaxial cable
-multimode optical fiber
UDP User datagram
protocol -single mode optical fiber

NIC Network interface 1.1.4 Synchronous and Asynchronous

cards Communication Systems
-ability and inability to have information about the
ASCII American Standard
start and end of bit instants
Code for Information
Interchange
1.1.5 Simplex and Duplex Communications
VTC video teleconference n
1.1.6 Communications and Networks
RT Real time
1.1.7 Switching Modes
RTP Real time protocol There are different types of packet-switching
protocols
NRT Non Real Time
-Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
DECT Digital european -IP
cordless telephone -Frame relay
-X.25
UMTS Universal mobile
telecommunication
1.1.8 Connection Modes
system
Depending on the end-to-end service provided,
LTE Long term evolution the connection modes through networks can be of
two types:
MPEG Moving piccture Connectionless and Connection Oriented
experts group

ARQ Automatic repeat

request
1.1.9 Network Coverage Areas
ISI Intersymbol Packet-switching networks may also be classified
interference as a function of the coverage area. Three
important areas of coverage exists:

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(LANs) local area networks, (MANs) nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
metropolitan area networks, (WANs) wide area broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub
networks can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active
hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or
RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
1.1.10 Network Topologies protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection),
The network topology stands for the organization CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
of devices within a network. Tree Topology
The topology concept is applicable to a LAN, Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology.
MAN, or WAN. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In
LAN-such topology refers to the way hosts and Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC
servers are linked together. (Standard Automatic Configuration) are used.
In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are
While MAN and WAN, refers to the way nodes
connected to the central hub which contains the
(routers) are linked together. repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e.
Bus Topology from the central hub to the secondary and then to
Bus Topology is a network type in which every the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to
computer and network device is connected to a the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
connection and a non-robust topology because if topology because if the backbone fails the
the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus topology crashes.
Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN ethernet Bus Topology
connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Ring Topology
Slotted Aloha, etc. Star Topology
Ring Topology Tree Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting Mesh Topology
devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A Hybrid Topology
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology
with a large number of nodes, because if
Two different types of Topology:
someone wants to send some data to the last
node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the -Physical Topology
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach Refers to the real cabling distribution along the
the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss network.
repeaters are used in the network. -Logical Topology
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is Stands for the way the data is exchanged in the
unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
network.
having 2 connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is
used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Star Topology 1.1.11 Classification of Media and Traffic

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to Different media can be split into three groups
a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to
Text
the central node. The hub can be passive in

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-plaintext
-hypertext RT continuous delay-tolerant traffic can
-ciphered text accommodate a certain level of delay in signals,
Visuals without sudden performance degradation. Such
-images tolerance to delays results from the use of a
-cartography buffer, which stores in memory the difference
-videos between the received data and played data.
-videoteleconference(VTC)
-graphs In case the transfer of data is suddenly delayed,
Sounds​ the buffer accommodates such delay, and the
-music media presented to the user does not translate
-speech such delay introduced by the network.

While the text is inherently digital data (mostly The video streaming is an example of a
represented using a string of 7-bit ASCII delay-tolerant media.
characters) the visuals and sounds are typically The performance of delay-intolerant traffic
analog signals, which need to be digitized first to degrades heavily when the data transfer is
allow its transmission through a digital network, subject to delays (or variation of delays)
such as an IP based network.

Multimedia is simply a mixture of different types

of media, such as speech, music, images, text, 1.2.1 The Convergence
graphs, videos, and so on. The main objective of the telecommunications
industry is to create conditions to make
When media sources are exchanged through a convergence a reality, it can be viewed in different
network, it is generically referred to as traffic. ways.
Traffic can be considered real time (RT) or
nonreal time (NRT) It can be viewed as the convergence of services
that is the creation of a network able to support
RT Traffic can also be classified as continuous or different types of service, such as voice, data
discrete. Continuous RT Traffic consists of a (email, web browsing, database access, and file
stream of elementary messages with transfer) and multimedia in an almost transparent
interdependence. ​ way to the user.
Continuous RT Traffic - Telephony
Discrete RT Traffic - Chat The convergence can also be viewed as the
integration of different networks in a single one, in
Continuous RT Traffic can be classified as delay a transparent way to the user.
tolerant or delay-intolerant
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 Pure data communications ( database access,
file transfer) are highly sensitive to loss of data,
1.2.2 Collaborative Era of the Network requiring relatively variable data rate, without
Applications sensitivity to delay.​

The new approach consists of the use of the Jitter is defined as the delay variation through the
network as an enabler to allow sharing of network. Depending on the application, jitter can
knowledge. be a problem or jitter issues can be disregarded.
It consists of the ability to provided the right Types of error control: the error detection and
information to the right person at the right time error correction. Their difference in terms of the
-high level of interactivity is required to be made amount of redundant bits (N>M)
available to each internet user:
In parallel, business intelligence are important
platforms that allow decision makers to receive
the filtered information required for the decision to Signals can be for example a set of predefined
be made at the correct moment. voltages, which represents bits used in
transmission.

In linear units, the SNIR is mathematically given

1.2.3 Transition Toward the Collaborative Era by
𝑆
𝑆𝑁𝐼𝑅 = 𝑁+𝐼
To reach the demands of modern society, in terms
Where S stands for the power of signal
of both convergence and collaborative services,
N expresses the power of noise
several problems need to be addressed from the
I the power of interferences
scientific and industrial community.
-Convergence can be viewed as an important
For the sake of simplicity the SNIR is normally
requirement to support collaborative services.
referred to as only SNR (signal-to-noise ratio),
​ ​
but where the interference is also taken into
Voice communications are delay sensitive, but
account (in this case N stands for the power of
present low sensitivity to loss of data and require
noise and interferences) Furthermore both
low data rate but are approximately constant.
SNIR or SNR are normally expressed in

Iterative multimedia communications (web

𝑆𝑁𝐼𝑅𝑑𝑏 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑆
𝑁+𝐼

browsing) are sensitive to loss of data, requiring Logarithmic units as

considerable data rate with a variable With logic states 0 or 1.

transmission rate and are moderately

delay-sensitive.

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NETWORK PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURES The problem of interconnecting terminals in a
network is a complex task. The approach of
trying to solve all problems without
OSI-RM Open system
interconnection-refere segmentation of functions in groups becomes
nce model
an equation with a very difficult solution.
PDU Protocol data unit Therefore, the traditional solution is to group

SDU Service data unit fuctionalirties into different layers and allocate
each group to a different layer. This is called
PCI Protocol control
information network protocol architecture, also known as
network architecture.
LLC Logical link control

MAC Medium access

control There are different network architectures. Layers
can also be identified by number, starting from the
CRC Cyclic redundancy
checks lower layer (physical layer-layer 1) and up to the
upper layer (application layer-layer 7).

This seven layer architecture model defines and

describes a group of concepts applicable to
communication between real systems composed
of hardware, physical processes, application
processes and human users.

This architecture can be split into two groups: the

four lower layers (from the physical up to the
transport layer) which are responsible for
assuring a reliable communication of data
between terminal equipments

And the three upper layers ( from the session

up to the application ) with a higher level of
logical abstraction, interfacing with the user
application.

Note that the OSI-RM is only a reference model,

2.1 Introduction To Protocol Architecture
and the systems implemented use more or less
Concept
parts of this model.

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Therefore we may view the transmission control information (PCI) corresponds to the overhead
protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) stack, in the generated in the nth layer, which may include
use in the internet world, as the most used real fields such as source and destination addresses,
implementation closer to the OSI-RM redundant bits for error detection or correction,
acknowledgement numbers for error control and
flow control and so on.

LAYERS OF THE OPEN SYSTEM

INTERCONNECTION REFERENCE MODEL 2.2.1 The Seven Layer Open System
Interconnection-Reference Model

APPLICATION LAYER LAYER 7

Synchronization issues are also dealt with by this
PRESENTATION LAYER LAYER 6
layer. This includes the ability of a receiver to
SESSION LAYER LAYER 5 synchronize with a transmitter (start and end of bit
TRANSPORT LAYER LAYER 4 instants) before bits are transferred.

NETWORK LAYER LAYER 3

2.2.1.2 Data Link Layer This layer is responsible
DATA LINK LAYER LAYER 2
for providing reliability to the data exchanged by
PHYSICAL LAYER LAYER 1 the physical layer. Note that the data link layer
(and the physical layer) focuses on the
point-to-point exchange of data.

2.2 Open System Interconnection-Reference

The data link layer is composed of two sublayers.
Model

APPLICATION LAYER LAYER 7 APDU

-Logical link control (LLC), which deals with
PRESENTATION LAYER 6 TPDU flow control and error control.
LAYER

SESSION LAYER LAYER 5 SPDU -Medium access control (MAC) which

TRANSPORT LAYER LAYER 4 TPDU determines when a station is allowed to transmit

NETWORK LAYER LAYER 3 NPDU/packet within a LAN.

DATA LINK LAYER LAYER 2 LPDU/frame

Note that this sublayer exists only in a case of a
PHYSICAL LAYER LAYER 1 BIT LAN (and some types of metropolitan area

The nth layer service data unit (SDU), network). When stations share the transmission

corresponds to n + 1- PDU received from the medium in a LAN, it is said that the access

upper layer, being encapsulated into the n - PDU. method is with collisions (Ethernet). In this case,

Moreover, the nth layer protocol control the MAC sublayer is responsible for defining
when a station is allowed to transmit in such a
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way that collisions among transmissions from is added. These blocks of bits, with a specific
different stations are avoided ( which originates format depending on the sublayer protocols, are
errors). On the other side, when stations of a LAN previously mentioned LPDU, commonly known
do not share the transmission medium, it is said as frame.
that the method is without collisions (token ring).​
​ Each different type of transportation has its own
The exchange of bits performed by the physical protocol. Similarly, the end-to-end path is
layer is subject to noise, interferences, distortions, composed of a concatenation of links (data link
and so on. All these channel impairments may layer.) Each link may have a different
originate corrupted bits, which degrades the transmission medium and different data link layer
performance. protocol running over it.

The data link layer makes use of error control Note that the data link layer also includes the
techniques to keep the errors at an acceptable interchange of data between hosts within the
level. same LAN. This interconnection of hosts within in
a LAN is achieved using a hub (repeater of bits),
Depending on the medium that is being used to a switch or a bridge. Their function is to allow the
exchange data, error control can be performed distribution of data within a LAN. These devices
using either error detection or error correction are defined later in this book.
techniques.
It is worth referring that another important
In the case of error detection, codes such as functionality of the data link layer is flow control.
cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) or parity bits are Normally, the transmitter can transmit faster than
used to allow errors being detected at the the receiver is able to receive.
receiver side, and the receiver may request the
retransmission of the frame. To avoid the loss of bits the receiver needs to
send feedback (control data) to the transmitter
However, if the medium is highly subject to noise about whether it is ready to receive more frames.
and interferences (wireless medium), the choice This is achieved through flow control. The flow
is normally the use of error correction. control protocol can be associated to the error
control protocol as follow.
In this latter case, the level of overhead per frame
is higher, but it avoids successive repetitions,
which also translates in a decrease of overhead.
Note that, in both cases, the data link layer
handles blocks of bits to which corresponding
overhead (redundant bits to allow error detection
or error correction, as well as this layer address)
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 ●​ Structure: Central conductor, insulating
layer, metallic shield.
Primer: Transmission Media ●​ Applications: Cable TV, CCTV, TV
transmission
Lesson Objectives
●​ Define transmission media and Fiber Optic Cable:
understand its role in multimedia ●​ Structure: Glass or plastic fibers
communications. transmitting data as light pulses.
●​ Distinguish between guided (wired) and ●​ Applications: High-speed network
unguided (wireless) transmission media. backbones, longdistance communication.
●​ Describe the characteristics, advantages,
and limitations of various transmission
media
●​ Explain the applications of each type of Types of Transmission Media: Unguided
transmission medium in multimedia (Wireless)
networking. Radio Waves:
Introduction to Transmission Media ●​ Applications: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, radio.
●​ Pros: Wide coverage, does not require
Definition: Transmission media are the physical line-of-sight.
pathways that connect computers, devices, and Microwaves:
people on a network. ●​ Applications: Satellite communication,
cellular networks.
Role in Networking: Media carry signals from one ●​ Pros: Higher frequency, more data.
device to another, impacting the quality and Infrared:
speed of multimedia content transmission (e.g., ●​ Applications: Remote controls, shortrange
streaming, video conferencing). communication.
●​ Pros: Secure, short-range.

Types of Transmission Media: Guided (Wired)

Twisted Pair Cable: Characteristics and Comparative Analysis:

●​ Structure: Pairs of insulated copper wires Factors
twisted together.
●​ UTP (Unshielded) and STP (Shielded). • Bandwidth: Capacity to carry data, crucial for
●​ Applications: Ethernet networks for multimedia.
multimedia content, telephone systems • Interference: Impact on media and multimedia
Coaxial Cable: quality.
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• Cost: Installation and maintenance. ●​ Ex. twisted pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optical cable
• Distance: Suitability for different applications.
●​ Physically seen and tangible medium for
Practical Applications in Multimedia media transmission
Communications: Use Cases ●​ Usually limited by physical geography
●​ Differentiated by physical appearance and
transmission speed
• Streaming Services: Fiber optic for high-speed
transmission in data centers. Transmission Media: Wireless Media
• Wireless Networks: Wi-Fi for flexible
●​ Uses electromagnetic waves like radio waves
multimedia content access. to transmit signals
• Mobile Streaming: Cellular networks for ●​ Not limited by physical geography
●​ Classifications: terrestrial microwave
on-the-go consumption.
transmission, cellular radio transmission,
• Campus Networks: Ethernet (UTP) for local infrared transmission, satellite transmission,
area networks. personal communication systems, pagers,
and multichannel multipoint distribution
service (White, 2015)
Something to Ponder
What type of transmission media would be most Conducted Media: Twisted Pair Cables

suitable for a high-traffic multimedia lab, and ●​ The two pairs of conductors of a single circuit
why? are wound around each other
●​ These are twisted in a double helix
●​ Stallings, 2007

Unit 2: Data Communications

Module 3: Transmission Media

Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

●​ Define what is a transmission media;

Conducted Media: Twisted Pair Cables
●​ Discuss what are the different kinds of
transmission media; and
●​ Purpose: to create a more electromagnetic
●​ Explain the applications of the different types
compatibility (reduction in electromagnetic
of transmission media
field around the two wires as data is
transmitted)
Transmission Media (Kuzmiakova, 2021)
●​ Twisting reduces crosstalk with other pairs of
●​ Also known as communication channel conductors
●​ This is the path that facilitates the transfer of ●​ Crosstalk: mixing of signals sent by a given
information from a sender to a receiver pair
●​ Can be (a) unshielded or (b) shielded
Transmission Media: Guided/Conducted Media
Conducted Media: Unshielded Twisted Pair
●​ Uses cables to facilitate the transmission of
signals

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 ●​ Easy to handle and install
●​ It allows easy linking of cables
●​ Transmission is less interrupted because of
the twisting nature
●​ Minimizes crosstalk

●​ No shield to protect it from electromagnetic

interference or electric noise Conducted Media: Twisted Pair Disadvantages
●​ Consists of copper wires and insulator like
●​ Low transmission data rates
polythene
●​ Sensitivity to electromagnetic interference and
●​ Usually used in Ethernet networks and
eavesdropping
telephone systems (particularly indoor
●​ Imbalance as there are chances that the
telephone applications)
currents in the twisted cables are not the
Conducted Media: Unshielded Twisted Pair same

●​ Recently used for short and medium length Conducted Media: Coaxial Cables
network connections
●​ Bandwidth has increased over the years and
can transmit larger amount of signals
●​ Cheaper compared to other conducted media

Conducted Media: Shielded Twisted Pair

●​ Electric cable with an inner conductor

surrounded by a tubular layer of an insulator
●​ Dielectric insulator is surrounded with a
tubular coating shield usually made of woven
copper
●​ Some have an outer insulating layer called a
●​ Have a braided shield wound with the wires plastic jacket
●​ Braided shielding protects the wires from ●​ Coaxial cables can be:
environmental noise ○​ Thin coaxial cable (thinnet) - contains
●​ An electrically conductive barrier that only one dielectric insulator
attenuates the electromagnetic waves is ○​ Thick coaxial cable (thicknet) -
created contains two dielectric insulators
around the core
Conducted Media: Twisted Pair Advantages ●​ Coaxial cables have good transmission rates
because of the good shielding of the cables
●​ Readily available in stores ●​ Can transfer both analog and digital signals
●​ Sold in different lengths and sizes ●​ Cables are less susceptible to
●​ Cheapest electromagnetic interference or crosstalk
●​ Can carry a higher bandwidth of signals ●​ Uses light emitting diode during transmission
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 ●​ Bandwidth ranges from 400 to 600 MHZ and
travels typically at the speed of 10 Mbps
●​ Most of the cables experience high
attenuation rates and require repeaters to
reduce the cases of attenuation
●​ Cabling is uniform and the length of the cable
corresponds to the wavelength of the signals

Conducted Media: Coaxial Cable Applications

●​ Used in transmission lines

●​ Used in radio - connects receiver to the radio
transmitter
●​ Used in computer networks - ethernet
connections
●​ Used in television transmission signals

Conducted Media: Coaxial Cable Types

●​ Hardline - used in broadcasting and radio

communication. Usually thick (half an inch to
13mm).
●​ Radiating cable (leaky cable) - similar to
hardline but has tuned slots that cut into the
shield. These slots are tuned to a specific
radio frequency.
●​ Triaxial cable (triax) - has three layers of
shielding, sheathing, and insulation with the
outer layer protecting the cable from
environmental interference.

Conducted Media: Coaxial Cable Advantages

●​ Cheap - readily available, installation is also

cheap
●​ Easy to improve attenuation
●​ Less susceptible to radio interference in
comparison to twisted pair
●​ Have higher bandwidth transmission signal
compared to the twisted pair

Conducted Media: Coaxial Cable Disadvantages

●​ Bulky - thick and have more weight, harder to

move from one point to another
●​ Installation over long distances is expensive
because of its thickness and stiffness

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