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com Class : X (CBSE )

CONTENSTS
PART – I
S.No. Topics Page No.
1. Nutrition 1 - 18
2. Transportation & Excretion 19 - 15
3. Respiration 36 - 48
4. Control and Co-ordination 49 – 66

NUTRITION 

1.1 NUTRITION :
“Nutrition” is a process of intake as well as utilization of nutrients by an organism. It is the process of
breakdown of nutrients into smaller molecules and their absorption. Food provides us nutrition and
energy. It contains different types of nutrients in varying amounts according to the need of our body.
1.1 (a) Nutrients :
These are the substances required by our body for its growth, repair, work and maintenance of the body.
Different types of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, mineral etc. Our daily energy need
may vary according to our occupation, age, sex and under some specific conditions.
1.2 MODES OR NUTRITION :
There are several modes of nutrition on the basis of which organisms are classified as follows :
Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic
- They are able to synthesize - They are not able to synthesize
their own food. their own food.
1.2 (a) Autotrophic :
(Auto = self, trophic = food) It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food.
Inorganic molecules like CO2 and H2O are converted into organic molecules like carbohydrates in the

presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. e.g. Green plants. Autotrophs are further categorized. as :
(i) Photoautotroph : Those which utilize sunlight for preparing their food
(ii) Chemoautotroph : Those which utilize chemical energy for preparing their food.
1.2 (b) Heterotrophic :(Hetero = different ; trophic = food) It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms
derive their food fro some other animals or plants. They cannot prepare their own food e.g. human being.
Heterotrophs are further categorized depending on the nature of food they consume :
(i) Herbivores : Animals which eat only plants, e.g. Cow, goat etc.
(ii) Carnivores : They feed on flesh of other animals, e.g. Lion, vulture etc.
(iii) Omnivores : T hey feed on plants and animals both e.g. Dog, human etc.
(iv) Detritivores : Feed on detritus or dead organic remains, e.g. Earthworm etc.

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 (v) Sanguivorous : Feed on blood e.g. Leech, female mosquito etc.
(vi) Frugivorous : Feed on fruits, e.g. Parrot etc.
(vii) Insectivores : Feed on insects, e.g. Bats etc.

1.2 (c) On the Basis of Mode of Feeding Organisms are Categorised As :

(i) Holozoic : They ingest mostly solid but sometimes liquid food. e.g., Amoeba, human etc.
(ii) Saprotrophic : they absorb organic matter from dead and decaying organisms with the help of their
enzymes. e.g., Bacteria, fungi etc.
(iii) Parasitic : They derive their nutrition from other living plants or animals e.g. Plasmodium round
worms etc.
Nutrition can be divided into two
categories on the basis of occurrence

Nutrition in plants Nutrition in animals

1.3 Nutrition in Plants:
• Plants are autotrophic in nature. They prepare their own food hence they are called as producers.
• They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which can entrap solar energy which is then
converted into chemical energy in the form of food and the process is called as “Photosynthesis”.
1.3 (a) Photosynthesis :
(i) Definition : The synthesis of organic compounds like glucose from simple inorganic molecules like CO2
and H2O by the cells of green plants having chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight is called as

photosynthesis.
(ii) Equitation of photosynthesis : Photosynthesis is a two step process.
Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O    → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chlorophyll

(A) Light reaction : AT, NADPH2 and O2 are produced.

(B) Dark reaction : CO2 & H2O are converted into glucose.

• Photosynthesis essentially requires two things :

1.3 (b) Sunlight :
• For plants sun the basis source of radiant energy.
• Plants utilize the light in the visible region of solar spectra (electromagnetic spectrum) which comes
under the range of 390 nm - 780 nm.
• Visible region consists of white light which is a mixture of 7 lights of different wavelengths.

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 380 nm 760 nm

• Maximum photosynthesis occurs in red region.

• There is minimum photosynthesis in green region because green parts of plants reflect whole of the
green light.
1.3 (c) Chlorophyll :
These are the green pigments present in chloroplast. They are found in green leaves in a maximum amount
as well as in other green aerial parts of plant. There are six different types of chlorophyll, they are
chlorophyll a,b,c,d,e and bacteriochlorophyll, amongst them chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are the most
commonly occurring chlorophylls.
• Besides chlorophyll certain other pigments are also present in plants like.
(i) Carotenes : Orange in colour e.g. Carrot.
(ii) Xanthophylls : Orange yellow in colour e.g. Maize.
(iii) Phycobilins : Different colour like red, violet e.g. Blue-green algae, brown algae etc.
1.3(d) Raw Materials of Photosynthesis :
(i) Carbondioxide : Terrestrial plants obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the small
openings present on leaves called as stomata. ‘Stomata’ are the small pores present on the surface of leaves.
They help in exchange of gases and water. Stomata opening is guarded by the presence of guard cells
(kidney shaped). Aquatic plants obtain CO2 dissolved in water through their general body surface so they

perform more photosynthesis than terrestrial plants.

(ii) Water : Plants absorb water from the soil by the process of osmosis. This water is transported to leaves
by a special type of tissue called as xylem.
• Plants utilize carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, the intensity of light at which amount of CO2 used
during photosynthesis becomes equal to the amount of CO2 released during respiration by plants in called

as Compensation point.
• Compensation point occurs at low light intensity that is during morning and during evening hours.
1.3 (e) Site Photosynthesis :
Site of photosynthesis is different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

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 • In prokaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in lamellar chromatophores.
• In eukaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast.
• Exception : Fungi ( It lacks chlorophyll so no photosynthesis occurs here).
• In higher plants chloroplast in the main site of photosynthesis.
• Chloroplast is also called as green plastid.
• Plastid was first observed by Haeckel.
• Plastids are of 3 different types on the basis of pigments present in them.
(i) Leucoplast : White in colour, found in underground parts, lacks and coloured pigment. Helps in storage
of protein (Aleuroplst), oil (Elaioplast), starch (Amyloplst)
(ii) Chloroplast : Colour other than green found in aerial parts on the plants
(iii) Chloroplast : Contain green pigment, called as chlorophyll.
• Chloroplast was discovered by Schimper.
• Number of chloroplasts is variable in different species of plants.
• In lower plants like algae they are 1 or 2 number.
• In higher plants their number varies from 40 -100 per palisade cell or more.
• Chloroplast also have variable shapes, for example cup shaped, ribbon shaped etc. in algae while it is
discoidal in higher plants.

• A typical structure of chloroplast is a double membranous structure having two parts.

(i) Grana : It is a lamellar system consisting of stacks of granum lamella each bounded by a membranous
box called as thylakoid. They are 40 - 60 per cell. Number of thylakoids per grana is 50 or more Chlorophyll
molecules are found inside the thylakoid membrane where they trap solar energy in the form of small
energy packets called ‘photon’ or ‘quanta’. Grana are interconnected to each other by a channel called as
stroma lamellae or Fret’s channel.
(ii) Stroma : It is a non pigmented proteinaceous matrix in which grana remain embedded. It contain
enzymes for dark reaction.

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1.3 (f) Mechanism of Photosynthesis :
(i) Light reaction :
• It is also called as photochemical process.
• It was discovered by → ‘Robert Hill’ therefore it is also called as Hill’s reaction/
•Site : Grana of chloroplast.
• Raw materials : Light and water.
• Regulation : This process is regulated by chlorophyll molecules.
• It consist of 3 steps :
(A) Photo excitation of chlorophyll molecule : During this process chlorophyll molecule receives sunlight
in the form of small energy bundles called as photons and become excited to higher energy level.

(B) Photolysis : It is also called as photoxidation of water, this takes place in presence of Mn+2 and Cl- ions.

→ 4H + + O 2 + 4e −
2H2 O 

O2 is liberated as by product and H+ ions are used for reduction of NADP

2NADP + 4H+ 
→ 2NADPH2

(C) Photophosphorylation : During this process ATP are produced. It takes place in quantasomes.

Mg+2 ions and inorganic phosphate is required to convert ADP 

→ ATP, ADP + iP 
→ ATP.
(ii) Dark reaction :
• It is also called as thermo chemical reaction.
• It was discovered by Melvin calving and benson therefore it is also called as Calving cycle Site = Stroma
of chloroplast.
• Raw materials : They require CO2, NADPH2, ATP and Enzymes.

• Regulated by : Light reaction and enzymes.

• It involves three basic steps :
(A) Carboxylation : In this step CO2 is captured by CO2 acceptors like RUBP (C3 Plants) PET (C4Plants)

with the help of carboxylase enzyme i.e. RUBISCO & PEPCO respectively.
(B) Synthesis : This phase cap true CO2 is assimilated into glucose in the presence of phosphatase and

isomerease enzymes and RUBP is regenerated back.

(C) Regeneration of RUBP

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1.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS :

1.4 (a) Light ;

Normally plants utilize sunlight but marine algae can perform photosynthesis even in the moon light.
Plants can also perform photosynthesis in the artificial lights.
• Highest rate of photosynthesis : Red light
• Minimum photosynthesis : Green light
• Very high light intensity can cause reduction in the rate of photosynthesis by causing
(i) Decrease in transpiration rate
(ii) Denaturation of chlorophyll molecule

1.4 (b) Temperature :

Optimum range = 250 C to 300 C
It ranges from 100 - 400 C
In some forms like algae of hot spring → 600 - 700 is normal

1.4 (c) Carbon dioxide :

It is the first limiting factor 0.03 - 0.1% is present in the atmosphere concentration of CO2 ∝ rate of

photosynthesis.
1
above 0.9% ∝
Rate
between 0.1 to 0.9%, it is constant and it is called as saturation point.

1.4 (d) Oxygen :

O2 acts as competitive inhibitor of CO2. Over concentration of O2 stops photosynthesis.

1.4 (e) Chlorophyll :

Chlorophyll content is directly proportional to rate of photosynthesis. No photosynthesis occurs in etiolated
cells, In variegated leaves it occurs only at places where chlorophyll is present.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS :

Photosynthesis is a boon to the nature and to the human beings. It has following significance :
(i) Production of food material
(ii) Atmospheric control and purification of air.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBMES # 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTION

1. The raw materials for photosynthesis are

(A) CO2 & O21 (B) sunlight and CO2 (C) water and chlorophyll (D) CO2 and water.

2. Most of the photosynthesis (80%) which takes place on this earth is carried out by

(A) green plants on land (B) algae present in fresh water

(C) algae found in ocean (D) algae present in ocean and fresh water sources.

3. Which of the following ahs no digestive enzyme ?

(A) Saliva (B) Bile (C) Gastric juice (D) Intestinal juice

4. Plants are green in colour because

(A) they absorb green light only (B) they reflect green light

(C) they absorb green light but reflect all other lights (D) none of the above are correct.

5. Full name of N ADP is

(A) Nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate (B) Nicotine adenine dinuceotide phosphate

(C) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (D) None of the above

6. Wavelength of visible light is

(A) 200 - 400 nm (B) 400 - 700 nm (C) 700 - 900 nm (D) 100 - 200 nm

7. The presence of sugar in onion leaves can be tested with

(A) iodine (B) copper sulphate solution

(C) lime water (D) benedict’s solution

8. Chemical reaction takes place during dark reaction of photosynthesis is

(A) photolysis (B) hydrolysis

(C) carbon dioxide is bonded with RUBP (D) nitrogen fixation

9. Dark reaction and light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in

(A) stroma and grana of chloroplast respectively (B) grana and stroma of chloroplast respectively

(C) grana only (D) stroma only

10. CO2 acceptor during dark reaction of photosynthesis is

(A) RUBP (B) PEP (C) NADPH (D) ATP

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SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Define photosynthesis ?
2. Name the different modes of nutrition and classify them with one example of each ?
3. Name the site of light and dark reaction of photosynthesis ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

4. Explain how water and temperature influence the rate of photosynthesis ?
5. Describe the structure and role of chloroplast along with a well labelled diagram ?
6. Describe the mechanism of photosynthesis ?
7. Explain the process of ‘Photosynthesis’ in plants. List four factor which influence this process and describe
how each of them affects the rate of the photosynthesis. [Delhi, 2005]
8. Explain the following aspects of photosynthesis in plants :
(i) The role of chlorophyll
(ii) Dark reaction
(iii) Calvin - Benson Cycle.

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NUTRITION

BL - 2
2.1 NUTRITION IN ANIMALS :
• Animals have highly evolved digestive mechanism that includes two basic components :
• Alimentary canal : Long, hollow, tubular structure consisting of various organs for digestion.
• Digestive glands : They secrete enzymes/hormones which help in digestion.
• Digestion in animals consist of following steps :
• Ingestion : The process of intake of food.
• Digestion : It is the breakdown of large and complex molecules into simpler, smaller
and soluble forms.
• Absorption : Taking up of the digested food through intestinal wall to blood.
• Assimilation : In this process absorbed food in taken by body cells.
• Egestion : The process by which undigested matter is expelled out.
• Digestive system is regulated by various hormones secreted by some endocrine glands.
• Alimentary canal was first of all developed in the phylum Platyelminthes but only mouth was present
in them.
• Coiled and well developed alimentary canal was developed in annelida till mammals.

2.2 NUTRITION IN LOWER ANIMALS :

2.2 (a) Nutrition in Amoeba :
It is a unicellular organism living in water.
• Mode of nutrition of holozoic.
• The process of obtaining food is the phagocytosis (cell eating)
• Steps involved in digestion of amoeba are :
(i) Ingestion : Since it is unicellular so a single cell is responsible for carrying out all the vital activities.
Food is ingested with the help of pseudopodia. Animal engulfs the food particle lying near it by forming
pseudopodia around it and forming a food vacuole while is considered at its temporary stomach.

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 (ii) Digestion : The enzymes from surrounding cytoplasm enter the food vacuole and break down the food
into smaller & soluble forms.
(iii) Absorption : The digested food is now absorbed by cytoplasm by simple diffusion and then the food
vacuole disappear.
(iv) Assimilation : The food absorbed in amoeba is used to obtain energy from respiration, for its growth
and reproduction.
(v) Egestion : Undigested food is thrown out of the cell.

2.2 (b) Nutrition is Grasshopper :

• It has a well developed digestive system having an alimentary canal and digestive glands.
• The various organs of digestive system of grasshopper are
Mouth → Oesophagus → Crop → Gizzard → Stomach → Ileum → Colon → Rectum.
• Glands associated with it are :
(i) Salivary glands (ii) Hepatic caeca
• Digestive system of a grasshopper can be divided into three parts.
(i) Foregut : mouth to gizzard
(ii) Midgut : gizzard to ileum (actual stomach)
(iii) Hindgut : stomach to anus.

• The process involves:

(i) Ingestion : If feeds on green leaves so it takes food through its mouth with the help of it’s forelegs and
mouth parts.

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(ii) Digestion:
(A) It starts from the mouth.
(B) A pair of salivary glands secretes saliva and release it into the mouth through the salivary duct.
(C) Saliva mixed with food and lubricates and soften the food.
(D) Digestion of starch begins here.
(E) This slightly digested food enters into the crop through a food pipe i.e. esophagus.
(F) Crop stores the food temporarily.
(G) Now the food moves to gizzard. Here it is finally crushed and masticated an then moves to stomach.
(H) In stomach hepatic caeca release its secretions in the form of digestive enzymes, thus the food is then
completely digested at this site.
(iii) Absorption : The digested food moves to small intestine (ileum) and absorbed through its walls.
(iv) Assimilation : Nutrients are assimilated whenever required by the cells for the fulfillment of the growth,
energy and repair of the body.
(v) Egestion : Undigested food is then passed through hindgut (where H2 O absorbed) and expelled out

through anus in the form of elongated dry faecal pallets.

• The excretory organ of the grasshopper is malphigian tubules present at the junction of hindgut and
midgut.
2.3 NUTRITION IN HUMANS :
• Humans have highly evolved and complicated digestive system consisting of an alimentary canal and
different types of digestive glands.
• Alimentary canal consist of following organs :
2.3 (a) Mouth :
It is small slit through which food is ingested.
2.3 (b) Buccal Cavity :
Mouth opens into a chamber called as buccal cavity. Roof of buccal cavity is called hard palate. At the floor
of this cavity thick muscular structure is present called tongue. it helps in chewing swallowing, testing and
speaking. Tongue has various types of papilla having taste buds.
• Jaws present in buccal cavity are provided with four different types of teeth :
(i) Incisors : For cutting
(ii) Canines : For tearing
(iii) Premolars : For grinding
(iv) Molars : For grinding
• Dental formula of humans :
(A) Milk teeth → These are temporary, arise at 6 - 11 month age, 20 in number
Half upper jaw 2102
=
Hlaf lower jaw 2102

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 (B) Permanent teeth → arise at 6 – 12 years, 32 in number
Half upper jaw 2123
=
Half lower jaw 2123

• Three pairs of salivary glands are found in mouth which release their secretions into the buccal cavity.
2.3 (C) Oesophagus :
Also called as food pipe. It leads the food from mouth to stomach, Oesophagus has highly muscular walls,
no digestion occurs here.
2.3 (b) Stomach :
It is a ‘J’ shaped bag present on left side of abdomen. It contains several branched and butular glands
present on the inner surface of its wall, which secret gastric juice.
23 (e) Small Intestine :
It is a coiled and narrow tube having 3 regions : Duodenum , jejunum, ileum.
• On the inner wall of small intestine numerous finger like projections are found which are called as villi,
they increase the surface area of absorption.
• Duodenum is proximal part of small intestine receives secretion from liver and pancreas.
2.3 (f) large Intestine :
Small intestine opens into large intestine from w here the undigested food material is passed to anus
through rectum. It is divided into three parts:
(i) Caecum (ii) Colon (iii) Rectum
2.3 (g) Digestive Glands :
(i) Salivary glands : 3 pairs of salivary glands are found in mouth cavity. It helps in chemical digestion.
They secret at enzyme called salivary amylase or ptyalin. It helps in digestion of starch.
(ii) Gastric glands : Present in stomach. They secret hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes and
mucus.
(iii) Liver : It is the largest gland, secrets bile into the small intestine. Bile contains bile juice and bile
pigments. Bile is alkaline in nature and it is temporarily stored in gall bladder and helps in digestion of fats,
it also helps in absorption fats.
(iv) Pancreas: It lies parallel to and below the stomach. It secrets pancreatic juice into small intestine.
Pancreatic juice contains tyrosine and pancreatic amylase. Besides these 2 enzymes pancreas secretes 2
hormones also i.e. :- insulin and glucagons so it has both exocrine as well as endocrine functions. Both bile
and pancreatic juice are released into the duodenum by a common duct.

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 DAILY PRACTICE PROBLESMS # 2
OBJECTIVE QUSTIONS

1. Compensation point refers to the intensity of light at which

(A) Rate of respiration = rate of photosynthesis (B) Rate of respiration > rate of photosynthesis
(C) Rate of respiration < Rate of photosynthesis (D) None of the above is correct
2. Among the following which is a parasitic plant ?
(A) Plasmodium (B) Cuscuta (C) Amoeba (D) Rhizobium
3. The nutrition in mucor is
(A) parasitic (B) autotrophic (C) saprophytic (D) holozoic
4. In amoeba the digestion is intracellular because
(A) amoeba is unicellular (B) amoeba is multicellular
(C) amoeba is found is pond (D) amoeba is microscopic animal
5. Digestion of food in human starts from
(A) duodenum (B) small intestine (C) mouth (D) large intestine
6. The digestion of food is completed in the
(A) ileum (B) duodenum (C) stomach (D) large intestine
7. The most important function of villi in the small intestine is
(A) to provide strength to the intestine
(B) to provide space for capillaries and lacteals
(C) to provide increased surface area for absorption of digested food
(D) to provide habitat for bacteria
8. Which of the following sections does not contain enzymes ?
(A) Bile (B) Pancreatic juice (C) Intestinal juice (D) Saliva
9. Chewing is an example of
(A) chemical digestion (B) mechanical digestion(C) involuntary action (D) hydrolysis
10. The final product of digestion of carbohydrates and proteins are
(A) glycerol and amino acid respectively (B) glucose and amino acids respectively
(C) amino acids and glycerol respectively (D) amino acids and glucose respectively

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SUBEJCTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Name the different steps involved in digestive process.
2. Name the excretory organ of grasshopper.
3. Give the importance of bile during digestion process, also write from where it is secreted, what is its site of
action ?
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
4. Draw a well labelled diagram of human alimentary canal. Mention the functions of liver in digestion.
5. Describe the digestive system of grasshopper with the help of a well labelled diagram ?
6. Explain how does the major nutrients in chapatti eaten by you in your food get digested and finally
absorbed by the alimentary canal ?

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NUTRITION

BL - 3

3.1 INTESTINAL GLANDS :

They secrete intestinal juice and mucus.

3.1 (a) Digestive System :

This system involves following processes :
(i) Ingestion : Intake of food is done through mouth, food is then chewed and masticated and sent to
esophagus through pharynx by swallowing.
(ii) Digestion : Saliva secreted in buccal cavity starts digestion of starch into maltose. This partly digested
food is then passed to stomach by esophagus through peristaltic movement. Food is churned in stomach for
about three hours and broken down into smaller pieces. Due to presence of hydrochloric acid, medium of
stomach becomes acidic. In acidic medium protein digestive enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins into
peptones. Gastric Lipase is also secreted here which partially breaks down lipids.

• Secretion of gastric juice is stimulated by the sight, smell or thought of food.

• Now the partly digested food moves to small intestine i.e. in the duodenum. Duodenum receives the
secretion from liver and pancreas through a common duct they are bile and pancreatic juice, and alkaline
in nature. So the digestion and emulsification of facts occurs at this place.
• Here in the duodenum fats are emulsified by bile, remaining proteins are digested by trypsin and
starch by pancreatic amylase.
NOTE : Duodenal wall secretes bicarbonate ions which make the medium alkaline.

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 • This partially digested food now enters in the ileum where intestinal juice i.e. “Succus entericus” is
secreted. At this place digestion is completed.

Carbohydrates 
→ Glucose

Proteins 
→ Amino acids

Fats 
→ Fatty acids and glycerol
(iii) Absorption : After digestion molecules are broken down into simpler water soluble forms now they are to
be utilized, so they pass through the wall of small intestine which contains blood capillaries and enters into
the blood. For absorption of fat lymph capillaries are present called as lacteals.
NOTE : Wall of small intestine have tiny finger like projections called villi, they increase the surface area
for absorption.
(iv) Assimilation : The process of utilizations of food is called assimilating. The nutrients dissolved in blood
are carried to all parts of the body where they are utilized.
(A) For building up and replacement of cells.
(B) For obtaining energy. This energy is released by the process of oxidation during respiration.
(v) Egestion : The undigested food is then collected in large intestine where water is absorbed and remaining
waste is expelled out or egested through anus.

DAILY PRACTICE PROBLEMS # 3

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. In amoeba the digestion of food is
(A) extracellular (B) intracellular (C) intercellular (D) none of the above
2. Through mastication of food is essential because
(A) mastication of food makes the teeth stronger
(B) it makes the process of swallowing the food easier
(C) by this process bigger pieces of food are broken down into smaller pieces.
(D) bigger pieces of food are broken down into smaller pieces and saliva is properly mixed with it
3. The wave of contractions that pushes the food through the alimentary canal is called
(A) peritoneum (B) peristalsis (C) cyclosis (D) polarisation
4. In amoeba absorption of the digested nutrients occurs in
(A) contractile vacuole (B) plasma membrane (C) cytoplasm (D) pseudopodia
5. Coiled and well developed alimentary canal first developed in
(A) Protozoans (B) Mammals (C) Arthropods (D) Poriferans
6. Digestion of starch starts from
(A) stomach (B) intestine (C) esophagus (D) mouth

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7. The path taken by food material after ingestion is represented by
(A) Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Stomach
(B) Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Small Intestine
(C) Mouth → Oesophagus → Stomach → Pharynx
(D) Oesophagus → Mouth → Pharynx → Stomach
8. Teeth involved in cutting of food material are called
(A) canines (B) incisors (B) molars (D) premolars
9. Ptyalin enzyme is secreted by
(A) salivary glands (B) mouth (C) esophagus (D) stomach
10. Villi are present on
(A) stomach (B) large intestine (C) small intestine (D) mouth

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION
1. What is the product formed during C3 cycle of dark reaction of photosynthesis ?

2. Where does the absorption of food takes place ?

3. Name five different types of glands involved in human digestive system

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

4. Explain various digestive glands present in man along with their secretions & functions.
5. Explain dark reaction of Photosynthesis.
6. What is photophosphorylation ? Explain cyclic and monocyclic photophosophorylation in brief.
7. What are the various factors that affect photosynthesis explain each of them in brief ?
8. (i) Explain why the rate of photosynthesis in plants is low both at lower and higher temperatures ?
(ii) Is green light most or least useful in photosynthesis and why ?
(iii) Describe and activity to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis in plants.
[CBSE, 2005]
9. What is the function of gizzard in grasshopper. Draw a labelled diagram showing the digestive system of
grasshopper ? [CBSE, 2005]
10. What is the importance of the following process occurring during photosynthesis in plants ?
(i) Emission of electrons from chlorophyll (ii) Photolysis of water [CBSE 2004]
11. What is meant by utilization of food ? Name the digestive gland of grasshopper.

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 ANSWERS
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBELSM # 1

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D D B B C B D C A A

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 2

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. A B C A C A C A B B

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 3

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. B D B A C D A B A C

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TRANSPORTATION

BL - 4
4.1 INTRODUCTION :
All living bodies need nutrients and oxygen in every cell of its various tissues to sustain life. The transport
of different material and gases is essential both in plants and animals. Unicellular organisms e.g. Amoeba
and Paramecium do not require the transport of any material. These are in direct contact with their
surroundings from where they obtain these nutrients. These substances are distributed in the cytoplasm
due to the streaming movements of cytoplasm called as cyclosis. They exchange gases from the external
environment directly by diffusion due to the difference in the concentration in and outside their body. In
higher organisms both plants and animals, digested food, oxygen, hormones, waste nitrogenous
substances etc. are to be carried from one place to the other. So transportation of materials is essential. It is
done through circulatory system.
4.1 (a) Transportation in Higher Plants :
The higher plants have specialized system for the transportation of materials inside the body. The
transportation of material is carried out by means of vascular tissues of the plants. The vascular tissues act
as pipes or vessels. Through these vessels or pipes, water, minerals, salts, food etc. are transported in the
plant body. In plants the medium of transportation is water. Water and food flows through the xylem
(tracheids and vessels are the constituents of xylem) and phloem (sieve tubes and companion cells) for
various metabolic activities. Tracheids and vessels are nonliving parts of xylem while sieve tubes and
companion cells from the living parts of phloem. The terrestrial (land) plants absorb water and mineral
salts through their roots. The area of young roots where most of the absorption takes place is the root hair
zone. Root hair are the extensions of the epidermal cells. Root hair are delicate and do not live more than
two days. The root hair have sticky walls by which they adhere tightly to soil particles. The root hair absorb
water from soil by the process of osmosis but take in mineral salts by diffusion. The water and mineral salts
are transported from the roots to the leaves, flowers and other parts of the plant. The upward movement of
cell sap (water and minerals) through the xylem is called “ascent of sap”.
4.1 (b) Translocation :
Phloem Translocates the manufactured food (sugar) or starch from the leaves to the leaves to the different
parts of the plant including the roots.
4.1 (c) Transpiration :
Most of the water absorbed is lost through the aerial parts of the plant into air by a process called
“transpiration”. Two percent of total water absorbed is used up in various metabolic activities in the plant
body. Transpiration is the loss of water from the living tissues of the aerial parts of the plant in the form of
water vapours. There are three types of transpiration :

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 (i) Cuticular transpiration (through cuticle)
(ii) Lentiular transpiration (through lenticels)
(iii) Stomatal transpiration (through stomata)
• Importance of transpiration :
(A) It controls the rate of absorption of water from the soil.
(B) It is responsible for ascent of sap.
(C) It regulates the temperature of the plant.
(D) Mostly water absorbed by roots is lost by transpiration without serving any purpose.
The energy spent by the plants in transpiration is wasted. So transpiration is a necessary
evil.
4.1 (d) Differences in Function of Xylem and Phloem :
Xylem Phloem
(i) Functional xylem ells are dead. (i) Functional phloem cells are alive.
(ii) It carries mineral salts, water and (ii) An organic solution of sugars and amino acids is
traces of organic molecules translocated.
(iii) The movement is only upward. (iii) The movement can be upward or downward.

4.2 TRANSPIRATION COHENSION THEORY :

The main loss of water is through stomatal transpiration. Turgor pressure in the mesophyll cells of the leaf
forces water outwards through the cell wall. Water evaporates from the surface of the cells into the air
spaces of the spongy tissues and then passes into the outer atmosphere through the pores or stomata. The
cell sap of mesophyll cells becomes concentrated by losing water and causes ad drop in turgor pressure. As
a result water is sucked from adjoining mesophyll cells and ultimately from vascular tissues. This tension is
transmitted all the way down to the unbroken column of water through the stem to the absorbing parts of
the root. The molecules of the water show cohesion (mutual attraction) and molecules of water and vessel
wall show adhesion (affinity for water). Due to these adhesive and cohesive forces, water column does not
break but pulled upward by the force called as “transpiration pull”. The whole process can be compared
with a person (transpiration pull) pulling a bucket full of water (forces on water column) from a well with a
rope (column of water due to cohesion).
4.3 TRANSPORTAION IN HUMANS :
In humans there is a circulatory system that uses blood or lymph as carries of materials (fluid exchange
medium) and the heart as the pumping organ to help in circulation. Circulatory system consists of blood
vascular system (blood as carrier) and lymphatic system (lymph as carrier).
4.3 (a) Blood Vascular System :
The higher multicelluar animals with higher metabolic rates posses a well developed blood vascular
system. This system helps in the quicker supply of nutrients and oxygen to the body tissues and also in the
rapid disposal of toxics waste material and carbon dioxide. The blood acts as the circulatory fluid. Blood
vascular system consist of blood, blood vessels and heart.
(i) Blood : The blood is a specialized kind of living connective tissue which is made to circulate, by the
muscular pumping organ called as the heart. In adult human beings there is 5.5 to 6 liter of blood. The

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 blood consists of fluid part, the plasma. The red blood corpuscles (RBSs), white blood corpuscles
(WBCs) and blood platelets are present in the plasma. The formation of blood is called “Hempieces”.
(ii) Plasma : The plasma consist of water (90% & above) inorganic substances. In the plasma RBCs,
WBCs and blood platelets float. Inorganic salts (09%) are also present. The organic substances are
glucose, amino acids, proteins, hormones, digested and waste excretory products. The blood proteins
(7%) are fibrinogen, albumin, globulin and prothrombin.
NOTE : Serum is plasma from which fibrinogen is removed.
(A) Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs) or Erythrocytes : The number of RBCs is about 5.5 million in 1 ml of
blood. The total number of RBC is about 30 billion. Each RBC is a biconcave disc-like structure devoid of
nucleus. The mammalian erythrocytes do not possess nuclei, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.
The erythrocytes contain hemoglobin. Hemoglobin consist of globin (protein) and F2+ porphyrin compels
(haeme). 100 ml of blood contains 15 mg of hemoglobin. if the amount of hemoglobin in blood is less, the
person suffers from anemia The hemoglobin carries oxygen to the different cells of the body and brings
carbon dioxide from the cells. The life span of a RBC is 120 days.
(B) White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs) or Leucocytes : The number of leucocytes is comparatively fever i.e.
one ml of blood contains 5000 - 10000 leucocytes in humans. The total number of WBCs is about 75 millions.
The number of leucocytes increases in infections like pneumonia, blood cancer (Leukemia) etc. These are
large in size and contain nucleus. White blood corpuscles are of two types :
• Granulocytes : In granulocytes the cytoplasm contains granules and the nucleus is multliobed. Bosophils,
Eosinophils and Neutrophils are three different types of granulocytes. Eosinophils and neutrophils are
phagocytic (engulf and kill harmful microbes ) in nature and this process is called as “phagocytosis”. The
function of basophils is to release histamine and Heparin.
• Agranulocytes : Monocytes and lymphocytes are two different types of agraulocytes. Lymphocytes
secrete antibodies which destroy microbes. The monocytes are phagocytic in nature.
(C) Blood platelets : These are small and without nuclei. Their number various from 0.15 to 0.45 million in
1ml of blood. Their normal life span is one week. These help in blood clotting at the site of injury by
liberating thrombosplastin.
4.3 (b) Functions of Blood :
Blood performs the following functions :
• Transpiration of nutrients : The digested and absorbed nutrients like glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids are first transported to the liver and then to all the tissues for their storage, oxidation and
synthesis of new substance.
• Transportation of respiratory gases : The respiratory gases (oxygen, carbon-dioxide) are
transported by the blood. Oxygen is transported from the respiratory surface (lung, skin and buccal
cavity) to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues is taken to the respiratory organ for its
removal.
• Transportation of excretory products : Different wastes from the different parts of the body are
collected by the blood and then taken to the organs (kidneys, lungs, skin and intestine) from where
they are exerted.
• Transportation of hormones : Hormones are produced by endocrine glands. These hormones
have target organs (p lace to act). These are carried by the plasma of blood and bring about the
coordination in the working of the body.

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 • Maintenance of pH : the plasma proteins act as buffer system and maintains required pH of the
body tissues.
• Regulation of body temperature : The blood flows in all the parts of body, so it equalizes the
body temperature. It carries heat from one place to another place in the body.
• Transportation of metabolic intermediates : The blood carries metabolic intermediates from one
tissue to another for further metabolism. In the muscle cells due to anaerobic respiration lactic acid
is produced. This lactic acid is carried to the liver for further oxidation.
• Water balance : The blood maintains water balance to constant level by distributing it uniformly
in the body.
• Protection from diseases : The WBCs (eosinophils, neutrophils, monocyts) engulf the bacteria
and other disease causing organisms by phagocytosis. The lymphocytes produce antibodies to
neutralize the action of toxins produced by pathogens.
• Clotting of blood : Blood forms a clot at the site of injury and thus prevents the further loss of
blood.
• Support : Blood flows under pressure in arteries. Due to this tissues become stiff as in the case of
erection of nipples, clitoris and penis.
4.3 (c) Blood Clotting :
At the site of injury of the blood vessels, the platelets induce blood coagulation through the release of
thromboplastin (thrombokinase). Thromboplastin changes prothrombin of blood plasma into thrombin.
Thrombin converts soluble protein fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin. Fibrin forms a network which entangles
RBCs and blood platelets to form plug or clot over the inured area. Blood clotting is usually completed
within 2-3 minutes.

Injured tissue + Blodd platelets Thromboplastin released

Thrombokinas e
Prothrombin Thrombin
Ce+
Thrombin
Fibrnogen Fibrin

(soluble) (Insoluble )

Fibrin +Red blood corpuscles Clot of blood

4.3 (d) Blood Groups :

Land Steiner discovered that blood of different individual did not match each other but there were
biochemical differences. He discovered Antigens A and B and blood groups (ABO systems). Antigen
(agglutinogen) is a glycoprotein present on RBCs. For each antigen there is a corresponding antibody. Thus
there are two antibodies (agglutinin) a and b occurring in the blood plasma. There are four types of blood
groups depending on the presence or absence of these antigens.

Table : Blood Group : Antigen and Antibody

Body Antigen present on Antbody in plasma
Group RBCs

A A b
B B a
AB AB None
O None a,b,

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 Blood is a life saving fluid. It is often needed during accident and operation. The transfusion of blood is
only done when blood group is known. These groups are A,B,AB and O. Blood of O group is a universal
donor i.e. it an donate blood to any group (a, AB, B and O) but it can receive blood from O blood group. A
B group is universal recipient (receiver). It an receive blood from any group (A, B, AB, O) but it can donate
to AB group only.

4.3 (e) Blood Transfusion :

The transfusion of blood from a healthy person to a patient suffering from blood loss due to injury or
surgical operation is called a “blood transfusion”. For this all major hospitals have blood banks where
blood is collected from voluntary and professional donors. Before preservation the blood is tested for its
blood group and Rh factor. Though theoretically a patient may be able to receive blood of two or more
types, it is always advisable to have the donor blood of the same group as that of the recipient. Rather the
blood of donor is always crossmatched before transfusion to exclude any change of incompatibility. When
blood from a donor is added is added to blood of the recipient, it is necessary to avoid bringing together
corresponding antigen and antibody. This causes clumping of RBCs. Thus antigen A in RBCs of group A
individuals reacts with antibodies of plasma of group B individuals. This phenomenon is called
“agglutination”.

Table Human blood groups and transfusion

Blood group of Blood group of recipient

donor

O O A B AB
√ √ √ √
A x √ X √
B x X √ √
AB x X x √

√ Compatible
x Incompatible
Rh factor (in blood) can be genetically determined. Most of the people (more than 85%) are Rh positive
(Rh+) while a few are Rh negative (Rh-). Both people lead normal life. If an Rh- woman marries with an Rh+
man then Its pregnancy is normal but in 2nd pregnancy the mother with Rh- blood may lose the baby due
to incompatibility of Rh factor. By new techniques and procedures now the child can be saved.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLES # 4

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Osmosis is the movement of :

(A) solute particles from higher concentration to lower concentration
(B) solvent particles from higher water potential to lower water potential through a semi permeable
membrane
(C) solute particles from higher concentration to lower concentration through a semipermeable membrane
(D) solvent particles from lower water potential to higher water potential.
2. The ultimate cause for the movement of water against the gravity in a tree is
(A) osmosis (B) transpiration (C) imbibitions (D) photosynthesis
3. Which one of the following is connected with transport of water in plants ?
(A) Phloem (B) Xylem (C) Epidermis (D) Cambium
4. Which of the following contributes most to transport of water from the ground to the leaves of a tall tree ?
(A) Breakdown of ATP (B) Capillary rise of water is xylem
(C) Cohesion of water and transpiration pull (D) Root pressure.
5. The process of transpiration in plants helps in
(A) opening of stomata (B) absorption of CO2 from atmosphere

(C) upward conduction of water and minerals (D) absorption of O2 from atmosphere

6. Opening and closing of stomata is due to

(A) pressure of gases inside the leaves (B) changes of turgor pressure in guard cells
(C) effect of hormones (D) their genetic constitution
7. The carbohydrates synthesized in the leaves are transported through sieve tubes most commonly in the
form of
(A) glucose (B) starch (C) sucrose (D) cellulose
8. In a closed circulatory system, blood is completely enclosed with in
(A) sinuses (B) vessels (C) heart (D) skeleton
9. An artery is a vessel that carries blood
(A) with high concentration of oxygen (B) with high concentration of CO2

(C) away from the heart (D) both A & C

10. Values are found in veins to check the backflow of blood flowing under
(A) low pressure (B) high pressure (C) no pressure (D) atmospheric pressure.

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SUBEJCTIVE QUESTIONS
FILL IN THE BLANKS :
(i) .......... is the flow of water molecules from the region of higher water potential to the region of lower

water potential through a semipermeable membrane.

(ii) The osmotic entry of water into a cell is called ......

(iii) Other name for blood platelets is .....

(iv) The process of production of erythrocytes is known as ..........

(v) Heart is protected by a covering known as ......

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the importance of transportation.

2. Distinguish between diffusion and osmosis.

3. How does blood clot ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

4. Explain the composition of blood. Also give functions of all it’s components.

5. Explain various components of xylem and phloem.

6. Comment upon :

(i) Translocation in plants (ii) Xylem

(iii) Phloem (iv) Excretion in plants

7. What is clotting of blood’ ? Write a flow chart showing major events taking place in clotting of blood.

[CBSE, Delhi 2005]

8. Name the constituents of blood. Why are white blood corpuscles called ‘soldiers of the body ?

[CBSE, Delhi 2005]

9. Draw a diagram of human heart and label the following on it [CBSE, Delhi 2005]

(i) Aorta (ii) Pulmonary trunk (iii) Superior vena cava (iv) Coronary arteries

10. (a) List any four blood groups found in human beings. [CBSE, 2005]

(b) People of which blood group can

(i) donate blood to all groups ? (ii) receive blood from all groups ?

11. List two vital functions of the human kidney. Draw a labelled diagram of an artificial kidney

[CBSE, 2005]

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TRANSPORTATION

BL - 5
5.1 STRUCTURE OF HEART

• Heart is a hollow muscular organ that lies obliquely in the thoracic region in a cavity between the two
lungs that is pericardial cavity. It is lined by 2 layers outer and inner pericardial membranes. These are
filled with a fluid called “pericardial fluid”. It protects the heart from shock and injury.
• Heart is made up of 4 chambers : upper 2 chambers are auricles and the lower 2 chambers are
ventricles. Auricles are the receiving chambers and ventricles are the pumping chambers. Walls of
ventricles are thicker as they have to pump the blood.
• Partition between right and left auricle is called “interauricular septum” and between right and left
ventricles is “inter ventricular septum”.
• Four pulmonary veins enter into left auricle, two from each lung bring oxygenated blood. There is one
auriculoventricular aperture with a bicuspid or mitral valve in left auricles which opens into left
ventricle.
• Left ventricle has aortic valve having 3 semilunar cusps for large artery i.e. dorsal aorta which takes the
oxygenated blood to all body parts.
• Right auricle has openings for superior venacava that brings deoxygenated blood from head, neck and
upper limbs, inferior venacava receives deoxygenated blood from rest of the body and lower limbs.
Blood enters into right ventricle through tricuspid valve. A coronary sinus that drains venous blood
from heart muscles.
• Right ventricle has pulmonary valve having 3 semilunar cusps for pulmonary artery carrying
deoxygenated blood to lungs.

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 • The series of events which occur during one heart beat is called as cardiac cycle.
• NOTE : During foetal condition a flap valve called “foramen ovale” is present at interauricular septum
having a depression called as fossa ovalis. If it remains after birth it results “a hole in the heart”.
5.1 (a) Blood Pressure :
It is the pressure of the flow of blood in the aorta and its man arteries. The blood pressure varies according
to the contraction and relaxation of the heart. In the condition of contraction or systolic phase (Lubb sound)
it is about 120 mm of Hg. This is called “systolic pressure”. In the relaxation or diastolic phase (Dub sound)
it is about 80 mm of Hg and is called “diastolic pressure”. The normal blood pressure of man (20 years) is
120/80. Fats and anxiety increase the blood pressure, the maximum normal blood pressure should into
exceed 150 in males and 140 in females. The blood pressure is measured by “sphygmomanometer”.
5.1 (b) Detection of Normalcy of Heart Beat :
The muscle fibres of heart are specialized at certain parts generate tiny electrical currents which cause the
normal heart heats. The “electrocardiograph” (E.C.G.) is the device to record these electrical changes.
Electrocardiogram is a record of electrical behaviour of heart and remains constant in a normal man.
Doctors use the E.C.G. for detection of various heart diseases. Sometimes the sinoatrial node (SA node or
pacemaker) gets damaged and fails to generate cardiac impulses at normal rate it becomes abnormally slow
and irregular and ventricles fail to pump the required amount of blood. It can be corrected by the surgical
grafting of an artificial pacemaker instrument in the chest of the patient. This instrument stimulates the
heart electrically at regular intervals to maintain the beats.
5.2 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM :
The lymphatic system comprises the lymph, lymphatic capillaries (simply lymphatic), lymphatic vessels
and nodes. Lymph severs as the middle man between the blood and organ for exchange of any material.
The lymph is the tissue fluid present in the intercellular spaces in the tissues. So it is also called as
“extracelluar fluid”. The lymph resembles the blood except that the lymph is devoid of R.B.Cs, blood
platelets and some plasma proteins. Lymphatic system runs parallel to the veins. The lymphatic capillaries
are present in the form of network under epithelial surface. The ends of lymphatic capillaries are blind. The
lymphatic capillaries unite to form lymphatic vessels and these vessels resemble with the veins. The
lymphatic vessels posses the valves which prevent back flow of lymph. Neighboring body muscles help in
the flow of lymph. The small lymphatic vessels unite to form large vessels. Larger lymphatic vessels unite
to form large ducts i.e. right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct. Right lymphatic duct opens into right
subclavian vein and left thoracic duct open in to left subclavian vein. Before the lymph reaches the blood, it
always passes through the lymph nodes. The lymph’s nodes are enlargements of the lymphatic vessels.
Lymphocytes and other plasma cells are present in the lymph nodes. The lympis is cleaned or filtered by
lymph nodes. These cells also kill the germs and produce antibodies.
5.2(a) Functions of Lymph :
(i) It provides immunity through lymphocytes.
(ii) Fats are absorbed through lymph vessels in the intestine
(iii) It supplies digested food and oxygen to various parts of the body.
(iv) It helps in removal of waste products like parts of dead cells.
(v) It returns proteins and excess tissue fluid to the blood from the tissue spaces.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 5

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. The phenomena non of uptake of water at the expense of energy by the cells and usually against the
osmotic gradient is known as
(A) active absorption (B) passive absorption (C) osmosis (D) diffusion
2. Water will be absorbed by root hair when
(A) concentration of solutes in the cells sap in high
(B) plant in rapidly respiring
(C) they are separated from soil by a permeable membrane
(D) concentration of salts in the soil in high.
3. Root cap has no role in water absorption because
(A) it has no direct connection with the vascular system
(B) it has no cells containing chloroplasts
(C) it has no root hairs
(D) it has loosely arranged cells.
4. Which of the following is used in measuring transpiration ?
(A) Photometer (B) Cobalt chloride paper (C) Bell - jar (D) None of the above
5. Translocation of solutes primarily takes place through
(A) phloem (B) xylem (C) cortex (D) pith.
6. A mature human erythrocyte has the typical characteristic of
(A) a eukaryotic cell (B) a prokaryotic cell
(C) both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell (D) neither eukaryotic nor prokaryotic cell
7. Removal of calcium from freshly collected blood will
(A) result in clotting (B) prevent clotting
(C) prevent oxidation of hemoglobin (D) cause hemolysis
8. In the cardiac cycle, diastole is
(A) the number of heart beats per minute
(B) the relaxation period after contraction of the heart
(C) the forceful pumping action of the heart
(D) the contraction period after relaxation of the heart.
9. One of the difference between blood and lymph is that
(A) blood has RBCs and WBCs while lymph has Lymphocytes.
(B) blood has RBCs while lymph has no WBCs
(C) blood has WBCs while lymph has RBCs
(D) blood has dissolved organic salts while lymph has no such inorganic salt.
10. Blood vessel carrying blood from lung to heart through
(A) Pulmonary artery (B) Pulmonary vein (C) Coronary artery (D) None of these.

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SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. The series of events which occur during one complete beat of the heart is known as ..... cycle.

2. Depression in the interauricular septum is known as .......

3. Normal blood pressure is ........

VERT SGIRT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Write short note on leucocytes.

2. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory system.

3. What is double circulation ?

4. Distinguish between arteries and veins.

5. Why AB+ blood group is considered as universal recipient ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

6. Explain the structure of human heart with the help of diagram.

7. Define cardiac cycle. Explain the changes occurring in heart during cardiac cycle..

8. What is lymph ? Explain its important functions. Write about its circulation.

9. Draw a diagram showing how blood in the capillaries, surrounding tissues exchange respiratory gases with

cells of the tissues. Label the following on this diagram :

(i) Red Blood Corpuscle (ii) Tissue Cell [CBSE, 2005]

10. Why is it essential to match the blood groups of the ‘donor’ and the ‘receiver’ persons before arranging

transfusion of blood ? A person tests as ‘universal donor’. which group of blood will be acceptable to him

for receiving blood transfusion ?

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EXERETION

BL - 6
6.1 EXCRETION :
There are various metabolic activities which take place inside the living organisms. All these activities are
chemical reactions. As a result in animal body several end products are formed which are of no use to the
cells. These are called as wastes. These must be removed from the body for proper functioning of the body.
The elimination of these waste nitrogenous products form the body is called as excretion. Waste material is
ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, pigments, salts digestive wastes, excess of water etc. Ammonia,
urea uric acid are waste nitrogenous products, The excretory produces are both volatile and non-volatile.
These are removed from the body by different methods.

6.1(a) Excretion in Amoeba :

Amoeba is an ammonotelic organism since the principal excretory product is ammonia. Special excretory
organelle in Amoeba is lacking. CO2 and ammonia are exerted by diffusing is solution through plasma
membrane. The concentration of ammonia is always higher in Amoeba than in the surrounding water. The
water enters through plasma membrane by “endosmosis”. Ammonia is formed in cytoplasm by
metabolism. Surplus water enters contractile vacuole. This surplus water can rupture the animal’s body.
Thus size of contractile vacuole increases, when the contractile vacuole is fully expanded with water, it
moves towards the periphery. As it comes in close contact with the plasma membrane, the contractile
vacuole bursts. Thus excess of water (surplus water) is discharged in the surrounding water, this
phenomenon of controlling the amount of water in the body is called as “osmoregulation”.

6.1 (b) Excretion in Earthworm :

In earthworm, the excretory organs are nephridia. The internal funnel-like opening is called as
“nephrostome”. The waste material from body cavity (coelom) enters the nephridium through
nephrosome. In the inner lining of nephridium, the cells absorb useful substances like glucose.

6.2S TRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL NEPHIRIDIUM :

A typical nephridium consists of three pars : nephrostome, body and terminal duct. The nephridium
communicates with the coelom (body cavity) through internal nephrostome. Nephrostome is a ciliated
funnel which leads into body of nephridium through the neck. The body of nephridium consists of short
straight lobe, a long spiral lobe with narrow apical part. Spiral lobe consists of proximal limb and distal
limb. Neck of the nephridium leads into proximal part of spiral lobe and terminal duct leaves the proximal
limb. The tubule of the neck enters the body of the nephridium and leaves the body as terminal duct. These
tubules have ciliated tracts inside. The number of ciliated tracts depends upon the number of coils of the
tubules. The terminal duct may open outside by nephridiopore or into the gut (alimentary canal).

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6.2 (a) Functioning of Nephridium :
Nephridia are highly vascular and extract nitrogenous wastes from the blood. The nitrogenous wastes and
useful substances (glucose) enter the body of nephridium through internal neprostome in the fluid form.
The cilia present in the tubule beat to move the fluid. Useful substances like glucose are reabsorbed by cells,
lining the tubule and is passed into the blood. The remaining waste is discharged into the alimentary canal
or to exterior through nephridiopore. According to the position of nephridia in the body of earthworm,
nephridia are of three types :
(i) Septal nephridia are attached on septa. Nephridiopore is missing.
(ii) Integumentary nephridia are attached on inner side of the skin. Nephridiopore is present.
(iii) Pharyngeal nephridia are present as three p airs of groups of nephridia, on both sides of alimentary
canal. Nephridiopore is absent. Septal and pharyngeal nephridia are endonephric as these open in the
alimentary canal. Integumentary nephridia are ectonephric. Excretion is an adaptation to conserve water.
Earthworm is ammonotelic (excrete ammonia) in excretion, in sufficient water while it is ureotellic (excrete
urea) on land.
6.3 HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM :
As a result of various metabolic process going on in our body a number of waste products are formed.
These have to be eliminated as they are toxic to the body.
• The waste products include :
(i) Carbon dioxide which is liberated during respiration; and is eliminated by the lungs.
(ii) Nitrogenous metabolic wastes, such as urea and uric acid produced in the liver from excessive
proteins.
(iii) Bile pigments : Bile pigments (e.g., billrubin) derived by the breaking down of hemoglobin of the
erythrocyte.
(iv) Excess salts, water and vitamins : Concentration of these substance above the required level, is harmful
to the body. Elimination of all metabolic nitrogenous wastes from the body is callers as excretion.
6.4 ORGANS OF EXCRETION :
(i) Lugs : Carbon dioxide produced by the oxidation of glucose or other food substances in the tissues is
removed by the blood. This carbon dioxide is carried to the lungs through the blood vessels (veins) where it
diffuses into the alveoli and out through the respiratory tract. Water vapour in small amount is also exhaled
during expiration from the lungs.
(ii) Skin : Substances like soluble food mater, oxygen, water dissolved mineral salts, traces of urea and uric
acid diffuse from the thin walls of capillaries into the walls of the sweat glands. Oxygen and food
substances are used for metabolic activities of the cells of seat glands but the remaining metabolic wastes
are excreted out of the gland through the sweat duct which opens on the surface of the skin through sweat
pore. Sweat contains 99% water, traces of urea and uric acid. However, after heavy exercise, lactic acid
forms a major constituent of seat. Profuse sweating may lead to sodium deficiency, leading to muscle
cramps. An adaptation of prevention of water loss is the impermeability of our skin to water. However, in
aquatic animals, skin is the major excretory organ. They excrete ammonia through their skin by diffusion as
ammonia is highly soluble in water.

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6.5 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY :

(i) Bowman’s capsule : It is a single-cells thick, double walled cup-shaped structure present in the cortex
region of the kidney. The cup-shaped capsule contains a network of capillaries called Glomerulus’s.
Glomerulus’s and Bowman’s capsule are together called as Renal corpuscle.
(ii) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) : It starts after the Bowman’s capsule and is greatly twisted. The
whole P CT lies in the cortex region.
(iii) Henle’s loop : Henle’s loops is a U-shaped tubule located in the medulla region. it consists of
(A) a thin-walled descending limb in the medulla
(B) a thick-walled ascending limb in the cortex. Henle’s loop is long in those animals which pass
hypertonic urine.
(iv) Distal convoluted tubule : The ascending limb continues into the distal convoluted tubule which forms
several coils in the cortex.
(v) Collecting duct : Collecting tubule receives distal tubules of several uriniferous tubules. Several such
tubules unite to form a large collecting duct. The collecting ducts are held together and converge to form a
pyramid. The pyramid opens into the pelvis which leads into the ureter.

6.6 BLOOD SUPPLY TO NEPHTRONS :

Inside the kidney, the renal artery branches into a number of renal arterioles. A branch from a renal
arteriole enters each Bowman’s capsule, and is called the afferent arteriole. It breaks up into a network of
capillaries which reunite to form a efferent arteriole. (Glomerulus is a mass of network of capillaries in the
Bowman’s capsule). The efferent arteriole after emerging from the Bowman’s’ capsule runs a short distance
and breaks up into a capillary network which surrounds the renal tubule and rejoins to form a vein. By
reuniting again and again with other veins of the kidney it forms the renal vein which drains into the
posterior venacava.

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 6.7 CHEMICAL COMPOSITON OF URINE :
Normal human urine consist of about 95% water and 5% of solid wastes. Besides the normal constituents ,
certain hormones and medicines like the antibiotic and excess vitamins are passed out with urine. Organic
compounds (gm/l): Urea - 2.3; Creatinine - 1.5; Uric acid - 0.7; Ammonia - 0.6 Inorganic Compounds (gm/l)
Nacl - 19.0; KI - 12.5; H2SO4 - 1.8; NH3 - 0.6. Normally a man excretes 1000 - 170 ml of urine daily,

depending upon the water intake, diet, climate, mental state and physiological condition. Tea, coffee,
alcohol and other beverages increases the formation of urine.
6.7 (a) Working of Nephron :
Main function of nephron is to form urine. There are three main process involved in the urine formation :
(i) Glomerular ultrafiltration : If is the filtration of body fluids and solutes from the blood, out of he
glomerular capillaries into the Bowman’s capsule due to the pressure in the glomerulus. All substances
from the blood are filtered out except the large protein molecules. This fluid in the glomerular capsule is
called as glomerular filtrate. It consists of water, urea, salts, glucose and other plasma solutes. Blood
coming out of the efferent arteriole is therefore thick.
(ii) Tubular reabsorpiton : Glomerular filtrate contains a lot of useful materials like glucose, salts such as
that of sodium and water. These substances are reabsorbed from the renal tubule at various levels and in
varies proportions. Glucose is reabsorbed completely from the proximal convoluted tubule. More than 85%
of water is reabsorbed from the proximal, distal and even in collecting tubules. Sodium chloride is
reabsorbed in the proximal and distal tubules. Potassium and phosphate is completely reabsorbed from the
proximal tubule. Other substances reabsorbed are uric acid, sulpahtes, vitamin C, amino acids etc.
(iii) Tubular secretion : This occurs mainly in the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct of the
nephron. It is an active, vital process performed by the cells of the cuboidsl epithelium lining the tubules
which excrete additional wastes from the blood stream into the filtrate by active transport. In this process
substances like potassium, hydrogen, creatinine and certain drugs like phenol, penciling etc. are directly
exerted by the tubular cells from the blood. The fluid which now flows through the last parts of the tubule
is urine which consist of water, urea, uric acid, mineral ions like sodium, potassium, chlorides, phosphates
etc.
6.8 ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY :
In case of loss or damage of one kidney, the other kidney performs the function of both the kidneys and the
person can lead a normal life. But the failure of both the kidneys leads to death. Artificial kidney is a
dialysis machine which cleans blood of waste products, thus acting like a kidney. The patients’ blood is led
from the radial artery of the arm through the machine where urea and other salts are removed and pure
blood is returned to vein in the same arm. In case of permanent damage to the kidneys, dialysis has to be
performed for about twelve hours, twice a week. Patients with chronic kidney failure have been recorded
to survive for more than 12 years on dialysis. Now a days, diseased kidney may be replaced with healthy
one by kidney transplantation. To lead a normal life, one healthy kidney is more than enough. Therefore, a
healthy person can donate his one kidney to patient who has both kidneys impaired.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLESMS # 6
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following parts of a kidney contains the lowest concentration of urea ?
(A) Lop of Henle (B) Branches of renal vein
(C) Bowman’s capsule (D) Glomerulus
2. Uriniferous tubules of a kidney are concerned with formation of
(A) glucose (B) amino acids (C) hormones (D) urine
3. Excretion is removal of
(A) CO2 (B) harmful and useless ingredients

(C) extra water (D) metabolic wastes

4. Main function of kidney is
(A) passive absorption (B) ultrafiltration
(C) selective reabsorption (D) Both B and C
5. Ammonia is converted into urea in
(A) kidney (B) spleen (C) liver (D) nephron
6. Function of loop of Henle is
(A) conservation of water (B) formation of urine
(C) filtration of blood (D) passage of urine
7. Urea is transported through
(A) RBCs (B) WBCs (C) Plasma (D) All of the above
8. Major function of contractive vacuole is
(A) excretion (B) circulation (C) osmoregulation (D) all the above
9. Which one is a accessory excretory organ
(A) Liver (B) Stomach (C) Intestine (D) Heart

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Name of excretory organs of amoeba.

2. How wastes diffuse out from body of Sponge and Hydra ?

3. Flame cells are excretory organs of which group of animals.

4. Name the major excretory product of human beings.

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SHORT ANSWR TYPE QUESTIONS
5. What is meant by excretion and osmoregulation ?
6. How excretion takes place in amoeba ?
7. Draw a diagram of nephron and label its various parts.
8. What is meant by osmoregulation ? How it is achieved in different groups of animals ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. Name the excretory organs of earthworm.
10. Draw diagram of human excretory system, label its pars.
11. Draw a labelled diagram of nephron and explain how urine is formed.

ANSWERS
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 4

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. B B B C C B C B D B

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 5

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. A A C A A D B B A B

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 6

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Ans. B D D D C A C C A

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RESPIRATION

BL - 7
7.1 RESPIRATION :
The sum total of all the vital activities is called as metabolism. Vital act ivies refer to all the physiochemical
activities of a cell. It has two aspects :
(i) Anabolism : It includes metabolic process by which complex cellular compounds are synthesized from
simpler compounds, .e.g. Photosynthesis
(ii) Catabolism : It includes metabolic processes by which larger molecules are broken down into simpler
molecules, e.g. Respiration. Respiration is an important catabolic process responsible for the production of
energy.
7.1 (a) Definition :
The process by which assimilated food is oxidized and energy is released is called as respiration. In this
process oxygen from air is taken in, this oxygen reacts with food molecules present in the body cells and
burn them slowly to release energy. This energy is stored in the form of ATP molecules inside the cell for
further use and the waste products i.e. CO2 and H2O are eliminated out of the body.

Food + oxygen Oxidation

  → CO2 + H2O + Energy
It is called as aerobic respiration.
NOTE : The process by which organisms obtain oxygen from environment and release carbon dioxide produced
during oxidation of food to the outer environment is called as breathing. It is a part of respiration.
7.1 (b) Difference Between Breathing and Respiration :
(i) Breathing involves taking in of oxygen and releasing out of carbon dioxide so it is a physical process
while respiration is a biochemical process which, along with breathing involves oxidation of food.
(ii) Breathing involves lungs so it is an organ system level process while respiration besides being at organ
system level, also occurs at cellular level.
(iii) Breathing itself do not release energy while respiration results in the release of energy which is then
stored in from of ATP.
(iv) Breathing is a part of respiration while respiration is not a part of breathing but it involves breathing.
7.1 (c) Types of Respiration :
(i) External respiration : Exchange of gases between an organism and its environment.
(ii) Internal respiration : Exchange of gases between tissue cells and extra cellular environment.
(iii) Aerobic : When oxidation of food takes place in presence of molecular oxygen.

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 Glycolysis In presence of O
Food    → Pyruvic acid     
2
→ 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + 38ATP
Kreb cycle in mitrochndira

it is called as aerobic respiration.

(iv) Anaerobic respiration : When oxidation of food material does not require molecular oxygen or it
occurs in absence of molecular oxygen, it is called as anaerobic respiration.
 → 2C2 H 5OH + 2CO2 + 2 ATP
In yeast
( During fermentaion)
Food → Pyruvecacid →
 → Lacticacid + 2CO2 + 2 ATP ( During vigorous exercise)
In muscles

7.1 (d) Respiration :

Respiration in divided in three parts :
(i) Cellular respiration (ii) Respiration in plants (iii) Respiration in animals
7.1 (e) Respiration Plants :
• In plants exchange of gases takes place from leaves,
stems and roots individually.
• Transfer of respiratory gases from one part to another is
very less.
• Exchange of gases in plants occurs by simple diffusion.
(i) Respiration in roots :
• In young roots, the epidermal cells are extended to form root hair. These root hair remain in direct in
contact with the air present in between the soil particles. The oxygen from this air enters into the root hairs
by simple diffusion and reaches to other cells of root for respiration.
• In older roots a protective layer of dead cells is present which have tiny openings called as lenticels.
Diffusion of oxygen takes place through these pores and carbon dioxide is released out through the same.
(ii) Respiration in stem :
• In herbaceous plants, stem have small openings in their epidermal cells called as stomata, the oxygen
from air enters through stomata and carbon dioxide is released from the same.
• In hard and woody stems of big plants and trees, lenticels are present in place of stomata through which
exchange of gases takes place.
(iii) Respiration in leaves :
• Surface of leaves possess numerous tiny pores called as stomata in their epidermal cells, exchange of
gases takes place through stomata and when CO2 concentration in cell increases stomata opens and CO2 is

released out.
• An experiment to show that plants take oxygen and evolve carbon dioxide during respiration :
• Experiment : To demonstrate the plants take oxygen and evolve dioxide during respiration set the
apparatus according to figure by taking KOH in U-tube, lie-water in two wide mouth bottles, one potted
plant, bell jar and black-cloth. During day time the potted plant is covered with black-cloth to

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 check photosynthesis. Make the apparatus airtight and start the aspirator. After sometime you will find that
the lime water of second bottle turns milky. The explanation for this is that when the water comes out from
aspirator, the atmospheric air enters into the apparatus through the second end and passes through the U-
tube containing caustic potash into the tube containing lime water. The caustic potash absorbs the CO2 of

the air. Thus, CO2 free air reaches into lime water so it does not turn milky. If indicates the air does not

contain even trace of CO2. When this air reaches into the lime water of second tube through a bell jar
having potted plant covered with black cloth to check photosynthesis, it turns milky. It proves that CO2 is

evolved during respiration.

7.2 RESPRITAIN IN ANIMALS :

• Respiration in animals takes place as a single unit, the have different types of organs for respiration due
to which mode of respiration also varies according to the organism but the basic mechanism is same.
• From phylum Protozoa to Ctenophore respiration is by generally body surface, in phylum
Plathyelminthes to Nematodes are mostly anaerobic and endoparasites, in phylum Annelida cutanous
membrane occurs and then from phylum Arthropoda till Mammals various respiratory organs were
developed like trachea, gills and lungs.
Type of respiration Organs involved Example
1. Cell surface respiration General body surface Amoeba, Paramecium
2. Tracheal respiration Trachea and tracheoles Insects
3. Branchial respiration Gills Fishes
4. Cutanous respiration Skin Frog
5. Pulmonary respiration Lungs Amphibians, reptiles, birds
6. Buccal respiration Buccal cavity From

Some important characteristics of respiratory organs of animals are :

• They have large surface area to get enough oxygen.
• They have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of gases.
• They have rich blood supply for transport of respiratory gases.
7.2(a) Respiration in Amoeba :
In unicellular organisms like amoeba and in some lower multicellular animals likes sponges and cnidarians,
respiration or exchange of gases occurs through general body surface as these cells are in direct contact
with an aquatic environment so the oxygen dissolved in water diffuses into the cell and brings about
oxidation of food, at the same time carbon dioxide released is expelled out of the cell by the same process.

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7.2(b) Respiration in Earthworm
In organisms like earthworm and leech exchange of gases occur through their skin as their skin is very thin
and most. It is rich in blood supply so the oxygen is absorbed by moist skin of earthworm and is
transported to all the cells of body through blood. The carbon dioxide from body cells diffuses into the
blood and expelled out through skin.
7.2 (c) Respiration in Fish :
• In fish exchange of gases occurs through gills so the respiration is said to be branchial.
• Gills are present on both the sides of its head, they are covered by gill covers.

• During breathing fish takes in water through its mouth and pass it over the gills, the oxygen present in
water extracted by gills and water is removed out through gill slits. This oxygen is now absorbed by blood
and carried to all parts of the body and at the same time carbon dioxide is released into the blood and
comes back to the gills and is expelled out into the surrounding water.
• Same type or respiratory pattern is followed in some other aquatic organisms like prawns.
7.2 (d) Respiration in Grasshopper :
• In insects there occurs a system of tiny holes and air tubes all
over the body these tiny holes or openings are called as spiracle.
This whole system facilities the exchange of gases and is called as
tracheal system.
• During breathing oxygen of air enters the spiracle and reached
to each and every part of grasshopper’s body through trachea and
tracheoles and carbon dioxide produced during respiration is
carried back by trachea and tracheoles to the spiracles and is
expelled out of the body of insect.
• The same mechanism is followed in other insects like houseflies,
mosquitoes, bees etc.
7.2 (e) Respiration in Humans :
• Human respiratory tract
(i) External nostrils : First part of respiratory system. It opens into
nasal cavity and is meant for inhalation of air from outside.
(ii) Nasal cavity : This cavity is separated from oral cavity by
means of a hard and bony palate. It is lined by ciliated columnar
epithelial cells that are rich in mucus; it brings about warming,
moistening and sterilization of air. It contains hair and mucus
which entrap the dust particles.

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 (iii) Internal nares : Nasal cavity opens into it and it leads to pharynx.
(iv) Pharynx : It is a common part between both alimentary canal and respiratory system.
(v) Larynx : It is an enlarged part of trachea which is also called as ‘voice box’. It produces voice by passage
of air between vocal cords. It contains four different types of cartilages among them a ‘c’ shaped thyroid
cartilage protruding out in neck region is called Adam’s apple.
(vi) Trachea : also called wind pipe. It is 10-12 cm long tube. It’s walls are supported by 16 - 20 ‘c’ shaped
cartilaginous rings which percent them to collapse when air is absent in them
(vii) Bronchi : Trachea is branched into two bronchi left and right each of which enters into the lungs.
(viii) Lungs : These are two light weight spongy pouches covered by a membrane called Pleura. Bronchi
are further branched into several bronchioles, at the end of bronchioles alveolar sacs or alveoli are present
which are rich in blood capillaries and thin walled.
(vi) Diaphragm : It is a sheet of muscles that lies below the lungs and separates thoracic cavity from
abdominal cavity.
• Mechanism of breathing : It includes
(i) Inhalation : When air is breathed in, the diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs contract due to
which there occurs expansion of chest cavity, it results increase in volume of chest cavity thus the air
pressure decreases and air from outside rushes into the lungs and alveolar sacs get filled with air
containing oxygen. The oxygen present in air diffuses into the blood and CO2 from blood diffuse out into

alveolar sac.
(ii) Exchange between blood and tissues : CO2 is taken by blood and O2 diffuses into tissues.

(iii) Exhalation : When air is breathed out the diaphragm and muscles attached to ribs relax, which brings
about contraction in chest cavity, its volume gets reduced and CO2 is pushed out from lungs into the air

through trachea and nostrils.

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 7

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The process of respiration is concerned with
(A) liberation of oxygen (B) liberation of carbon dioxide
(C) liberation of energy (D) intake of oxygen
2. The common immediate source of energy for cellular activity is
(A) NAD (B) ATP (C) DNA (D) RNA
3. The tissue respiration refers to
(A) inspiration (B) external respiration (C) internal respiration (D) expiration

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4. If the CO2 concentration in the blood increases, the rate of breathing will

(A) decrease (B) stop (C) increase (D) have no effect

5. Vocal cards occur in
(A) pharynx (B) glottis (C) bronchial tube (D) larynx
6. In man, which of the following structures is analogous to the spiracles of cockroach ?
(A) Alveoli (B) Lungs (C) Bronchioles (D) Nostrils
7. Which of the following prevents collapsing of trachea ?
(A) Diaphragm (B) Ribs (C) Cartilaginous ring (D) Muscles
8. Which of the following gases makes the most stable combination with the hemoglobin of red blood cells.
(A) CO2 (B) CO (C) O2 (D) N2

9. Volume of air inspired or expired with each normal breath is called

(A) tidal volume (B) inspiratory capacity
(C) total lung capacity (D) residual volume
10. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried in the form of
(A) carbonic acid (B) bicarbonates
(C) carbaminohaemoglobin (D) dissolved CO2

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Define respiration. Name the different types of respiration.

2. Write three common features of respiratory organs.

3. What are the characteristics of respiratory structure present in animals ?

4. What is the function of epiglottis in man and where it is situated ?

5. How does exchange of gases takes place in the following :

(i) Roots (ii) Stem (iii) Leaves

6. Draw a labelled diagram of human respiratory system.

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LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by inhalation and exhalation ? Explain the mechanism of both in brif ?

2. List out the differences between breathing and respiration.

3. Describe the mechanism of breathing in human beings.

4. Explain the process of respiration in different parts of plant. What are the various structures involved in
respiration in plants ?

5. Draw the respiratory system of human beings. What happens to the rate of breathing during vigorous
exercise and why ?

6. List three differences between respiration in plants and respiration in animals. Describe with a well labelled
diagram how gaseous exchange occurs through root hair in plants [C.B.S.E., Delhi - 2005]

7. How is respiration differs from breathing ? Explain the process of aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration. [C.B.S.E - 2005]

8. Draw a diagram showing human respiratory system. Label its following parts :
(i) Larynx (ii) Trachea (iii) Primary bronchus (iv) Lungs

9. Name the respiratory organs in the following :

(i) A fish (ii) A bird (iii) An earthworm

10. Draw a diagram showing how blood in the capillaries surrounding tissues exchange respiratory gases with
cells of the tissues.

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RESPIRATION

BL - 8

8.1 MACHANISM OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE BETWEEN TISSUES AND BLOOD :

When the air enters into the lungs through nostrils, trachea and
bronchi it enters into the bronchioles, from bronchioles it moves
into thin walled alveolar sacs or alveoli. Alveoli are rich in blood
capillaries, at this place oxygen from air diffuses into the blood
and reaches to all the cells and tissues of body this oxygen now
diffuses into the cell and is utilized for the oxidation of food and
production of energy in mitochondria as a result of this carbon
dioxide is produced in cells, due to this increased concentration of
CO2, it diffuses into the blood and is brought back to alveoli and

expelled out of the lungs through trachea and nostrils.

8.1 (a) Control of Respiration :
Respiration is controlled by the respiratory centre situated in medulla oblongata of brain.
(i) Breathing occurs involuntarily.
(ii) Under normal conditions rate of breathing is 15-18 times per minute. During vigorous exercise the
demand for oxygen increases due to which rate of breathing increases by about 20-25 times.
(iii) The total area for gas exchange covered through 300 million alveoli is about 36-72 m2 in each lung.
(iv) Respiratory quotient : It is defined as the ratio of the volumes of CO2 liberated and O2 used during

respiration.
8.1 (b) Some Respiratory Disorders :
• Emphysema : It occurs due to infection, smoking etc. It occurs due to obstructions in bronchioles caused
by breaking of alveolar septa. Bronchodilators and O2 therapy are used, for curing this disease.

• Asthma : Air passages are narrowed and lead to obstruction in breathing.

• Pneumonia : Lymph and mucous accumulate in alveoli and bronchioles. It occurs due to bacterial and
viral infection.
• Bronchitis : Swelling in living membranes of respiratory tract due to excessive smoking.
• Tuberculosis : Bacterial infection in lungs.
• Pleurisy : Inflammation of lung membrane called as pleurisy.
• Sudden contraction of diaphragm along with loud closure of glottis causes Hiccough.

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 • Sudden and violent expulsion of air through mouth and nose is called a sneezing.
• Fermentation : the slow decomposition of organic matter into simpler substances in the presence of
enzymes is known as fermentation. This process is used for preparation of alcoholic beverages in presence
of yeast in the absence of oxygen. Glucose and fructose are converted to ethanol by this process. It is a type
of anaerobic respiration.
8.1 (c) Difference Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration :

Aerobic Anaerobic
(i) It occurs in all living cells of higher plants. It occurs in bacteria, certain fungi, germinatin seeds and
fleshy fruits muscles.
(ii) It requires oxygen. Oxygen in not required
(iii) The end products are CO2 and H2O. The end products are alcohol or lactic acid and CO2.
(iv) The oxidation of one molecules of glucose The number of ATP molecules produced is only 2.
produces 38 ATP molecules.
(v) All the reactions except the reaction of glycolysis All the reactions take place in cytoplasm.
take place inside mitochondria.
(vi) Organic compounds are completely oxides and Organic compounds are incompletely oxidized and very
high amount of energy is realesed. small amount of energy is realesed
(vii) Non toxic to plants. Toxic to higher plants.

8.1 (d) Differences Between Respiration and Photosynthesis :

Respiration Photosynthesis
(i) It is a catabolic process. It is an anabolic process.
(ii) Carbohydrates are oxidized. Carbohydrates are synthesized.
(iii) Energy is liberated in the form of ATP. Light energy is stored in the form of glucose or chemical
(iv) The amount of CO2 in the air increases during energy.
respiration. The amount of CO2 in the air decrease during
(v) It takes place in all the living cells, both green photosynthesis.
and non-green It takes place only in chlorophyllous cells.
(vii) Dry weight of plant decreases. Dry weight of plant increases.
(viii) Oxidative phophorylation occurs Photophosphorylatin occurs.
(ix) O2 is utilized and CO2 and H2O are formed CO2 and H2O are used while O2 is evolved.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6O2 + 6H2O + energy 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O.

.1 ( e) Differences Between Respiration and Combustion :

Respiration Combustion
(i) It is a biological process It is a chemical process.
(ii) It takes place at normal temperature. It takes place at high temperature.
(iii) Respiration is a slow process completed I n Combustion is fast process in which the energy is
several steps. Thus, the energy is also liberated in liberated only in one step resulting in increase in
several steps and remains stored in the form of temperature and production of fire.
ATP.

8.1 (f) Cellular Respiration :

If refers to the oxidation of food taking place inside the cell. As this process is at cellular level so it is called
cellular respiration. It takes place in three steps :
It refers to the oxidation of food taking place inside the cell. As this process is at cellular level so it is called
cellular respiration. It takes place in three in 3 steps :
(i) Glycolysis (ii) Kreb Cycle (iii) Electron Transport System

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 Carbohydrates
During digestion
Glucose
Glycolysis
Pyruic acid
inabsence of O2 in presence of O2

Aneerobic respiration Aerobic respiration

C2H5OH + CO2 + 2ATP Kreb Cycle
CO2+H2O+38ATP
8.1 (g) Glycolysis :
Glycolysis also called EMP pathway, site-cytoplasm of cell.
(i) In this cycle glucose is converted into pyruvic acid in presence of many enzymes and co-enzymes.
(ii) Oxygen in not required during glycolysis.
(iii) 1 molecule of glucose gives rise to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
(iv) In this process 4 molecules of ATP are formed among them 2ATP molecules are utilized thus net gain
of ATP is two molecules.
(v) 2NADP molecules are reduced to 2NADPH2 , which later produces 6ATP molecules.
(vi) Overall production of ATP in glycolysis is 2ATP + 6ATP = 8ATP
(vii) There is no production of CO2 during this process.
NOTE : After glycolysis, pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl Co-A with the release of CO2 and the process is called
as ‘oxidative decarboxylation’. It occurs in mitochondria of the cell. Besides this 6ATP are also formed
during this step.
8.1 (h) Kreb Cycle :
Site : Mitochondria of cell
(i) Also called aerobic oxidation.
(ii) Discovered by Sir Hans Kreb.
(iii) Another name TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or Citric acid cycle.
(iv) It brings about the conversion of pyruvic acid, fatty acids, fats and amino acids into CO2 and water by
oxidation.
(v) It is the common path for oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, proteins.
(vi) it accounts for 24ATP molecules.
(vii) It starts with acetyl Co-A which is then converted into several intermediate compounds with the
release of NADPH2, FDH2, ATP, hydrogen atoms and then Acetyl Co-A is regenerated back.
8.1 (i) Electron Transport System or ETS :
(i) In this hydrogen atoms produced during oxidation of various intermediates during Kreb cycle are first
broken into protons and electrons.
(ii) These protons and electrons after passing through a series of coenzymes and cytochromes combine with
oxygen to form water molecules.
(iii) During these series of events 1NADPH2 releases 3ATP molecules and 1FADH2 gives 2ATP molecules
which were produces during kreb cycle and glycolysis.

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NOTE : The net gain of ATP molecules during respiration in 38ATP molecules among them,
8ATP from glycolysis
6ATP from conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl CO. A
24ATP from kreb cycle
besides this CO2 and H2O are also released.
Some important points :
(i) Diaphragm becomes flat during inspiration and becomes convex during expiration.
(ii) Tidal volume : Volume of air inspired or expired in relaxed position. It is around 500 ml.
(iii) Residual volume : Air left in the whole reparatory tract after forceful expiration. It is 1.5 liters.
(iv) Total lung capacity : Maximum amount of air the lungs can hold after forceful inspiration. It is about 5-
6.0 litres.
(v) Vital capacity : Maximum amount of air which can be breathed out through forceful expiration after a
forceful inspiration. It is 3.4-4.8 litres.
• Vital Capacity is more in athletes, mountain dwellers, non smokers.
• The total area for gas exchange provided by our 750 million alveoli in two lungs in 100 S. m.
• In the cycle of inhalation and exhalation, repeated 15 to 18 times in a minutes about 500 ml of air is
breathed in and out. In 24 hours, we breadth in 1500 litres of air.
• Blood is the medium for the transport of oxygen from the respiratory organ to the different tissues and
carbon dioxide from tissues to the respiratory organs. As much as 97 percent of the oxygen is transported
from the lungs to the tissues in combination with hemoglobin and only 2 percent is transported in
dissolved condition by the plasma.
• A normal person has about 15 grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml of blood. One gram of hemoglobin binds
about 1.34 ml of O2. Thus, 100 ml of blood carries about 20 ml of oxygen.
• Carbon dioxide is also transported by hemoglobin. When a respiring tissue release carbon-dioxide, it is
first diffused in the plasma. From here it diffuses into the red blood cells. Carbon-dioxide is transported
from the tissues to the lungs in the form of bicarbonates dissolved in water.
• About 23% of carbon dioxide entering into the erythrocytes combines with the globin (protein) part of
haemogloin to form carbaminohaemoglobin, which is transported to the lungs.
• Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin about 230 times more readily than oxygen. When a person
inhales carbon monoxide, it diffuses from the alveolar air to the blood and binds to haemoglobin forming
carboxyhemoglobin. The latter is a relatively stable compound and cannot bind with oxygen molecules. So,
the amount of hemoglobin available for oxygen transport is reduced. The resulting deficiency of oxygen
cases headache, dizziness, nausea and even death.
• Mountain sickness : It is also known as altitude sickness. At sea level the concentration of oxygen is
about 21% and the barometric pressure averages 760 mm Hg. As altitude increases, the concentration
remains the same but the number of oxygen molecules per breath is reduced. AT 12,000 feet the barometric
pressure is only 483 mm Hg, so there are roughly 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath. In order to
oxygenate the body effectively, breathing rate (even while at rest) has to be increased. This extra ventilation
increases the oxygen content in the blood, but not sea level concentration. The fall in oxygenation of blood
produced the symptoms of mountain sickness. These symptoms include breathlessness, headache,
dizziness, nausea, vomiting, mental fatigue and a bluish tinge on the skin, nails and lips.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 8
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Breathing rate in mammals in controlled by a part of the brain called the

(A) thalamus (B) hypothalamus (C) medulla oblongata (D) cerebellum
2. In anaerobic respiration
(A) O2 is taken in (B) CO2 is taken in (C) O2 is given out (D) CO2 is given out

3. Disease called pleurisy is due to

(A) inflammation of pleura (B) inflammation of trachea
(C) inflammation of alveoli (D) none of these above
4. Leaves respire with the help of
(A) lenticles (B) stomata (C) plasmodesmata (D) cuticle
5. Correct statement is
(A) roots of plant respire through lenticles and stomata.
(B) stem of plant respire through lenticles
(C) both A and B are correct
(D) both A and B are incorrect
6. Which of the following is not a characteristic of good respiratory surface ?
(A) Thin and moist (B) Large surface area
(C) Close to oxygen and gas transport (D) Thick and dry surface
7. Respiration in yeast
(A) takes place in the presence of oxygen (B) yields lactic acid and carbon dioxide
(C) in anaerobic and produces carbon dioxide (D) takes place only in darkness
8. Muscle cells engaged in vigorous activity build up a high concentration of
(A) lactic acid (B) pyruvic acid (C) alcohol (D) cholesterol
9. Exchange of respiratory gases takes place in an earthworm through
(A) moist skin (B) gills (C) trachea (D) lungs
10. Oxygen is transported in blood mainly by
(A) leucocytes (B) erythrocytes (C) thrombocytes (D) blood plasma

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Write any two points of difference between respiration in plants and respiration in animals.
2. What do you mean by fermentation ?
3. Describe the mode of respiration in an insect with a diagram.
4. What are the functions of respiratory system ?
5. Why do walls of trachea not collapse when there is less air in it ?

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LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

6. Write the differences between photosynthesis and respiration.

7. Explain the following in brief :
(a) Emphysema (b) Asthma (c) Pneumonia (d) Bronchitis
8. Describe the structure of lungs.
9. Explain in brief all the organs involved in respiratory system.
10. Explain in brief the cellular respiration.
11. Explain the process by which inhalation occurs during breathing in human beings.
12. A farmer floods his field every day thinking that watering in this manner will result in a better yield of his
wheat crop. What will be the result of this action of the farmer ? [C.B.S.E, All India 2004]
13. What is the function of epiglottis in man ? Draw labelled diagram showing the human respiratory system.
[All India C.B.S.E. -2004]
14. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of end products and energy ?
[C.B.S.E. - 2004]

ANSWERS
DAILY PRACTICE PROBLEMS # 7

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C B C C D D C B A B

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 8

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C D A B B D C A A B

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CONTROL
& CO-ORDINATION

BL - 9

9.1 INTRODUCTION :
All the living organisms show the irritability or sensitiveness. It is the property to give response to the
stimulus. The stimulus can be external or internal. The living organisms adapt themselves to the external
and internal factors with proper adjustment. This adjustment of the vital activities of life is called co-
ordination. The working of one system is co-ordinate with that of other system .e.g., During eating our
body performs several kinds of coordinated activities. The nose differentiates the smell of food and hand
serve as the organs of ingestion. the alimentary canal and glands help in the digestion of food. Thus various
organs perform co-ordinate activities.
9.1 (a) Control and Co-ordination :
Control and co-ordination also help to maintain a steady state of stability and steady state within an
organism in constantly changing environment. The mechanism of maintaining internal steady state is called
homeostasis. A mountaineer feels lack of oxygen a high altitudes In order to cope with this condition,
more number of RBCs are produced. It is the internal environment (physiologically) that adjusts to the
external stress i.e. lack of oxygen. Similarly mammals are capable of maintaining a constant body
temperature. The vital activities of an organism are controlled by endocrine system and nervous system.
There are two types of co-ordinations i.e., nervous and hormonal co-ordination. In animals both hormones
and neurons (structural and functional unit of nervous system) are involved in regulating and coordinating
the various vital activities. In plants only chemical (phytohormones) co-ordination is present.
9.2 CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION IN PLANTS :
9.2 (a) Movements in Plans :
The plants are fixed in the soil so they cannot avoid various stimuli by moving away. There is no ‘brain-
like’ structure in plants to adapt themselves according to the changes in their surroundings. Still the plants
show the positive or negative responses to light, water, gravity, touch etc. The movements of plants due to
stimuli are called the tropic or curvature movements. The response of a part of the plant to light is called
phototropism. The stem is positively phototropic (grown towards light) while the root is negatively
phototropic. The growth response of a part of plant to gravity (attraction force of the earth) is called
geotropism. The shoot is negatively geotropic while the root is positively geotropic. Chemotropism is due
to the chemical stimulus e.g. growth of pollen tube. The Response to a stimulus, independent o direction,
is called nastic movement. The Leaves of Mimosa pudica (Touch-me-not) droop own (bend) on touching.

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9.2 (b) Effect of Light :
Flowering and seed germination are regulated by the duration of light, This phenomenon called
photoperiod sum. Plants respond to this stimulus (light duration) with the help of phytochorme pigment.
Phytochrome is a proteinacesous pigment and controls several light dependent developmental processes
like germination, growth and flowering. Phytochrome exists in two forms Pr and Pfr . Pfr is active form and
both are intervconvertible.

9.2 (c) Photoperiodism and Flowing :

It is a physiological change occurring in plants in response to relative length of the day and light. The term
photoperiodism was used by Graner and Allard for the response of plants to photoperiods expressed in the
form of flowering. On the basis of photoperiod there are three classes of plants.
(i) Shor day plants (ii) Long day plants (iii) Day neutral plants

9.2 (b) Vernalization and Flowering :

The term vernalization was coined by Lysenko for promotion of flowering by a previous cold treatment.
For flowering in winter varieties, winter cold treatment is necessary. In nature, plant requiring cold
treatment usually behaves as biennial. The germinate and grow vegetatively in first season and produce
flowers during second seasons after getting the cold treatment. The suitable temperature for vernalizatin is
40C and time period varies from 4 days to 3 months.

Table : Difference between phototropism and photoperiodism

Phototroplsm Photoperiodism
(i) It is a tropic movement (i) It is physiological response to relative lengths of
(ii) The stimulus is perceived by apical meristem day and night
(iii) It is due to differential growth in elongation (ii) The stimulus is perceived by the leaves
zone (iii) It is due to the replacement of vegetative buds
by reproductive buds.

9.3 GROWTH REGULATORS :

The growth regulators are the important chemical affecting growth. Growth hormones (phytohormones)
are the natural growth substances which are produced in any part of the plant and are transferred to
another part and there they influence the growth of plant. The growth regulators consist of auxins ,
gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid. Except abscisic acid, ethylene the three are called
growth hormones and ethylene, abscisic acid are growth inhibitor.

9.3 (a) Auxins :

Auxins are the growth hormones which were first discovered by Charls Darwin. Auxins are the weak
organic acids which can promote elongation and growth. These are produced in the apical meristem (tips of
root and stem), young leaves, flower buds and fruits. The first discovered plant hormone was identified as
indole acetic acid (I.A.A.).
(i) Functions of auxins :
(A) Cell enlargement and elongation : Auxins loose the cell wall, increase membrane permeability and
synthesis wall microfibirlls. All these activities result in the cell enlargement and elongation.

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 (B) Tissue culture
(C) Apical dormancy : The presence of terminal or apical bud involves the failure of lateral bud growth. It
is due to the secretion of IAA. Removal of apical bud results in the growth of lateral buds.
(D) Root formation : Auxins can induce adventitious roots in stem cuttings.
(E) Cell division
(F) Parthenocarpy : Application of synthetic as well as natural auxins to unpollinated pistils produces
parthenocarpic fruits (seedless fruits). Parthenocarpy is the phenomenon of development of seedless fruits
without pollination and fertilization. This phenomenon is applies in seed bearing fruits like grape, banana,
papaya, tomato etc.
(G) Curvature movements
(H) Abscission
(I) Lead and fruit fall : 2, 4 -D (2, 4- dichorophenoxy acetic acid) is applied to avoid pre-harvest fruit drop
in oranges and apples.
(J) Flowering : Auxins generally inhibit flowering but in pineapple it cause flowering.
(K) Weedcides : The auxins play important role in weed control.
(L) Storage : Applied for potato storage.

9.3 (b) Gibberallins :

Gibberellins have a unique property of increasing the height of plants but they do not cause curvature. The
gibberellins were firs discovered in Japan by Yabuta and Sumuki. E. Kurosawa obtained extracts from rice
plants which were infected with fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. These rice plants were taller and sterile.
(i) Functions of gibberellins : The physiological effects of gibberellins on plant growth are as follows :
(A) Cell elongation : Gibberellins cause stem elongation and expansion of leaves in intact plants.
(B) Stem elongation : These induce stem elongation in genetically dwarf varieties (pea, maize & Cabbage)
It is called bolting.
(C) Seed germination
(D) Flowering
(E) Parthenocarpy
(F) Counteract dormancy : Natural dormancy of buds, tubers, rhizomes and some seeds can be over come
by gibberellins.
(G) Induction of maleness : GA3 induces the formation of male flowers on genetically female plants in

Cucurbits.
(H) Induction of aerial stem
(I) Increase in size of fruits : Application of gibberellins increase bunch length and fruit size in grapes.

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9.3 (c) Cytokinins :
The cytokinins are chemically basic growth hormones which promote cell division in plants. This group of
phytohormones was discovered when Carlos Mille isolated the crystalline substance from degraded DNA
material. This substance was named as kinetin.
(i) Function of cytokinins : The important physiological effects of these cytokinins on plant growth are as
follows :
(A) Cell division : One of the main functions of cytokinins is in cell division and more particular
cytokinesis.
(B) Secondary growth : Cytokinins overcome apical dominance and promote the growth of lateral bunds.
(D) Senescence : Cytokinins can inhibit or delay senescence (ageing). Leaves treated with cytokinins, retain
chlorophyll for longer period i.e., they remain green for a longer period.
(E) Morphogenesis : A natural balance between auxins and cytokinins is responsible for differentiation of
stems and roots (morphogenesis). When cyntokinins are in excess, lateral buds develop while roots are
formed if relatively more auxins are present.
(F) Induction of flowering
(G) Callus growth
9.3 (d) Ethylene :
This is a gaseous plant hormone which is produced by almost all the fleshy fruits during ripening. Ethylene
is autocatalytic in nature. Higher concentration of auxins induce ethylene formation.
(i) Functions of ethylene : The important function of ethylene are as follows :
(A) Fruit ripening : It is used for artificial ripening of fleshy fruits in the shops.
(B) Abscission layer : Ethylene accelerates the abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits.
(C) Senescence : Ethylene induces yellowing of leaves and downward bending. This results in the
senescence in the plants.
(D) Growth : It promotes transverse expansion but it inhibits longitudinal growth.
(E) Flowering : It induced flowering in pineapple.
(F) Dormancy : It breaks the dormancy of several organs of plants except lateral buds.
(G) Induction of femaleness : If has feminizing effect. This increases the number of female flowers in
Cucurbits.

9.3 (e) Abscisic Acid (A.B.A.) :

Stress hormone of plants is called as abscisic acid. It is also known as dormin. Addicott and his co-workers
isolated as substance from young cotton bolls and named it as Abscisic acid. This acid is now isolated from
dormant seeds, buds and other parts of the plants. Abcisic is a growth inhibitor. Abscisic acid has no
stimulating effect on any aspect of growth.

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 (i) Functions of abscisic acid :
(A) Growth : A.B.A. has antagonistic property to growth promoting hormones (auxins, gibberellins and
cytokinins). Thus it keeps the growth under check.
(B) Dormancy : A.B.A. induces dormancy in buds towards the approach of unfavorable conditions. it
causes natural dormancy in seeds and tubers.
(C) Abscission : It promotes abscission in leaves, flowers and fruits and causes ageing in plants.
(D) Wilting : During drought it closes the stomata and checks loss of water by transpiration. This ensures
the survival of plant undergoes wilting.
(E) Resistance : It promotes cold hardiness.
(F) Flowering and seed development : It is known to inhibit the process of flowering, fruit formation and
seed development.

9.4 CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS :

Coordination in animals is brought about by the secretions of endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are
ductless glands which secrete the chemical substances called hormones, Directly pour into the blood. Any
chemical substance which is formed is the tissues of endocrine glands are carried by the blood the other
parts of the body for its specific actions is termed as hormone. As organ which responds to such a hormone
is known as target organ.

9.4 (a) Characteristics of Hormones :

(i) They are the secretions of endocrine glands.
(ii) They are produced at a place and act on target organs which are mainly away from their source.
(iii) They are poured directly into the blood steam.
(iv) They are required in very small quantities.
(v) they are specific in function.
(vi) Chemically they are mainly proteins. Some of them may be amino acids, steroids etc.
(vii) They are harmful if present in less or excess amounts.
Viii) Hormones are immediately destroyed after their action is over.

9.4 (b) Feedback Mechanism :

Endocrine glands interact with each other, so that secretion of one gland may stimulate or depress the
activity of another. The amount of hormone released by an endocrine gland is determined by the body’s
need at any given time e.g. The hypophysis produces a hormone that stimulates the thyroid to produce its
hormone; in turn the thyroid secretion induces the hypophysis to produce less thyroid stimulating its
hormone; in turn the thyroid secretion induces the hypophysis to produce less thyroid stimulating
hormone. This is known as the ‘negative feedback’. This feed-back helps bring about a steady state in the
body which is called as homeostasis.

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9.5 VARIOUS ENDOCRINE GLANDS PRESENT IN THE HUMAN BODY ARE :
(i) Pituitary gland (or Hypophysis) (ii) Pineal gland (iii) Thyroid gland
(iv) Parathyroid gland (v) Thymus gland (vi) Adrenal gland
(vii)Pancreas (viii) Ovaries (ix) Testes

9.5 (a) Pituitary Gland (or Hypophysis):

It is a small ovoid structure attached to the base of brain (hypothalamus) by a short stalk called
infundibulum placed just behind the optic chiasma where the optic nerve from each eye meet. Pituitary
gland is also known as the master gland as it controls other endocrine glands. This gland consist of three
lobes-anterior, middle and posterior. Each lobe of the pituitary gland secretes different sets of hormones.
(i) Hormones of anterior pituitary :
(A) Growth hormone (GH) : This hormone promotes and regulates the process of growth in the body. It’s
deficiency during childhood lead to dwarfism and over secretion leads to gigantism.
(B) Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) : This regulates the activities of adrenal cortex. It mainly
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroid hormone which defends the human body under
stress.
(C) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) : As is clear from its name it controls the functioning of thyroid
gland. It stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxin.
(D) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) : It stimulates the production of gametes, stimulates the
development of ovarian follicles in females, and its equivalent in the males stimulates sperm production.
(E) Luteinising hormone (LTH) : In causes ovulation and formation of corpus luteum, which secretes
progesterone in females and stimulates the testis to produce testosterone in males.
(F) Luteorophic hormone (LTH) : This is also known as prolactin. This hormone stimulates growth of
mammary glands during pregnancy and promotes lacation after deliver. Prolactin level rise during
pregnancy and is very high during lactation.
(ii) Hormones of middle pituitary:
(A) Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) : This is the only hormone secreted by middle pituitary
which controls the growth and development of melanocytes responsible for skin colour.
(iii) Hormones of posterior pituitary :
(A) Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): This causes the reabsorption of water into the blood
from the collecting tubules of the kidney’s thereby concentrating the urine and reducing it volume.
(B) Oxytocin : This hormone stimulates uterus contractions as the time of child birth and causes release of
mil from mammary glands. It is also known as birth hormone or milk ejecting hormone.
9.5 (b) Pineal Gland :
It is a small gland reddish-grey in colour, about the size of a pea, attached to the roof of the third ventricle
of the brain. It contributes in regulating gonadal development. It control development & concentration of
melanin.

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9.5 (c) Thyroid Gland :
The thyroid gland consist of two lobel joined together by an isthmus. It is situated in the lower part of the
neck and when enlarged it forms goitre. Two hormones secreted by the thyroid gland are :
(i) Thyroxine : It is the principal hormone secreted by the thyroid gland and its main role is to increase the
metabolic rate of he organs and tissues of the whole body. 60% of thyroxine consists of iodine, an element
which is essential for the gland to enable it to synthesize its hormone. The basal metabolic rate (B.M.R.) is
increased in hyperthyroidism and reduced in hypothyroidism.
(ii) Calcitonin : This hormone lowers the calcium level in the ways :
(A) By inhibiting renal tubular calcium reabsorption.
(B) By inhibiting bone calcium reabsorption.
• Hypothyroidism : This results from lack or deficiency of thyroid hormone secretion. It is manifested
differently in children as compared with adults. Cretinism affects children and is due to congenital
defect of either absence or defect of the gland. In this disease growth is stunded, the features are coarse,
frequently the child has a protruding tongue and an enlarged abdomen; the mentality of the child is
low and retarded. Myxoedema is the condition caused by thyroid deficiency in adults. It affects
woman more frequently than men. It is characterized by puffy face, thick skin, dry cough, cold and loss
of hair. There is a deposition of mucin and fluid retention in extracelluar spaces. B MR is lowered
Iodine deficiency causes simple goitre.
• Hyperthyroidism : This results from excessive secretion and over action of thyroid hormones, As
excessive amount of thyrozine is poured into the blood and the metabolism of the body is speeded up.
The person starts loosing weight, has an increased pulse rate, suffers from nerves excitement and there
is protrusion of eye balls. These toxis sings and symptoms are responsible for the condition being
known as toxic goitre. Other names are thyrotoxicosis, exophathalamic goiltre and grave’s disease.

9.5 (d) Parathyroid Gland :

These are small ovoid pea shaped glands. They lie on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. Usually
there are two pairs of parathyroid glands, a superior pair and an inferior pair. The parathyroid secretion,
parathormone has two main functions.
(i) It regulates the balance between the calcium in bones and in extracellular tissue fluid, thus affecting the
amount of calcium in the blood.
(ii) It also controls the excretion of phosphates in the urine, probably by reducing tubular reabsorption of
phosphorus by the kidney tubule.

9.5 (e) Thymus Gland :

This gland is situated in the thorax in midline under the sternum in front of trachea. It has two lobes which
are further divided into many lobules. it secretes a hormone namely thymosin. It is one of the sites of
lymphocyte formation in children. Recently thymus has assumed importance because of its role in
immunological process. It helps in producing antibodies.

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9.5 (f) Adrenal Glands :
These are two small semilunar structure lying one each on upper pole of the kidneys. That is why they are
also known as supra renal glands. Each gland consists of two structurally and physiologically separate
parts known as cortex and medulla. The cortex occupies outer peripheral portion which is yellowish in
colour and medulla is inner brownish part. Cortex secretes three different kinds of hormones known as
corticosteroids. They are :
(i) Mineral corticoids : These regulate sodium and potassium balance in the body.
(ii) Glucocorticoids : These derive their name from their influence on carbohydrate metabolism e.g.
Glycogenesis is promoted in liver.
(iii) Sex hormones : Small quantities of sex hormones as androgens and oestrongen are produced by
adrenal glands which influence sexual development and growth.
• Adrenal medulla is important in raising defence mechanisms and supplementing sympathetic action
in the body. It secretes two hormones.
(i) Adrenaline : It is a stress hormone causes increases in systolic blood pressure, dilation of coronary
blood vessels, increased sweating and increase in metabolic rate. It brings restlessness, muscle fatigue
and anxiety.
(ii) Noradrenalin : It is a general vasoconstrictor, Increases both systolic and diastolic pressures. Both
of these hormones are helpful in emergency conditions. Thus are called as “fight or flight response”.
9.5 (g) Pancreas :
Pancreas is the only heterocrine gland in the human body. It acts as exocrine as well as endocrine gland. It
acts as exocrine as it secretes pancreatic juice which is poured into the duodenum with the help of
pancreatic duct. The endocrine tissue of the pancreas is in the form of clumps of secretory cells known as
the islets of langerhans. he islet cells are of three-alpha, beta and delta.
(i) Insulin is secreted by the beta cells and like other hormones, passes directly into the blood. Insulin is
required to convert glucose into glycogen (glycogensesis) and store it in liver. Deficiency of insulin due to
defect in islets of Langerhans results in diabetes mellitus, a condition in which blood glucose in high and is
passed in the urine.
(ii) The alpha cells of pancreas secrete glucagon, the metabolic effects of which are opposite to those of
insulin. It causes the breakdown of liver glycogen, thereby releasing glucose into the blood stream.
(iii) The third hormone somatostating is secreted by the delta cells of the islets of Langerhans. It is able to
inhibit the secretion of many hormones. As it inhibits the release of growth hormone of pituitary gland, it is
also known as growth hormone release inhibiting hormone (GHRIH).
9.5 (h) Ovaries :
Ovaries secrete three hormone :
(i) Oestrogn : FSH from the anterior pituitary controls the secretion of oestrogen by acting on the Graffain
follicles. This hormone effects the development of female sex characters. The oestrogen secretion influences
the follicular phase. Its secretion in maximum during evaluation period. Moreover during pregnancy the
oestrogen secretion by placenta keeps of increasing till full term.

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 (ii) Progesterone : It is secreted by corpus luteum. This hormone in contrast to oestrogen which is produced
continuously during the reproductive years, is secreted only after ovulation. Progesterone prepares the
uterus for receiving the embryo. It prepares inner lining of the uterus i.e. endometrium to receive the in
implanting embryo for about a week. If ovum gets fertillized, the corpus luteum continues to play a role in
maintaining the pregnancy for the first three months, after which the placenta takes over the role of corpus
luteum by secreting progesterone itself. This hormone is essential for the maintenance of pregnancy and is
therefore called pregnancy hormone. If pregnancy does not follow ovulation, corpus luteum degenerated
and breaks down due to the lack of progesterone.
(iii) Relaxin : This hormone is secreted during later stage of pregnancy and leads to relaxation of muscles of
the pelvic area to enable easy child birth and reduce the pressure on the foetus.

9.5 (i) Testes :

Testosterone is the main testicular hormone secreted by interstitial cells of the testis. It is mainly concerned
with the development an maintenance of male sex characters and enhancing the process of
spermatogenesis.

9.6 NERVOUS CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS :

In animals two kinds of co-ordination -nervous & chemical are present. The nervous co-ordination is
brought about by the nervous system and the chemical co-ordination by hormones. Both the systems work
an integrated system. Infect such a control and coordination requires.
(i) Gathering information about changes in the external environment.
(ii) Transmitting this information to the internal cells located away from the body surface and.
(iii) Exchange of information between the ells situated away from each other
• Nervous system in animals : Except, Sponges, all multicellular animals posses simple or complex
nervous system. Ina all these animals, nervous system is comprised of specialized cells called neurons
or nerve cells to respond to stimuli and coordinate animal activities. Nerve cells are the structural &
Functional units of nervous system.
• Nervous system of Hydra : Hydra belongs to phylum Cridaria (Coelenterate) of the group
invertebrate. The nervous system in hydra is merely a network of nerve cells joined to one another and
spread throughout the body between the two gem layers, outer epidermis & inner gastrodermis. This
network is called as nerve net. When the body of hydra receives certain stimulus at a particular region
from the environment, the nerve cells present at the region send impulses in all the direction through
the network of nerve call spread throughout the body. In this way, nerve network coordinates
responses to different stimuli in Hydra without the existence of central control region i.e. brain.

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 • Nervous system is grasshopper (as Insect) : In insets, the nervous
system consist of a brain, ganglia (singular ganglion) & nerve cord.
A mass of nerve cells is called ganglion. The nerve cord run along
the entire length of the body. At interval, it has ganglia. Small nerves
are given out from each ganglion. Near the anterior end of the insect
body, a large bilobed ganglion, called the brain, is present. Thus the
nervous system of grass hopper consist of a rain, a long nerve cord,
the ganglia and nerves spreading form the nerve cord.

Nervous system of Grass hopper

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 9

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Phytohormones are
(A) hormones regulating growth from seed to adulthood
(B) hormones regulating secondary growth
(C) growth regulators synthesized by plants and influencing physiological processes
(D) hormones regulating flowering.

2. The natural plant hormones were first isolated from

(A) cotton fruits, spinach leaves, rice plant (B) avena coleoptiles, fungus gibberella
(C) corn germ oil, human urine (D) human urine, rice plant.

3. If the tip of a seeding is cut off, growth as well as bending ceases because it hampers
(A) perception of light stimulus (B) transpiration
(C) respiration (D) photosynthesis.

4. A plant bends towards the source of light when exposed to the light on only one side. Which of the
following is the best explanation of the phenomena ?
(A) It needs light for photosynthesis
(B) The apices of their stems are attracted by light
(C) Some auxin accumulates on the shaded side to induce greater cell elongation on that side
(D) Light stimulates the cells on the illuminated side to increase in length

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5. The movement of plant organs in response to the force of gravity is called
(A) hydrotropism (B) geotropism (C) heliotropism (D) phototropism

6. A high concentration of synthetic auxins is generally used for

(A) wee control (B) enhancing root initiation
(C) controlling of cell enlargement (D) preventing the growth of the lateral buds.

7. Gibberellic acid has been successfully employed to induce flowering

(A) in long day plants under short day conditions (B) in short day plants under long day conditions
(C) for some plants (D) none of the above

8. Cytokinins are known to

(A) inhibit cytoplamic movement (C) help in retention of chlorophyll
(C) influence water movement (D) promote abscission layer formation

9. Ethylene is a
(A) solid hormone (B) gaseous enzyme (C) gaseous hormone (D) liquid gas mixture

10. Pineapple an be made to flower if off season by

(A) zeatin (B) ethylene (C) temperature (D) short days

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by receptors and effectors ? Name the different types of receptors.

2. Define hormones. What do you mean by phytohomones ?

3. What do you mean by tropic and nastic movements ? Give one example of each.

4. What are the functions of nervous system ?

5. What do you mean by photoperiodism ?

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LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
6. Describe the forebrain of a mammal.
7. Write a short note a chemical co-ordination in plants.
8. Dedifferentiate between endocrine and exocrine hormones. Write the characteristics of hormones.
9. Mention the effects of sympathetic and parayasympathetic nervous system on the following :
(i) Heart (ii) Urinary bladder (iii) Eye
(iv) Gastric secretions (v) Bronchi
10. Name the different type of hormones secreted by pituitary. Also mention their functions.
11. Draw a diagram of human brain and label the following part on it :
(i) Cerebrum (ii) Meninges (iii) medulla oblongata (iv) Cerebellum
[CBSE Delhi 2005]
12. Draw a diagram of nervous system in an insect. Label the following pars on it
(i) Brain (ii) Ganglion (iii) Nerve Cord
13. Write the functions of hormone ‘thyroxine’ in our body. [CBSE Delhi 2004]
14. We suddenly withdraw our hand when a pin pricks. Name the type of response involved in this action.
[CBSE Delhi 2004]
15. Name the part of hind brain which takes part in regulation of respiration.
[CBSE Delhi 2004]

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CONTROL
& CO-ORDINATION

BL - 10

10.1 NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN :

The nervous system of human beings consists of central &
peripheral nervous systems. Neuron is the structural &
functional unit of nervous system. It is the longest cell found in
the body. They unit the receptor and effector organs with each
other. The nervous system is composed of neurons. These are
surrounded by a connective tissue called neuroglia. Impulses
from recptors run through neurons. The number of neurons are
almost fixed for a particular species.

10.1 (a) Struture :

Each neuron consist of a cell body called cyton and a number of branches (nerve fibres) arising from the
cyton. Neuron does not divide. Cyton contains a nucleus within the cytoplasm & Nissl’s granules (formed
of RER with ribosomes) and fine thread like fibres, called neurofibrils.
(i) Dendrites : These are short, several, much branched & contain granules. They carry impulse towards the
cyton.
(ii) Axon : It is a large, single and unbranched structure. It has not nissl’s granules. It carries impulses from
cyton to the effector organs like glands, muscles etc. It is a typical nerve fibre consisting of a central thin
cytoplasm cylindrical axis continuous with the body. It’s cytoplasm is called axoplasm. Axis cylinder is
enclosed in a thin permeable membrane called axolemma or nerve membrane. A layer of fatty material
called myelin or medullary sheath is found outside the axolemma. Such fibres are called myelinated
(medullated) fibres. They seems to be white. Nerve fibres lacking myelin sheath are called non-myelinated
& appear grey in colour. Myelin in interrupted at intervals by circular constrictions called Nodes of
Ranvier. Terminal branches of axon are called telodendria. Each telodendron ends in a swollen knob called
synaptic knob or terminal button. Synaptic knob of one serve fibre (axon) forms synapse with the
dendrites of another neuron. Synapse is a very fine gap between two neurons. Thus, in the entire nervous
system neurons are linked together.
10.1 (b) Types of Neurons or Nerve Fibres :
(i) Motor : It carries impulses from brain and spinal cord to effector organs.
(ii) Sensory : It transmits impulse from sensory organs to central nervous system.

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10.1 (c) Types of Nervous System :
(i) Central nervous system : It consists of the brain
and the spinal cord. The brain is covered by
cranium & spinal cord is covered by vertebral
column Both are also surrounded by three
membranes of the connective
tissues called meninges.

• Outer most Duramater

• Middle Arachnoid
• Inner most Piamater. The space between the membrane is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid
that protect the brain from mechanical shocks. The brain can be differentiated into three main regions fore
brain, mid brain & hind brain.
(A) Fore brain : It consists of olfactory lobes, cerebrum and diencephalon.
• Olfactory lobes : These are a pair of small, solid, cube shaped bodies. They are fully covered by
cerebrum. They receive impulse for smell.
• Cerebrum : It is the largest part of the brain. It consists of two cerebral hemispheres joined by a band of
nerve fibres called corpus callosum. Surface of cerebral hemisphere is made up of gray metter, called
cerebral cortex. It becomes highly folded to increase area for accommodation of more neurons. The folds
are called gyri & depression between them, are called sulci. Deep and wide sulci are called fissures. Fissures
divide each cerebral hemisphere into four lobes
(i) Occipital lobe : Region for visual perception
(ii) Frontal lobe : For muscular activities
(iii) Parietal lobe : For touch, smell, temperature and conscious association.
(iv) Temporal lobe : For auditory reception
Cerebrum has sensory areas where impulses are received from sense organs (receptors). Similarly it has a
general motor area from where impulses are sent to effector organs (Muscles & glands)
• Diencephalon : It encloses a cavity called third ventricle. It consists of thalamus and hypothalamus.
Thalamus serves as a relay centre for sensory and motor impulses from spinal cord and medullaoblongata
to cerebrum. It recognizes sensory impulses of heat, cold, pain, light & pressure. Floor of third ventricle is
called hypothalamus. It possesses control centres for hunger, thirst, thermoregulation, sleep, sex, stress etc.
(B) Mid Brain : It consists of two heavy fibre called Crura cerebri. These tracts connect fore brain to the
hind brain. These are the centres for control of eye movement and hearing responses.
(C) Hind brain :
• Cerebellum : Very large & well developed. It controls coordination and adjustment of

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 movements (equilibrium) and posture.
• Pons varolii : it lies above the medulla oblongata. It controls some aspects of respiration.
• Medulla oblongata : It is the posterior most part of the brain and continues into the spinal cord. It
controls involuntary functions of the body such as heart beat, rate of breathing, secretion of saliva,
swallowing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting etc.
• Spinal Cord : It lies in the vertebral column. It starts from medulla oblongata and extends
downward. It is also protected by three meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. It also acts as a centre for
spinal reflexes.
(ii) Peripheral nervous system : It included cranial nerves and spinal nerves. It mainly controls the
voluntary activities of the body. Cranial nerves also called cerebral nerves arise from brain. There are 12
pairs of cranial nerves in man and 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from spinal cord.
(iii) Autonomic nervous system : It controls Involuntary activities of internal organs such as hear, blood
vessels, glands & smooth muscles of alimentary canal & uterus. It is subdivided into
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic system.
Organs receive nerves from both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres. They have opposite effects
on the organs if one is stimulatory, the other is inhibitory.

10.1 (d) Effect of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic System :

Organ Sympathetic System Parasympathetic system

Heart Increase heart beat Decreases heart beat
Blood vessels Constricts arteries & raises blood Dilates arteries & lowers blood
pressure. pressure
Brochi Dilates bronchi making breathing Constricts bronchi
easier
Eye Dilates pupil Constricts pupil
Gastric secretion Inhibits secretion Stimulates secretion
Salivary glands Inhibits secretion of saliva Stimulates secretion
Urinary bladder Relaxes urinary bladder Contracts urinary bladder
Liver Reduces bile secretion Promotes bile secretion.

10.1 (e) Reflex Action :

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 Reflex action is the name given to the response which is at the level is spinal cord itself. It is a rapid
automatic response to a stimulus by an organ or a system of organs, which does not involve the brain for its
initiation. A reflex action is an unconscious (without will) and involuntary response of effectors (muscles or
glands) to a stimulus.
10.1 (f) Reflexes are of Two Types :
Simple or unconditioned and continued reflexes.
(i) Simple reflex : It is an inborn response to a stimulus. Where learning is not required. These are mostly
protective in function e.g. knee jerk occurred immediately when patella tendon of leg is sharply tapped,
quick closing of eyelid when an object suddenly comes in fort of eyes (corneal reflex) etc.
(ii) Conditioned reflex : These are not inborn. They are acquired by experience, training & learning. e.g.
Learning of cycling or driving of scooter etc.
10.1 (g) Electro Encephalogram (EEG) :
An instrument called electro encephalograph can record electrical activity of brain. The activity of brain is
recorded as electrical potentials such a record is called Electro Encephalogram. By placing two electrodes
on the scalp and leading via suitable amplifier to ink writing device, record of four different types of waves
is obtained. These waves are named as alpha, beta, delta and theta and vary in frequency. These waves give
the characteristic activity of brain which is very useful for clinical purposes.

DAILY PRACTICE PROBLES # 10

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. The effect of daily light period on flowering is called

(A) photooxidation (B) phototropism (C) photoperiodism (D) photorespiration
2. Brain stem is formed by the union of
(A) optic lobes (B) cerebellum with optic lobes
(C) corpora striate (D) mid brain, ponsvarolli and medulla oblongata
3. Number of spinal nerves in man are
(A) 11 pairs (B) 13 pairs (C) 6 pairs (D) 31 pairs
4. Third ventricle occurs in
(A) cerebrum (B) cerebellum (C) medulla oblongata (D) diencephalon
5. The pineal body is considered as
(A) an endocrine gland (B) an organ concerned with voluntary actions
(C) an organ concerned with vision (D) a vestige of third eye and endocrine gland

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6. Part of brain involved in interpretation, storage of information and initiation of response on the basis of
past experience is
(A) motor area (B) cerebellum (C) sensory area (D) association area

7. Autonomic nervous system controls

(A) reflex action (B) sense organs (C) internal organs (D) skeletal muscle

8. The study of nervous system and its disorders is called

(A) neurogenesis (B) hematology (C) neuroglia (D) neurology

9. In reflex action the reflex arc is formed by

(A) brain → spinal cord → muscles (B) receptor → spinal cord → muscles
(C) muscle → receptor → brain (D) muscles → spinal cord → receptor

10. The sensation of sight in human brain is perceived by

(A) optic lobe (B) occipital lobe (C) frontal lobe (D) parietal lobe

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Systematically represent the path of a reflex action. From where it is controlled ?

2. What are the functions of the following endocrine glands?

(i) Pancreas (ii) Thyroid (iii) Adrenal (iv) Ovaries (v) Tastes

3. Name the parts of endocrine system called as super master and master, also write their functions.

4. Write a short note on electroencephalography (EEG).

5. Write a short note on forebrain ?

6. Distinguish between cerebrum & cerebellum.

7. What are the functions of hindbrain ?

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LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

8. Write a short note a nerves. Also write about the different types of nerves found in human body.
9. What is hypothalamus ? Where it is situated? What are its main functions and secretions ?
10. Describe the structure of neuron with the help of a well lablled diagram.
11. Write down the source, site of action and functions of the following.
(i) Auxins (ii) Progesterone (iii) Thyroxin (iv) Ethylene (v) Insulin
12. Write a short note on secretory nature of.
(i) Pancreas (ii) Liver (iii) Testes (iv) Ovaries (v) Adrenals
13. Define ‘nerve impulse’. Which structure in neuron helps to conduct a nerve impulse ?
(i) Towards the cell body (ii) Away from the cell body [CBSE, 2004]
14. Which hormone is responsible for the development of moustache and beard in men. [CBSE, 2004]
15. What is the difference between sensory and motor neurons. Which parts of human brain are responsible for
auditory reception and sensation of smell ?
16. Which type of glands in human body secrete hormone ? State any one location for them. [CBSE, 2004]

ANSWERS
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLESM # 9

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C B A C B A A B C B

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLESM # 10

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C D D D D D C D B B

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Subject : Biology GET IT FREE FROM WEBSITE www.tekoclasses.com Class : X (CBSE)

CONTENT
PART – II
S.No. Topics Page No.
1. Reproduction 1 - 23
2. Heredity & Inheritance 24 - 40
3. Our Environment 41 - 58
4. Origin and Evolution of life 59 - 73

REPRODUCTON

11.1 MEANING OF REPRODUCTION :
Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce new living organisms similar to them. It is one of
the important characteristic of life.
11.1 (a) Purpose of Reproduction :
Reproduction is aimed sat multiplication and perpetuation (stability) of the species. In other words it
proves group immortality by replacing the dead individuals with new ones.
11.1 (b) Basic Features of Reproduction :
The modes of reproduction vary is different organisms. However all the these have certain common basic
features. These are -
(i) replication of DNA (ii) cell division
(iii) Formation of reproductive bodies or units (iv) development or reproductive bodies into offspring
11.2 FORMS OF REPRODUCTION :
Animals reproduce in a variety of ways. Which are categorized in two categories i.e. Asexual and sexual
reproduction.
11.2 (a) Asexual Reproduction :
Definition : Production of offspring by a single parent without the formation and fusion of gametes is
called as asexual preproduction. It is more primitive type or reproduction. If ensures rapid increase in
number.
Occurrence : Asexual reproduction occurs in protozoans and some animals such as sponges, coelentrates,
certain worms and tunicates. It is absent among the higher invertebrates and all vertebrates.
Type of Asexual Reproduction: Asexual reproduction takes place in the following principal ways :
(i) Fission : it is the simples form of reproduction in which unicellular organism either devised into two or
many organisms.
• It is also divided into two types :(A) Binary fission : It is a type of reproduction in which nuclear
division is followed by the appearance of a constriction in the cell membrane, which gradually deepens inward and

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divides the cytoplasm into two parts, each with one nucleus. Finally two daughter cells are formed.
e.g. Amoeba
(B) Multiple fission : Sometimes the nucleus several times into many daughter nuclei. The daughter
nuclei arrange at the periphery of the parent cell, and a bit of cytoplasm around each daughter nuclei is
present. nucleus develops an outer membrane. Finally the multinucleated body divides into many
daughter cells. e.g. Plasmodium.
(ii) Budding : Formation of daughter individual from a small projection which is called as bud, arising on
the parent body is called as budding.
Budding is also of two types :(A) Exogenous budding : [External budding] In this, bud arises
from the surface of parent body, e.g., Hydra. (B) Endogenous budding : [Internal budding] In this, bud arises
inside or within the parent body e.g., Sponges.
NOTE : During the process of budding, the bud remains attached to the parent body so as to derive it’s nutrition
from the parent but as it matures, it get’s detached form the parent body.
(iii) Fragmentation : It is a type reproduction or the regeneration ability of the organisms to replace
their lost part. In this process an entire new organism can grow from certain pieces or cells of the
parent organisms. e.g. Flatworm.
(iv) Spore formation : It is a process of reproduction most commonly found in fungi, some cocci and
bacillus bacteria. During this process a structure called as sporangium is formed. In this structure
nucleus divides several times and each nucleus with a little trace of cytoplasm forms a spore. These
spores are then liberated out and develop into a new hyphen, e.g. Rhizopus.
(v) Vegetative propagation : This is a type of reproduction found in higher plants in which a new plant
is formed from vegetative part of the plant such as roots, stems or leaves.
It is of following types :
(A) Cutting : This is the very common method of vegetative propagation practised by the
gardeners all over the world. It is the process in which a vegetative portion from plant is taken and
is rooted in the soil to form a new plant e.g. Grapes, Sugarcane etc.
(B) Layering : In this process the development of adventitious roots is induced on a stem before it
gets detached from parent plant, e.g, Mango, roses etc.
It is of three types :
• Mound layering : In the process of layering the
lower stem branch of plant is used. Leaves are
removed from this stem. Then it is bent close to the
ground, pegged and covered with the moist soil in
such a way that it’s rowing tip remains above the solid
surface. This pegged down branch is called as layer.
After a few days the covered portion of stem develops
roots. This stem is then detached from the parent plant
and is grown separately from the parent plant and is
grown separately into a new individual .e.g Jasmine

NOTE : The formation of adventitious roots in a layer can be hastened by injuring the ’layer’ by
tonguing, ringing or notching.

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 • Air layering : It is adopted in those plans where
stem cannot be bent to the ground. In this process
the stem is girdled (i.e. ring of the bark is
removed). then it is covered with moist moss or
cotton and wrapped with a polythene sheet to
preserve the moisture. After few weeks
adventitious roots develop from the injured part.
The branch along with roots in then separated
from the parent plant and planted to grow into a
new plant. e.g. Orange, Pomegranate etc.

• Grafting : The process of joining together of two different plants in such a manner that they live
as one plant is called as grafting. Out of the two plans one is rooted in the soil and is known as the
stock. The other part consist of a small shoot bearing one or more buds, it is known as scion. Their
union is carried out in such a way that their cambium must overlap each other e.g. Mango, roses
etc.
(vi) Micro propagation : It has now become possible due to recent techniques to produce a large
number of plantlets from a small piece of tissue taken from the shoot tip or other suitable plant
parts. This method of propagation is called as micropropagation. It involves the process of tissue
culture. e.g., Orchids, ornamental plants etc.

• Significance of vegetative propagation

(A) It is used to propagate a plant in which viable seeds are not formed or very few seeds
are produced e.g. Orange, pineapple, banana etc.
(B) Vegetative propagation helps us to introduce plants in new areas where the seed
germination fails to produce mature plant due to change in environmental factors and the
soil.
(C) Vegetative propagation is a more rapid, easier and cheaper method of multiplication of
plants.
(D) By this method a good quality of a race or variety can be preservers.
(E) Most of the ornamental plants are propagated through vegetative propagation. e.g.
Rose, Tulip etc.
(vii) Parthenogenesis : It is a modification of sexual reproduction in which an egg develops into a
complete offspring without fertilization. It is monoparental (i.e. fusion of gametes does not occur,
only a single parent gives rise to a new individual).
• Significance of asexual reproduction : It brings about multiplication of the species only.
It does not play a role in evolution as no variation is introduced into the new individual
formed by it.

11.2 (b) Sexual Reproduction :

• Definition : Production of offspring by formation and fusion of special haploid cells called as gametes.
These are contributed generally by two parents. i.e. ,male gamete and female gamete is called as sexual
reproduction.
• Occurrence: Sexual reproduction occurs nearly in all animals including those which reproduce asexually.
In most animals there are two sexes male and female, and the differences between them are genetically
determined.
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 • Types of sexual reproduction :
(i) Syngamy : It involves the complete and permanent fusion of two gametes to form a composite cell called
as zygote. This is a common mode of sexual reproduction.
(ii) Conjugation : It involved temporary pairing of two parents which exchange their pronuclei and then
undergo the process of separation .e.g Paramecium etc.

• Characteristics of sexual reproduction :

(i) It is generally biparental [i.e. it involves two parents ]
(ii) It involves formation and fusion of gametes.
(iii) Cell divisions are both meiotic & mitotic during gamete formation and mitotic during development of
zygote into an offspring.
(iv) The offspring’s are not genetically identical to the parents.
(v) Fertilization in case of humans is internal.
(vi) Infects can be fed on mother’s milk.
(vii) Parental care is very well developed,

• Significance of sexual reproduction :

(i) It results in multiplication and perpetuation of species.
(ii) It contributes to evolution of the species by introducing variation in a population much more rapidly
than asexual reproduction.

• General Terms :
(i) Fertilization : It is the process of fusion of gametes.
(ii) Unisexual organism : In case of humans male and female sex organs are separate and therefore called
as unisexual.
(iii) Bisexual : In plants and some organisms like tapeworm, earthworm etc. both male an female organs
are present in the same individual and therefore called as bisexual.
(iv) Gonads: Organs which are involved in the formation of gametes are called as gonads.
(v) Copulation or mating : The process of transfer of male gametes into female body.

11.3 REPRODUCTION IN A FLOWERING PLANT :

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11.3 (a)A flower Consists of Following Parts :
(i) Calyx: The sepals collectively are called as calyx. They are usually green in colour and protect the inner
whorls of a flower especially during bud formation.
(ii) Corolla : It consists of coloured petals. They are normally large often fragrant and bright coloured.
Their primary function is to attract animals and insects for pollination.
(iii) Androecium / stamen/male reproductive organ : The stamens are referred to as the male reproductive
organ. A typical stamen is differentiated into three parts, they are filament connective and anther.
(A) Filament : It forms the stalk that bears more or less cylindrical or avoid anther.
(B) Connective : It connects anther to filament.
(C) Anther : It is present on the top of filament. Each anther consists of two lobes that is why it is called
as bilobed. Bed anther lobe has two pollen sacs which contain millions of tiny microscopic grains,
called as microspores. The pollen grains are like yellow dusty powder in appearance.

(A) (B) (C)

Fig. :(A) , entral view showing connective

(B) dorsal view
(C) t.s. of fanther showing pollen chambers

(vi) Gynoecium / pistil / female reproductive organ :

• It is located in the center of a flower.
• It is composed of one or more carpals.
• The freely occurring units of the carpals in a flower are called pistils.
• Each pistil usually consist of three distinct parts - ovary, style and stigma.
(A) Ovary : It is a basal, swollen part of the pistil The ovary has one or more chambers called the loculi
which is distributed in a special cushion like parechymatous tissue called the placenta, from which the
ovule develops.
(B) Style : From the top of the ovary arises a long, elongated structure called as style.
(C) Stigma : The terminal end of style is called as stigma. The stigma is normally rough, hairy or sticky
to hold pollen grains during pollination process.

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11.3 (b) Pollination :
The transfer and deposition of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called as
pollination.
• Types of pollination : Pollination is of two type -
(i) self pollination : It is the process of transfer of the pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of either
the same or genetically similar flower. It is further divided into two types :
(A) Autogamy: It is a type of self pollination in which the pollen grains are transferred from the anther
to stigma of the same flower e.g. Wheat, rice pea etc.
(B) Geitonogamy : It is a type of self pollination in which the pollen grains are transferred from the
anthers of one flower to the stigma of another flower borne either on the same plant or a genetically
identical plant.

• Significance of self pollination :

• It maintains purity of race.
• It also maintains the superiority of variety once developed.
(ii) Cross pollination : it is the process of transfer of the pollen grains from the anther of one flower to
the stigma of another flower borne on a different plant of the same species.

POLLINATION

eS lf
lf-pollination Cros-s pollination

(Flower pollinated by the pollen grains (Flower pollinated by pollen grains or na other flower borne on a
of the msa e flower or na ther flower different plant of the msa e ps ecies lS os known as Allogamy or
bornt on the msa e pant ) Xenogamy)

Autogamy Geitonogmy
(Flowe r is pollinated by pollen (Flower is pollinated by the pollen grains
grains of the msa e flower ) Of na other flower borne either on the msa e plant or on a genetically
identical pant)

Fig : Flow diagram showing the types of pollination

• The transfer of pollen grains occurs through various ways, which may be biotic or abiotic.
(i) Abiotic factors Technical terms
Wind Anemophily
Water Hydrophily

(ii) Biotic factors

Insects Entomophily
Birds Ornithophily
Bats Chiropterophily
Snails Malacophily.
• Significance of cross pollination :
(i) Increase in yield and adaptability.
(ii) It eliminates defective traits and produces new varieties.
(iii) It also leads to the hybrid production.

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11.3 (c) Fertilization is a Flowering Plant :
• Fertilization is a process of fusion of male gamete with the female gamete.
• The process of formation of male gametophyte in case of plants is called as microsporogenesis.
• The process of formation of female gametophyte in case of plants is called as megasporogenesis.
• The process of pollination occurs, due to which the anther get stuck up to the stigma.
• After reaching to stigma pollen grains develops a pollen tube.
• This pollen tube grown through the length of style, from where it reaches to ovule.
• Pollen tube comprise of two male gametes, which is later on released in the embryo sac through an
opening called as micropyle.
• Here one male gamete fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote and the other male gamete fuses
with the polar bodies to form a triploid nucleus which later on produces the structure called as
endosperm.
• The process of fusion of one of the male gamete with egg and the other male gamete with polar bodies
is called as “double fertilization.”
• The fusion of one male gamete with the two polar bodies to form endosperm is called a “triple fusion”
(at it involves one male gamete and two polar bodies).

NOTE : The endosperm is meant to provide nourishment to the developing embryo.

• After fertilization sepals and petals fall and zygote undergoes a series of mitotic division to from a
multinuclear embryo.
• At maturity wall of ovules changes to seed coat of which outer one is hard and is known as testa, while
inner one is called as tegnum.
• Ovule change into seed and ovary wall change into fruit wall.

FIG: SHOWING FERTILIZATION IN A FLOWER

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SELF POLLINATION AND CROSS POLLINATION
S.NO. SELF POLLINATION CROSS POLLINATION
1. Pollen grains are transferred from the Pollen grains are transferred from the anther
anther to the stigma of the same flower of one flower to the stigma of another flower
(autogamy) or another flower on the borne on a different plant of the same species
same plant (geitonogamy) (allogamy).
2. Both the anther and stigma mature at The anther and stigma of a flower generally
the same time. mature at different times.
3. It can occur even when the flowers are It occurs only when the flowers are open.
closed
4. External agent is not required for self- An external agent abiotic or biotic, is
pollination. essential for cross-pollination
5. It is economical for the plant. Cross-pollination is not economical at the
plant has to produce a lot of pollen grains,
nectar, scent and bright-coloured corollas etc.
6. Self-pollination ultimately results in Cross-pollination produces the offspring
progenies which are pure lines i.e. which as hybrids i.e., heterozygous. They
homozygous. show variations in characteristics.
7. In cannot eliminate useless or harmful It can eliminate useless or harmful
characters. characters.
8. Highly useful characters get preserved Useful characters cannot be preserved in the
in the race. progenies.
9. Self-pollination does not introduce any Cross-pollination introduce variations in the
variations and hence the offspring are offsprings. These variations make these
unable to adapt to the changed plants to adapt better to the changed
environment. environment for the struggle for existence.
10. Immunity of the race towards disease Immunity of the race towards disease is
falls in the succeeding progenies. usually marinated in the succeeding
progenies.
11. Yield of the plant gradually falls with Yield of the plant usually does not fall.
time.
12. Self-pollination never helps in the Cross-pollination is a mechanism of roducing
production of new varieties and species. new varieties and species among plants.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 11

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Cleistogamous condition is present in

(A) Brassica oleracea (B) Solanum tuberosum (C) Arachis hypogea (D) Allium cepa

2. Which of the following regenerated with the help of layering?

(A) Cactus (B) Rose (C) Mango (D) Jasmine

3. Development of egg without fertilization is

(A) parthenocarpy (B) polyembryo
(C) parthenogenesis (D) adventive embryony

4. Anemophily is pollination by
(A) air (B) water (C) insects (D) animal

5. Pollination between different flowers of same plant is called

(A) autogamy (B) geitonogamy (C) allogamy (D) xenogamy

6. Double fertilization is
(A) fusion of two male gametes with egg
(B) fusion of one male gamete with egg and the other male gamete with the polar bodies
(C) both are correct
(D) both are incorrect

7. The structure meant for the nourishment of developing embryo in case of plant is
(A) pollen tube (B) endosperm
(C) both A & B are correct (D) none of these

8. The embryo sac of a typical dicot at the time of fertilization is -

(A) 8 called (B) 7 celled (C) 6 called (D) 5 celled

9. The genetic information is stored in -

(A) DNA (B) RNA (C) Ribosome (D) ER

10. Each female flower consist of

(A) ovary (B) stigma
(C) ovary, style and stigma (D) thalamus

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SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is reproduction ?
2. What is the basic requirement of sexual reproduction ?
3. What is the difference between binary and multiple fission ?
4. What is a spore ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

6. What is budding ? mention it’s types.
7. What are accessory sex organs ?
8. What is gonad and what are it’s functions ?
9. Define implantation.
10. Differentiate between vas deferens and vasa efferentia.

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REPRODUCTION

BL-12

12.1 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS :

• Mammals are unisexual.

• Reproductive system of each organism consists of many reproductive organs.

• These can be primary sex organs or secondary sex organs.

• The primary sex organs are called as gonads. They produce sex cells or gametes and also secrete sex

hormones.

• The gonads of males are called a testis, which produce sperms.

• The gonads of females are called as ovaries, which produce ova or female gametes.

• Secondary sex organs include the reproductive ducts which transport gametes and reproductive

glands which help in process of reproduction. These organs do not produce gametes.

• e.g., In males : Vasa efferentia, epididymis, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct, urethra etc. In females :

Fallopian tube, uterus, vagina, mammary glands etc.

• Accessory or external sec characters help to distinguish the two sexes of a species externally.

• e.g., In male : Muscular body, more height, low pitched voice, moustaches etc.

In female : High pitched voice, breast development, lateral pubic hairs etc.

• Puberty : Beginning of sexual maturity is known as puberty.

• At this stage primary sex organs start functioning.

• Secondary sex organs develop dully under the influence of sex hormones produced by primary sex

organs.

• In the stage of puberty body growth is very rapid.

• It occurs at the age of 10 - 14 years in girls and 13 - 15 years in boys.

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12.1 (a) Male Reproductive System :

Fig : Male reproductive system.

• Male reproductive system comprises of following parts :

(i) Testis (ii) Scrotum (iii) Vasa efferent
(iv) Epididymis (v) Vas deference (vi) Ejaculatory duct
(vii) Urethra (viii) Accessory sex glands (ix) Penis
(i) Testis :
• They are soft, smooth, pinkish, oval organs. They are housed [present] in a sac like structure
called as scrotum. Outer covering is called as as tunicavaginalis.
• It’s inner covering is called as tunica albuginea.
• Ingrowths of tunica albuginea are called as septa, that divide the testis into 200-300 lobules.

Fig : Longitudinal section of mammalian testis .

• It also consist of convoluted somniferous tubules.

• These somniferous tubules at one end join to form tubules which open into a network of irregular
cavities known as rete testis.
• This rete testis comes out from a dorsal surface of the testis with the help of vesa efferentia.
This vasa efferentia combines to form a single tube which becomes highly coiled and from
epididymis.
• This vasa efferentia combines to form a single tube wihich becomes highly coiled and form
epididymis.

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 • Epididymis peon into a narrow tube vas deferens.
• Somniferous tubules from the spermatogenic tissue of the testis.
• It consists of a germinal epithelial layer at the periphery. Spermatogenesis occurs at the center.
• It forms spermatogonia which grows and form spermatocytes which further grow to form
primary spematrocytes, which undergo meiosis to form secondary spermatocytes and then
spematids.
• The later (i.e. spermatids) metamorphose into spermatozoa.
• This process of formation of spermatozoa from spermatogonia is called as spermatogenesis.
• These spermatozoa are nourished during the development by nurse cells.

Epithelial layer

Cuboidal cells

Mitosis

Spermtogonia
growth
Primary spematocytes
meiosis
Secondary spermatocytes
(23 - chromosomes)
Spermatid
metamorphosis
Spermatozoa

these are then nourished by nurse cells

Flow chart showing the process of Spermatogenesis

• In between somniferous tubules, there are interstitial cells known as Leydig cells which secrete
male hormone called as testosterone. This hormone helps in the growth and development of male
sex hormone.
(ii) Scrotum : It is a pouch of pigmented skin arising from the lower abdominal wall and hanging between the legs.
• It is divided internally into two compartments by a muscular partition called as septum scroti.
• Scrotum possesses smooth involuntary dortus muscles.
• Scrotum sac is connected to the abdominal cavity through inguinal canal.
• Function of dortus muscle is to change the position of testis to keep them at proper temperature.
• Scrotum has temperature 1 - 3 lower than body temperature which favours the formation of sperms.
• Duct system :
(iii) Vasa efferentia : Rete testis is connected to epididymis through a fine tubule called as vasa efferentia. They
help in conduction of sperms.

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 (iv) Epididymis : They are long tubules which lie compacted along the testis from their upper ends to lower
back side. Its walls are muscular and glandular to provide or secrete nutritive fluid which provides
nourishment to the sperms.
(v) Vas deference :
• Vasa efferentia from epididymal duct finally opens into vas deferens.
• It comes out through inguinal canal passing over urinary bladder to receive ducts from seminal
vesicles.
• They are thick walled and muscular and conduct sperms.
(vi) Ejaculatory duct : They are short, straight, muscular tubes, each formed by the union of vas deferens
and duct of seminal vesicles.
(vii) Urethra : it arises from urinary bladder forming a urinogenital canal. It carries urine, sperm and
secretion of seminal vesicles, prostrate and cowper’s gland.
(vii) Accessory glands: They consist of prostrate gland, a pair of seminal vesicles, and a pair of cowper’s
gland.
(A) Prostrate gland : It is a large pyramidal gland that encloses a part of urethra including it’s junction
with the ejaculatory duct. It contains 30 - 40 alveoli which open separately into urethra by fine ducts.
Secretion is thick, milky and alkaline which continue 20 - 30% semen.
(B) Cowper’s glands “ These are a pair of small glands, present below the prostrate and consist of
separate opening. Their secretion provide lubrication to the reproductive track.
(C) Seminal vesicle : It is paired and present between urinary bladder and rectum. It’s secretion from a
major part of semen (60-70%). It is thick, viscous, alkaline having proteins, fructose and prostaglandins.
(ix) Penis : It is a male copulatory organ which also passes urine. It consists of highly sensitive covering of
skin called prepuce.

12.1 (b) Semen :

it is milky, viscous and alkaline fluid, ejaculated by reproductive system of males during copulation
• It’s quantity is 2.5 - 4.0 ml at a time having about 40 million sperms.
• Semen has chemical for nourishment of sperms neutralizing the acidity of urethra and vagina,
stimulating their movement in female tract.
• Spermatogenesis starts at puberty under the influence of gonadotropin secreted from anterior
pituitary gland.

12.1 (c) Structure of Sperm :

Each sperm consists of following parts :
(i) Head (ii) Neck (iii) Middle piece (iv) Tail
(i) Head : It is oval in structure. It is composed of a large nucleus and a small acrosome. The nucleus is
compact. It consists of DNA and basic proteins. Acrosome lies at the tip of nucleus. It is formed of golgi
complex. It consist of hydrolytic enzymes and is used to contact and penetrate the egg during fertilization.

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 (ii) Middle piece: It is cylindrical in human sperms. It consists of ATP and mitochondria in a thin layer of
cytoplasm. Mitochondria is coiled round the axial filament, it provided energy and it is said to be the
power house of the sperm.
(iii) Neck : It is very short and constrains two centrioles. These play an important role during the first
cleavage of the zygote.
(iv) Tail : It is very long, slender and tapering. It is formed of cytoplasm. It’s main function is to provide
mobility to the sperm. End piece consists of the exposed axial sheath, which forms a fine filament.

Fig : Mammalian spam

12.2 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM :

Female reproductive system comprises of following parts :
(i) Ovaries (ii) Fallopian tube (B) Uterus
(iv) Vagina (v) Glands
(i) Ovaries : These are oval shaped lying near the kidney.
• Ovary is covered by two layers outer is made up of germinal epithelial cells.
• Inner layer is called as tunica albuginea which is made up of fibrous connective tissues.
• The ovary consists of inner part called as stroma.
• It’s outer peripheral pat is called as cortex while inner part is called a medulla.
• Medulla consists of connective tissues containing numerous blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and
nerves.
• Cortex consists of graffian follicles in all the stages of development.

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 The developing oocyte is called as primary oocyte

This primary follicle undergoes maturation to form

secondary follicle or secondary oocyte

It later on forms follicular layer

This follicular layer undergoes mitotic

division to form secondary egg membrane.

This stage is called as secondary follicle

This is called as graffian follicle

FLOW CHART SHOWING THE FORMATION OF GRAFFIAN FOLLICLE

• Cortex also consists of large mass of yellow cells termed as corpus luteum, formed in an empty graffian
follicle after the release of it’s ovum.
• The cells of corpus luteum secrete the hormones
(A) progesterone during pregnancy. (B) Relaxing at the end of pregnancy.
• Oestrongen is secreted by graffian follicle and intestinal cells. It’s secretion is maximum during ovulation.
It is also secreted during pregnancy.

Fig : structure of ovum .

(ii) Fallopian tube : It is about 10 cm. long muscular tube. It shows 4 regions :
(A) Infundibulum : It is the broad, funnel shaped proximal part of fallopian tube. It’s margin bears
finger like processes called as fimbriae. This is meant to carry ovum by ciliary movement to the uterus.
(B) Ampulla : It is a long, wide part of the fallopian tube next to the Infundibulum.
(C) Isthmus : it is the narrow part that follows ampulla.
(D) Uterine part : It is also narrow and passes through the uterine wall.
(iii) Uterus : It is large, highly elastic sac specialized for the development of the embryo.
• It is situated in a pelvic cavity.
• It is attached to the fallopian tube from the sides and below it opens into vagina through cervix.
• This uterus undergoes cyclic changes during phases of menstrual cycle.

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 (iv) Cervix : Lower narrow cervix that projects into the vagina. The cervix communicates above with the
body of the uterus and below with the vagina.
(v) Vagina : It is a large, median, elastic, muscular tube. This canal opens externally into labia minora and
labia majora. It’s folds consist of stratified squamous epithelium which has mucous lining It secretes a
lubricant fluid. Labia majora is the innermost, thin, moist fold. Labia minora is outer large and hair
covered. pH of vagina is 4.3 It is also called a “Birth canal”.

Fig : Female reproductive system.

(vi) Gland :
• Bartholin’s gland : it secretes a clear, viscous fluid under sexual excitement.
• The fluid serves as a lubricant during copulation or mating.
12.2 (a) menstrual Cycle :

FIG : SHOWING VARIOUS PHASES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE

• It is a cyclic phase of the flow of blood with mucus and tissues etc. from the uterus of a woman at
monthly interval.
• It occurs on average of 28 days interval.
• It starts at the age of 12-14 years and stops at 45-50 years of life.
• This cycle stops during pregnancy.
• The menstrual cycle consists of following phases :
(i) Bleeding or menstrual phase :
• It is the first stage of menstrual cycle.
• It’s duration is of 5 days but normally bleeding is found for 2-3 days.

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 • In this stage hormones estrogen, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone are found in minimum quantity.
• Total 100 ml, of blood flows in a complete bleeding phase.

(ii) Proliferative phase :

• In this phase F.S.H. stimulate development and maturation of graffian follicles.
• In this phase oestrogen level rises which leads to formation of new endometrium.
• It lasts for about 10 - 14 days. Thinnest endometrium is found in this phase.
• It is also called as follicular phase.

(iii) Ovulation phase :

• At this phase ovulation occurs.
• Ovulation occurs in the presence of FSH and LH.
• Thicket endometrium found in this stage.
• It also lasts for about 14 days.

(iv) Secretory phase : In this sage both oestrogen and progesterone levels are high.
• If fertilization takes place, this stage extends till to the parturition (giving birth to a child)
• If, fertilization does not take place, this stage completes on 28th day of menstrual cycle.
• The commencement of menstruation of puberty is called as menarche.
• It’s stoppage around the age of 50 years is called as menopause.
• The period between menarche and menopause is the reproductive phase in human female.

12.2 (b) Ooganesis :

Oogenesis is a process of formation of ovum. the ovum is a rounded, non-motile cell. It’s size varies in
different animals depending upon the amount of yolk in it.
Ovum consists of two types of coverings :
(i) Inner thin, transparent, non-cellular, covering called as zona pellucida. it is composed of protein and
sugars. It is secreted y by follicle cells.
(ii) Outer thick covering is called as corona radiata.

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 Germinal epithelial cells

Primary Oocyte

division

(i) Secondary (ii) Polar

Oocyte body
[23 chr.]

Futher division
occurs Polar body Polar body
Mature Polar body
oocyle
or
ovum

FIG : THE PROCESS OF OOGENESIS

12.3 FERTILIZATION :
• It included release of ovum from the ovary, where it remains viable for 12 - 24 hours.
• At the time of sexual intercourse the sperm enters in to the vagina.
• Only one sperm is required for fertilization of the ovum.
• The head of the sperm penetrates the corona radiate layer of ovum and then the zona pellucida layer.
• This process if facilitated by acrosome and proteolytic enzymes.
• After penetration the tail and body of the sperm is lost, only head remains inside the ovum.
• It’s head begins to swell and forms male pronucleus.
• Here the pronuclei of sperm and ovum fuse to from a new resultant nucleus each contributing 23
chromosome, so that the resultant may have 46 chromosomes.

Sperm

With the help of acrosomes & proteolytic

enzymes enter the ovum

Tail & body of the sperm is

lost after it’s entry in the ovum

Head of sperm swells up to form male pronucleus

This male pronucleus fuses with female pronucleus

Forms a new resultant nucleus with 46 chr. Each

contributing about 23 of chromosomes.

Zygote

Embryo

Fig : Showing process of fertilization

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 • Fusion of male & female gametes is called as fertilization. Zygote starts developing in fallopian tube
and forms embryo, this later on moves to uterus. It gets attached to uterine walls and the whole process
is called as implantation
• Placental formation occurs between uterine wall and the foetus, which provides nourishment to the
foetus.
• The time period for which a developing fetus remains inside the mother’s womb is called as gestation
period. it extends for about 9 months or 40 weeks or 280 days.
• The process of giving birth to baby is called as parturition.

12.4 ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION :

• It is a technique to make a female pregnant by artificially introduction semen into vagina.
• In this process semen from a good quality male is collected, preserved by freezing and used when
required.
• In case of humans it is also being used for improving the chances of fertility.
• A man may be infertile due to insufficient number of sperms, weak or premature ejaculation, inability
of penis to undergo and enter the vagina or nonmotile sperms.
• In this case husband’s semen is collected, concentrated and introduced artificially into the wife’s
vagina. this is called as artificial insemination.
• If the husband’s sperms are faulty, some donors sperm can be used. This is called as artificial
insemination donor.
• Artificial insemination has following two advantages.
(i) Semen of good quality male animal is used to inseminate a number of females.
(ii) Preserved semen can be transported to distant places, excluding the need for sending the male
animal there.

Differences between asexual and sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
1. It is always unipraental It is generally bipraental.
2. Gametes are not formed. Gamete are formed
3. There is no fertilization. Fertilization occurs in it.
4. In involves mitotic cell division. It involves meiotic cell division.
5. Daughter individual are genetically identical Daughter individual are different from
to the parent theparents.
6. It does not contribut to the evolution. It contributes to the evolution by introduction
variation in the offspring

12.5 POPULATION GROWTH :

• The term population refers to the total number of individuals of a species occupying particular
geographical area at a given time.

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 • The scientific study of human population is called as “demography”.
• Factors that lead to increase in population are :
(i) Increase in protection from risk (ii) Illiteracy
(iii) Desire of son (iv) Decline in death rate
(v) Desire for more earning hands
(vi) Unawareness of various birth control measures

12.6 METHODS ADOPTED FOR POPULATION CONTROL

(i) Planned control of population :

(A) By educating people about the advantages of small family.
(B) Raising the age of marriage can help in reducing population growth.
(C) By family planning.
(ii) Temporary methods :
(A) Safe period : A week before and after the menstrual cycle is considered to be infertile and fertilization,
does not occur during this period.
(B) Coitus interrupts : It involves withdrawal by males before ejaculation so that semen is not deposited, in
vagina.
(C) Chemical means : These includes certain jellies, paste, foam tables which when introduced into vagina
cause immobilization of sperms and kill them. They also include contraceptive pills which inhibit secretion
of F.S.H. and L.H. ovulation is inhibited.
(D) Mechanical means :
• They involve use of condoms.
• Use of cervical or diaphragm cap which is fitted in the vagina that checks the entry of sperms.
• IUD (intrauterine device) called as copper-T is also fitted in the uterus which prevents fertilization.
(E) Surgical methods: It involves tubectomy in females which involves cutting of fallopian tube, and
vasectomy in males which involves cutting of vas deference from both the sides. However, surgical
removal of ovaries also occurs which is called as ovariectomy and in males removal of testis called as
castration.
• Abortion : Medical termination of pregnancy is called as abortion.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 12
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. In mammals, the testes lies in scrotal sacs due to

(A) presence of urinary bladder (B) presence of rectum

(C) long vas-deference (D) requirement of low temperate for spermatogenesis

2. Graffian follicles are found in

(A) testis of mammas (B) ovary of frog (C) ovary of cockroach (D) ovary of mammals

3. Site of fertilization in mammals is

(A) ovary (B) uterus (C) vagina (D) fallopian tube

4. The process of reproduction which involves only a single parent to form an individual

(A) sexual reproduction (B) asexual reproduction

(C) none of these (D) Both A & B are correct

5. Cowper’s glands are found in

(A) male mammals (B) female mammals (C) male amphibians (D) female amphibians

6. Loss of reproductive capacity in women after age of 45 years is

(A) menstruation (B) ageing (C) menopause (D) menarche

7. Release of oocytes from ovary is

(A) gestation (B) ovulation (C) parturition (D) implantation

8. Acrosome is made up of

(A) mitochondria (B) centrioles (C) golgi bodies (D) ribosomes

9. Acrosome aids the sperm to

(A) penetrate vitelline membrane of ovum (B) find ovum

(C) swim (D) higher activity

10. Progesterone is secreted by

(A) corpus luteum (B) thyroid (C) thymus (D) testis

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SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Why regeneration is considered to be a method of reproduction ?

2. When an organism is called as bisexual, what does it indicate ?

3. Define fertilization.

4. What happens to the ovule and the ovary after fertilization?

5. Define the term puberty.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

6. What is name the sexual cycle in human females called ? Explain the sexual cycle in human female.

7. What do you understand by gestation period and what is it’s time duration ?

8. In case of self-pollination there are two possibilities. State them.

9. What is the function of fallopian tube ?

10. What is semen ?

ANSWER

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 11

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. C D C A B B B B A C

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 12

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D D D B A C B C A A

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HEREDITY & INHERITANCE

BL-13
13.1 HEREDITY :
In includes those traits or characters which are transmitted from generation to generation and are therefore
fixed for a particular individual.
• Genetics : Study of Heredity and variation is said to be known as genetics. The term genetics was first
of all used by W. Bateson in 1905. An Austrian monk namely Gregor Johann Mendel was the first person
to study genetics. He was therefore regarded at the ‘Father of Genetics’.

13.2 VARIATIONS :
Variation is concerned with the difference between the individuals of same species and also between the
offspring of the same parents.
• Variations could be of two types :
(i) Somatic variation (ii) Germinal variation
(i) Somatic variation : Somatic variation affects the somatic cells of an organism. It is neither inherited
from parents nor transmitted to next generation. It is acquired by individual during it’s own life and is lost
with it’s death. It is therefore also called a acquired variation or blastogenic variation.
• Somatic variations are due to :
(A) Environment : This includes the factors that affect the organisms such as food, air, pressure, humidity,
after etc. Environment affects all the organisms however they also affect the plants because they cannot
move or hide themselves.
• Light : Strong sunlight affects the human skin by increasing the dark pigment melanin in the epidermal
cells. Melanin protects the underlying cells by absorbing the ultra violet rays of the sun. Plants grown in
shade become weak and pale and acquire long internodes and broad leaves.
• Habitat : It also affects the genetic make - up of an individual and leads to variations.
• Nutrition : It is also one of the various factors that cause variations.
(B) Use of disuse of organs : Continuous use of an organ makes it better developed whereas constant
disuse makes it reduced.
(C) Conscious efforts : Conscious efforts by man produce somatic variations in humans themselves, in
domestic animals and plants.
(ii) Germinal variation : This variation affects the germ cells of an organism and is consequently
inheritable. It is received by the individual from the parents and is transmitted to the next generation.

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 • Germinal variation could be of two types :
(A) Continuous variations : [Fluctuating variations] The continuous variations are very common in nature.
These are found in all animals and plants and affect all of their organs. These various are unstable and do
not contribute to the formation of new species.
• Causes of continuous variations :
• New combination of character
• Crossing over [recombination of genes]
(B) Discontinuous variations : This variation refers to large conspicuous differences of the offspring from
the parents. This variation is also known as mutation and the individual with this kind of variation is called
as mutant. This is not common in nature. It appears suddenly. It is stable and inheritable.
• Causes of discontinuous variations :
• Modification in structure of chromosomes.
• Alteration in the chemical nature of genes.
• Change in the number of chromosomes.
• Radiations and chemicals may also cause mutation.
• Significance of Variation :
• Variation enables the organisms to adapt themselves to the changing environment.
• If forms raw material for evolution.
• It enables the organisms to face the struggle for existence in a better way.
• It helps men in improving the races of useful animals and plants.
• It is the basis of heredity.
• It also leads to the existence of new traits.

13.3 HEREDITY AND VARIATION IN ASEQUAL REPRODUCTION :

There are organisms in which reproduction occurs by asexual means. These include Bacteria, Amoeba,
Euglenas, fungi etc. many plants such as rose and sugarcane, lower animals namely Hydra, planaria etc.
This asexual reproduction is monoparental and the organism produced by it inherits all the traits of it’s
single parent. It is almost a carbon copy of the parent and is known as it’s clone. It is also called as clonal
reproduction. Here, one thing to the noted is the term ‘offspring’ is not used in case of asexual
reproduction.
• The clones may develop variations :
• By environmental factors
• By mutation
The variations causes due to environmental factors are not transferable but these variations which are
caused by mutation are stable and inheritable.

13.4 HEREDITY AND VARIATIONS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION :

Variation is very much common in animals and plants which carry reproduction by sexual means. The
reason for this is the sexual reproduction is biparental and the offspring receives some traits from one
parent and some traits from other parent. Interbreeding of closely related individuals reduces the
occurrence of variations in the offspring’s produced by the sexual reproduction.

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13.4 (A) Earlier Views of Heredity :
Different theories have been put forward to explain in what physical form the traits pass from the parents
to the offspring’s.
(i) Vapour theory: This theory was proposed by a Greek Philosopher Pythagoras. he states that each
organ of an animal body emitted some kind of water vapour and that a new individual was formed by
the combination of these vapours from different organs.
(ii) Fluid theory : Another Greek Philosopher Aristotle [384 - 322 B.C.] stated that
(A) Man’s semen is highly purified blood.
(B) Woman’s menstrual fluid is the female semen, which was not as pure as man’s semen.
(C) The two combines during intercourse and female semen provides substance for embryo formation and
male semen provides from and vitality to embryo. This is called as Blending theory of inheritance.
(iii) Preformation theory : This theory was proposed by Anton Von Leeuwenhoek who was the first to
observe human sperm. He called them “animalcules”. He states that each sperm has a potential to
develop into a new individual when introduced into the woman’s womb where it could get
nourishment. This theory was rejected because it failed to explain the inheritance of maternal
characters by offsprings.
(iv) Particulate theory : A French biologist Maupertius proposed that each animal produces minutes
particles for reproduction and a new individual is formed by the union of the particles of the two
parents. Then a famous English Naturalist Charles Darwin forwarded the theory of pangenesis for
the inheritance of characters. He assumed that tiny particles called pangenes or gemmules by his were
formed in the various parts of the body and migrate to the reproductive cells and hence to the
offsprings to guide the formation of the respective parts. Thus the young one has a blend (mixture) of
the pangenes hence here is a presence of the characters of both the parents.
Mendel was the first to give the particulate theory of heredity. He had experimented on pea plants to
study how traits are transferred or inherited. He unfortunately failed to explain the cause of
inheritance. He also proposed various principles to explain the inheritance. Later on other scientists led
to the discovery of genes and chromosomes.

13.5 MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTS AND LAWS OF INHERITANCE :

Gregor Johann Mendel is appropriately called as Father of genetics. With the help of his experiments on
garden pea, he was able to formulate laws which explain the manner of inheritance of characters. Although
Mendel described his results in 1866, his work was recognized only in 1900, when Mendel’s laws were
rediscovered simultaneously y Hugo de varies a Dutch biologist, Carl Correns a German botanist and
Erich von Tschermak as Austrian botanist.
• Some general terms used by him are :
• Dominant trait : The trait which appears in F1 generation is called as dominant trait. It is denoted by
capital letter. e.g. TT (tall).
• Recessive trait : The traits which does not appear in F1 generation is called as recessive trait. It is
denoted by small letter, e.g. tt (dwarf)
• Monohybrid cross : It involves the study of inheritance of one pair of contrasting character. e.g.
Inheritance of tall and dwarf characters.
• Dihybrid Cross : It is the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters.
• Trihybrid cross : it is the inheritance of three pairs of contrasting characters.

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 • Back cross : The cross between F1 generation with any of the parents is known as back cross.
• Test cross : The cross between F1 generation and the recessive parent is called as test cross.
• Genotype : It is the genetic representation of a trait. e.g. TT or Tt for a tall plant.
• Reciprocal cross : The reciprocal cross involves two crosses concerning the same characteristic but with
reverse sex. It means if in the first cross A is female and B is male then in the second cross A will be
male and B will be female.
• Phenotype : it is the expression of a trait e.g. Tall pea plant, it can be noted by direct observation of an
individual.
• Allele : Term allele refers to each of the members of a genetic pair.
• Homozygous traits : They have similar alleles for specific trait (TT or tt). They produce only one type
of gametes.
• Heterozygous traits : They have dissimilar alleles for a specific trait (Tt). They produce two types of
gametes

13.6 MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT

Mendel chose garden pea as plant material for his experiments, since it has following advantages.
• Well defined characters
• Bisexual flowers
• Predominantly self-fertilization
• Easy hybridization
• Cross fertilization is possible

13.6 (a) Crossing Technique Employed by Mendel :

Since garden pea is self- fertilizing, the anthers have to be removed before maturity. This operation is called
as emasculation. The stigma is protected against any foreign pollen with the help of a bag. The pollens then
at the dehiscence stage, is brought from the plant to be used as male parent and is dusted on the feathery
stigma of the emasculated flower. At the time of pollination, the pollens should be mature and the stigma
should be receptive.
Emasculation

Bagging [for protection]

Dehiscence [by dusting pollens]

Pollination

(i) Traits choosen by Mendel for his experiment : There are seven traits which Mendel has choosen, they
are as follows :

S.No. Characters Dominant Recessive

1. Stem height Tall Dwarf
2. Flower colour Violet White
3. Flower position Axial Terminal
4. Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5. Pod colour Green Yellow
6. Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7. Seed colour Yellow Green

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 (ii) Mendel performed experiments in three stages :
(A) he made sure that, the plant which he had choosen must be true breeding plant, by letting the plant to
undergo self-fertilization.
(B) He performed the process of cross palliation of alternate forms of traits. The resultant generation
obtained was termed as hybrid, and these hybrids formed are called as F1 generation i.e. First filial
generation.
(C) He allowed the hybrid to self pollinate upto five generations and these generations are subsequently
termed as F2 , F3 , F4 and so on.
(iii) Result’s of Mendel’s Experiments :
(A) When the self pollination was made and F1 generation was obtained, it was found that the resultant
generation would express only one of the trait and not the other. The trait which is being expressed is
called as dominant, whereas the one which is not expressed is called as recessive trait.
(B) In the F1 generation obtained by self p
ollination, the dominant and the recessive traits obtained were in the ratio of 3 : 1 i.e. 75% of the
offsprings which appeared in F2 generation had dominant trait, while 25% had recessive trait. This
ratio of 3 : 1 is also said to be known as Mendelian monohybrid

ratio .

T T
t Tt Tt
t Tt tt

In F1 all are tall

(F1F1)

T t
T TT Tt
t Tt Tt

In F2 we will get 3 : 1 ratio.

TT → Homozyous Tall 
Tt → Heterozyous tall  Tall [ 3]
Tt → Heterozyous tall 
tt → Homozygous dwarf]dwarf [1]

Homozygous tall : Heterozygous tall : Homozygous dwarf

1 : 2 : 1

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 (C) Mendel further found that the phenotypic ratio of 3 : 1 of dominant to recessive form of a trait was
actually a genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 of pure dominant, hybrid and pure recessive forms. The traits
which remain hidden in F1 generation got expressed in F2 generation. This was later on proved in F3
generation.
(iii) Reasons from Mendel’s success :
(A) He selected true breeding [pure] pea plant for his experiment.
(B) He studies single trait at time.
(C) He kept an accurate mathematical record of his breeding experiments and noted down the number of
each type of offspring produced in each cross.
(D) He was lucky enough to select the seen traits, as the gene for these traits are located on four different
chromosomes.

13.7 MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE :

On the basis of the experiments performed and the result obtained Mendel formulated four laws. They are :

13.7 (a)The Principle of Paired Factors :

Each character in a n individual is governed by two factors called as gene. The alternative form of gene is
called as alleles or allelomorphs. If an individual consists of similar types of alleles, they are called as
homozygous e.g. TT, tt while those having different types of alleles are called as heterozygous e.g. Tt etc.

13.7 (b) The Principle of Dominance or Law of Dominance :

When two homozygous individuals with one or more sets of contrasting character are crossed the
characters that appear in the F1 hybrids are dominant characters and those which do not appear in F1 are
recessive characters.

13.7 (c) The Principle of Segregation of Law of Segregation :

[Law of purity of gametes] The law of segregation states that when a pair of contrasting factors or genes or
allels are brought together in a heterozygous condition, the two remains together without being
contaminated but when gametes are formed form them the two separate out from each other. This is also
known as Mendel’s first law of heredity.

13.7 (d) The Principle of Independent Assortment or Law of Independed Assortment:

If the inheritance of more than one pair of characters is studied simultaneously, the factors or genes for each
pair of characters assort out independently. It is called as Mendels second law of heredity.

13.8 DIHYBRID CROSS :

In dihybrid cross Mendel crossed genetically pure yellow round seeded (YYRR) pea plant with green
wrinkled (yyrr) pea plant. All the plants of F1 were all yellow and round seeded (YyRr). In F2 generation
four types of plants appeared as :
• Yellow rounded - 9 • Yellow wrinkled - 3
• Green round-3 • Green wrinkled - 1
So here phenotypic ratio is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1

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 yr yr
YR YyRr YyRr
YR YyRr YyRr

All F1 plants are yellow and round seeded

YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR Yyrr YyRR YyRr
Yr YYRr Yyrr YyRr Yyrr
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr

13.9 GENES :
The term ‘gene’ was introduced by Johansson for Mendelian factor. Gene determines the physical as well
as physiological characteristics. They are transmitted from parents to their offsprings generation after
generation. Genes are located on chromosomes where they occupy specific position called as locus. This
was proved experimentally by T.Bovery and W.S. Sutton in 1902. They are responsible for characteristic
features.

13.9 (a) Molecular Structure of Gene :

Chemically gene is formed of DNA. If consists of following parts :
(i) Recon : It is the smallest unit of DNA capable of undergoing crossing over and recombination.
(ii) Muton : It is also the smallest unit of DNA capable of undergoing mutation.
(iii) Cistron : It is a gene is real sense, which consists of number of nucleotides and which is capable of
synthesizing a polypeptide chain of enzymes.
(iv) Replicon : It is a unit of replication.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 13
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. When a red flower homozygous pea plant is crossed with a white flower plant what colour is produced in
F1 ?
(A) Red (B) White (C) Pink (D) Red and white
2. Mendel formulated the law of purity of gametes on the basis of
(A) dihybrid cross (B) monohybrid cross (C) back cross (D) test cross
3. A cross between AaBB X aa BB yields a genotypic ratio of
(A) 1 AaBB : 1 aaBB (B) 1 AaBB : 3 aaBB (C) 3AaBB : 1 aa BB (C) All AaBb
4. In monohybrid cross what is the ratio of homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive individual in
F2 - generation ?
(A) 1 : 2 : 1 (B) 2 : 1 / 1 : 2 (C) 3 : 1 / 1 : 3 (D) 1 : 1
5. Back cross is a cross between
(A) F1 × F1 (B) F1 × Recessive (C) F1 × Dominant (D) F1 × any parent
6. A white flowered mirabilis plant rr was crossed with a red coloured RR, if 120 plants are produced in F2
generation. The result would be
(A) 90 uniformly coloured and 30 white (B) 90 Non - uniformly coloured and 30 white
(C) 60 Non-uniformly coloured and 60 white (D) All coloured and No white
7. Which one caries extra nuclear genetic material ?
(A) Plastids (B) Ribosomes (C) Chromosomes (D) Golgi - complex
8. The ratio of phenotype in F2 generation of a dihybrid cross is
(A) 3 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 : 1 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
9. Branch of biology deal s with heredity and variation is called
(A) Palaentology (B) Evolution (C) Genetics (D) Ecology
10. The factors which represent the contrasting pairs of characters are called
(A) Dominant (B) Recessive (C) Determinants (D) Alleles
SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWERT YPE QUESTIONS
1. What are autosomes ?
2. Name the four nitrogen bases of a nucleotide.
3. Define the term genetics.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

4. What does the science of genetics deals with ?
5. Differentiate between submetacentric and metacentric chromosomes with diagram.
6. Explain the structure of a gene.
7. What is genetic engineering ?
8. Why did Mendel choose pea (Pisum sativum) for his experiment ?

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HEREDITY & INHERITANCE

BL-14
14.1 CHROMOSOMES :
E.Strasburger discovered chromosomes in 1875. They are thread like structure and are called as
chromosomes due to their affinity towards dyes [chroma = colour]. Genes are located on chromosomes
and the genetic material of chromosomes is DNA. These are also called as “hereditary vehicles “ as they
are capable to transmit hereditary material to the next generation.
• Chromosomal theory of Inheritance: Sutton and Boveri Proposed this theory in 1902. This theory
consists of following salient features :
• Somatic cells are diploid in number i.e. these consist of two sets of chromosomes, one set from the
mother and other set from the father.
• The chromosomes retain their structural uniqueness, identity and continuity.
• The paired condition of chromosomes is resorted during fertilization.
• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis at the time of gamete formation provides an evidence
that genes are located on chromosomes. This also explain the mechanism of segregation of
characteristic at the time of gamete formation.

14.1 (a) Structure of chromosomes :

Each chromosome consists of two strands which are called as chromatids. The two chromatids of a
chromosome are joined together at a point called as centromere.

(a) Structure of chromosome (b) Metaphase chromosome.

• Depending on the position of centromere a chromosome can be of different types and attain different
shapes during anaphase. They are :

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 (i) Metacentric : They are V - shaped. These have centromere in the middle of chromosome so that the two
arms are almost equal.
(ii) Sub metacentric : They are L shaped. In this centromere is slightly away from the mid point, so that the
two arms are unequal.
(iii) Acrocentric : They are J-shaped with centromere at subterminal position.
(iv) Telocentric : They are rod shaped, having terminal centromere.

Types of chromosomes.

14.1 (b) Size and Shape of Chromosomes :

Size of chromosomes greatly very during cell cycle.
(i) Interphase : It forms long thread like structure called as chromatin.
(ii) Metaphase : Chromosomes are thickest and shorted and therefore have definite shape and size. At this
stage chromosomes can be counted easily.
(iii) Anaphase : They have rod like J-shaped or V- shaped structures during this phase.
(iv) Telophase : They have thread like structure.

Fig : To show condensation of chromatin network.

14.1 (c) Number of Chromosomes :

Each species has a fixed number of chromosomes in it’s cells. In case of human beings, there are 46 number
of chromosomes in each body cell. 46 chromosomes in an ordinary human cell are of 23 different types. So,
there are two chromosomes, of each kind. The two chromosomes of each kind are called as homologous
chromosomes. A cell which has the full number of chromosomes with two of each kind is called as diploid
cell. In other words a diploid cell has two sets of each type chromosomes. The gametes (or sex cells) of
human being are different from their other body cells because they contain only half the number of
chromosomes.
A cell which has half the number of chromosomes, with one of each kind, is called as haploid cell. In other
words a haploid cell has only one set of each type of chromosomes e.g. sperm and eggs have only 23
chromosomes each, which is half the number of chromosomes of other body cells. So, the gamete is a

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 haploid cell. Females consists of two similar gametes and therefore called as homogametic and males
consist of dissimilar gametes and therefore called as heterogametic. The term homomorphism and
heteromorphy are also used for females and males respectively. During spermatogenesis two types of
sperm cells will be produced one which contains X chromosome and the other which contains Y
chromosome. During oogenesis each egg will produce two X chromosomes. If X-chromosome of male fuses
with X-chromosome of female it will produce a female child. If Y-chromosome of male fuses with X-
chromosome of female it will produce a male child.

14.1 (d) Properties of Chromosomes :

The chromosomes must poses five important properties :
(i) Replication : Synthesis of new DNA molecule which is identical to the parent DNA molecule.
(ii) Transcription : Synthesis of RNA molecule from DNA molecule.
(iii) Change in appearance.
(iv) Repair : It means repair of damaged parts of DNA.
(v) Mutation : Development of genetic changes.

14.1 (e) Functions of Chromosomes :

(i) They carry hereditary characters from parents to offsprings.
(ii) They help the cell to grow, divide and maintain itself by synthesis of proteins.
(iii) They undergo mutation and thus contributed to the evolution of animals.
(iv) They guide cell differentiation during development.
(v) They also help in metabolic processes.
(vi) They bring about continuity of life.

14.2 SEX DETERMINATION :

• Chromosomes are of two types :
• Autosomes or Somatic chromosomes : These regulate somatic characters.
• Allosomes or Heterosomes or Sex chromosomes : These chromosomes are associated with sex
determination. Sex chromosomes were first discovered by “Mc Clung” in grasshopper. X chromosome
was discovered by Henking.

14.2 (a) X X - XY Type or Laygaues Type :

This type of sex determination is first observed by Wilson and Stevens in Laygaeus insect. It is of two
types :
(i) X X female and XY male : In this type of sex determination female is homogametic while males is
heterogametic e.g. Humans

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 (ii) XY female and XX male : In this type of sex determination female is heterogametic while males is
homogametic. e.g. Butter flies, moth and vertebrates like birds, fishes and reptiles.

14.2 (b) XX Female and XO Male or Pronetor Type :

sIn this type of sex determination there is a deficiency of one chromosome in male. In this type female is
homogametic and male is heterogametic. e.g. Grasshopper and Cockroach

14.3 GENETIC ENGINEERING :

In recent years, techniques for manipulation of prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic DNA have witnessed a
remarkable development. This has allowed breakage of a DNA molecule at two desired places to isolate a
specific DNA segment and than insert it in another DNA molecule at the desired position. The product thus
obtained is called as recombinant DNA and the process is called as “genetic engineering”.

14.3 (a) Tools of Genetic Engineering :

The various biological tools used in the synthesis of recombinant DNA are :
(i) Enzymes (ii) Vehicle or vector DNA
(i) Enzymes :
(A) Lysing enzyme : These are used to open up the cells to get DNA for genetic experiment.
Lysozyme is commonly used to dissolve the bacterial cell wall.
(B) Cleaving enzymes : These are used to break DNA molecule. Three types of cleaving enzymes are
known. They are :
• Exonuclease : Which cut off nucleotides from 5’ or 3’ ends of DNA molecules.
• Endonuclease : Which cleaves the DNA duplex at any point except ends.
• Restriction endonucleases : Restriction endounucleases are the enzymes which recognize specific
nucleotide sequence and cut the DNA molecules. Restriction endonuclease was discovered by Arber in
Eschrichia coli. Nathans (USA), Smith, Arber won the Noble prize for Physiology and Medicine in
1978 for the discovery of restriction endounuclease.
(C) Synthesizing enzymes : These play an important role in the synthesis of DNA strands on suitable
templates. They are of two types :
• Reverse transcriptase : These help in the synthesis of complimentary DNA strands on RNA templates.
• DNA polymerase : This helps in the synthesis of complimentary DNA strands on DNA templates.
(D) Joining enzymes : These help in sealing gaps in DNA fragment which are joined by complimentary
base pairing e.g. T4 - ligase.

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 (E) Alkaline phosphatase : These cut off phosphate groups from free ends of linearized vehicle DNA to
prevent recircularization.
(ii) Vehicle or vector DNA : The DNA used as carrier for transferring a fragment of foreign DNA into a
suitable host called as vehicle DNA. e.g. Plasmid and Bacteriophage DNA.

14.3 (b) Application of Genetic Engineering :

(i) It is applied for modification of plant colours.
(ii) It helps in cloning of transgenic plants.
(iii) It can be proved beneficial in case of plants e.g. “nif” gene is transferred in plants which is responsible
for N2 fixation.

(iv) It is used for curing various genetic disorders.

(v) It can be proved beneficial for synthesis of insulin growth, hormone etc.
(vi) It can be used to delay ripening of fruits.

14.4 DNA : (DEOXYRIBOSE NUCLEIC ACID)

DNA was first isolated by Frederick Meischer from the nucleus of pus cells and called as nuclin. Watson
and Crick gave the double helix model of DNA. They also won a noble prize for it. Chromosomes consist of
nucleoprotein which are made up of nuclei acid and proteins.

14.4 (a) Composition of DNA :

DNA molecule consists of following three components :
(i) Deoxyribose sugar (ii) Phosphate group
(iii) Nitrogen bases : They could be purines or pyrimidines.
(A) Purines are : Adenine [A] and Guanine [G]
(B) Pyrimidines are : Thymine [T] and Cytosine [C]
• One DNA molecule consists of a u nit called nucleotide.
• Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate
• Nucleoside = nitrogen base + deoxyribose sugar

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14.4 (b) Structure of DNA :

Structure of a DNA molecule

(i) It consists of two helical polypeptide chins which are coiled around each other.
(ii) Both the chains are antiparallel to each other.
(iii) Both chains have complementary base pairing i.e. A = T and G ≡ C.
(iv) The two strands are held together, by hydrogen bonds.
(v) The diameter of a DNA molecule is 20 Å.
(vi) One helix consists of about 10 bp.
(vii) It’s helicle length is 34 Å and the distance between two nearest base pairs is 3.4Å.
(viii) It also consists of major and minor grooves.
(ix) Each strands consists of a backbone made up of alternating deoxyribose sugar and phosphate, they are
joined by phosphodiester bonds.

14.5 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS :

• Karyotype : In includes the details of the number of chromosomes of an organism, their size and shape.
It is better achieved in metaphase stage.
• Idiotype : It is a diagrammatic representation of a karyotype.
• Banding technique : For the purpose of identification chromosomes a special staining technique is
sued. It is called as banding technique.
• In the process of genetic engineering the gene that is transferred into an organism is called as
transgene. An organism that contains and express a transgene is called as transgenic organism or
generically modified organism [GMO].

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 • Hirudin is a protein that prevents blood clotting. The gene encoding hirudin is chemically synthesized.
This is then transferred to Brassica napus, where hirudin is accumulated in seeds. It is then purified
and used as medicine.
• A soil bacterium Bacillus thuringenesis, produces a crystal “cry” protein. This protein is toxic to the
larvae of certain insects. There are various types of cry protein each resistant to specific type of insect.
• Viral chromosomes consist of proteins and one nucleic acid i.e. DNA or RNA. Nucleic acid may be
single or double stranded, may be circular or linear. Virus with RNA as genetic material is called as
retrovirus e.g. HIV [Human Immuno Deficiency Virus]
• Replication : DNA is the only molecule capable of self duplication so it is termed as “living molecule”.
All living beings have the capacity to reproduce because of this chrematistic of DNA. DNA replicates
in the “S” phase of cell cycle. In the process of replication a new DNA is synthesized in the form of
strands.
• These strands are of two types :
(i) Leading strands : Formation of new strands always takes place in 5’ - 3’ direction. It is a continuous
strand.
(ii) Lagging strand : it is formed as small fragments known as okazaki fragments. These fragments are
later on joined by ligase enzymes.

DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 14

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The main aim of plant breeding is
(A) to produce improved varieties (B) to make soil fertile
(C) to control pollution (D) to become more progressive
2. Plants having similar genotypes produced by plant breeding are called
(A) clone (B) haploid (C) autopolyploid (D) genome
3. Two allelic genes are located on
(A) the same chromosome (B) two homologous chromosomes
(C) two non-homologus chromosomes (D) any two chromosomes
4. Mendel’s law of segregation is based on separation of allels during
(A) gamete formation (B) seed formation (C) pollination (D) embryonic development
5. What is the effect of sexual reproduction ?
(A) Offspring is weak (B) Offspring is like the parent
(C) Offspring is more vigorous (D) Offspring is diseased

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6. Disease resistant varieties can be produced by
(A) crossing a plant with wild variety (B) treating with colchicine
(C) crossing with hormones (D) treating with low temperature
7. Heterozygous tall plants were crossed with dwarf plants, what will be the ratio of dwarf plants in the
progeny
(A) 50% (B) 25% (C) 75% (D) 100%
8. A pure tall plant can be differentiated from a hybrid tall plant
(A) by measuring length of plant
(B) by spraying gibberellins
(C) if all plants are tall after self-pollination
(D) if all plants are dwarf after self-pollination
9. Allel is the
(A) alternate trait of a gene pair (B) total number of genes for a trait
(C) total number of chromosomes of haploid set (D) total number of genes present a chromosome
10. In animals sex determination is due to
(A) X-chromosome (B) Y - chromosome (C) A - chromosome (D) B - chromosome

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is karyotype ?
2. What is meant by chromosomes ?
3. Who is known as the father of genetics ?
4. What determines the functional property of a gene ?
5. What was transgenic organisms ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUETIONS

6. What does the law of segregation states ?
7. What do you understand by the term nucleoside and nucleotide ?
8. How it was established that genes are located on chromosomes ?
9. Explain the importance of variations.
10. Explain the law of dominance.

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 ANSWERS
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 13

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B A D D B A D C D

DAILY PRACTICE PROBLEMS # 14

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A A B A C A A C A B

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OUR ENVIRONMENT

BL - 15
15.1 ECOSYSTEM :
• The term Ecosystem was coined by Tansley. According to him Ecosystem is a symbol of structure and
function of nature.
• The term Ecology was coined by Reiter.
• The term Ecology was first of all described y E.Haeckel.
• Father of India Ecology - Prof. Ramdas Mishra.
*8 The boundaries of ecosystem are indistinct and have an overlapping character with each other.
• “The total group of living things and environment of factors present in a particular place is called as
ecosystem/”
• It means any structural and functional unit of the environment that can be identified and studied is
called as ecosystem.
• Ecosystem may be natural or artificial, permanent or temporary. Large ecosystem is called as biome
such as desert, forest etc.
• Homeostasis : Self maintainable characteristic is found in ecosystem. It means an ecosystem maintains
the balance between the different trophic levels. Each trophic level controls the other trophic level in an
ecosystem.
• Cybernetics : A science of self control [homeostasis] in an ecosystem is called as “cybernetics”

15.1 (a) Types of Ecosystem :

Natural (e.g. lake, forest, grassland etc.) or man made (e.g. an aquarium crop field etc.)
(i) Temporary : e.g. rain-fed pond etc.
(ii) Permanent : e.g. lake, forest etc.
• An ecosystem may be as small as a drop of pond water. Such small ecosystem is called as micro
ecosystem. Human activities may modify or convert natural ecosystem into man made ecosystem. Cutting
tree or forests and the conversion of land for tree plantation or agriculture etc. are some of the examples of
conversion of natural ecosystem to man made ecosystem.

15.1 (b) Components of Ecosystem :

Ecosystem consists of two components :
(i) Biotic component (ii) Abiotic component (environment, soil etc.
(i) Biotic components : Different biotic components are connected, through food chain or other relations.
That is why it is said that all the living organisms comes under biotic components. Food available for
biotic components can be synthesized, from inorganic raw material by the autrophs only.

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 Ecosystem

Biotic component Abiotic component

Producers Consumers Decomposers

Primary consumers Secondary consumers Top consumers

• Biotic components are of thee types which are essential for ecosystem.
(A) Producers : All the autotrophs of ecosystem are called as producers. The green plants are the main
producers. Green plants absorb solar energy and convert it into chemical energy. It means energy
enters into the ecosystem through the produces. The solar energy is the only ultimate source of energy
in ecosystem. This energy is available to the remaining living organisms through the medium of food.
(B) Consumers: All the heterotrophy of the ecosystem are known as consumers. Animals are the main
consumers. They directly (herbivorous) or indirectly (carnivorous) depend upon the producers. There
are various types of consumer which are as follows :
• Primary consumers : They are also known as secondary producers because they synthesize
complex materials in the cells by the digestion of food which they obtain from the plants. Such
living organisms which obtain food form the producers are known as primary consumers. Such as
all the herbivores of ecosystem.
• Secondary consumers : Animals which feed upon primary consumers and obtain their food. It
means those carnivorous which kill and eat the herbivorous. So that they are called as predators
e.g. Dog, Cat, Snake etc. In aquatic system whale fish is a secondary consumer.
• Top consumers : Those animals which kill other animals and earth them by they are not eaten by
other animals in the nature .e.g Lion, Vulture, Peacock and Man (human) in our ecosystem. Man
and peacock may be omnivorous.
(C) Decomposers or Microconsumer : Those living organisms which decompose the dead bodies of
producers and consumers and release mineral substances again into the soil which are present in the dead
bodies. So that decomposers help in mineral into the soil which are present in the dead bodies. So that
decomposers help in mineral cycle. Only because of this land is the main source of minerals. The main
decomposers in ecosystem are - bacteria and fungi which decompose continuously dead animals and dead
plants.
(D) Scavengers : Vulture never kills any animal so that vulture is a scavenger, not a decomposer. The
process of decomposition takes place outside the body of bacteria. The break down of the food materials
takes place in the body of vulture and minerals are released into the soil in the form faecal material. They
are also called as reducers because they decomposes and remove the dead bodies of the organism.

15.1 (c) Structure of an Ecosystem :

The structure of an ecosystem is characterized by the physical organization of biotic & abiotic components.
The major structural features of an ecosystem are species composition, stratification, trophic organization
and nutrients.

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 (i) Species composition : Each ecosystem has its own type of species composition. Different ecosystems
have different species composition. A great variety of species is found in forest ecosystem, whereas a
few species occur in a desert ecosystem.
(ii) Stratification : The organisms in each ecosystem from one or more layers or strata, each comprising the
population of particular kind of a species.
(iii) Trophic organization : Food relationship of producers and consumers is another way to predict
ecosystem structure. In an ecosystem there an be only 4 - 5 successive trophic levels because
(A) All the food available in one tropic level is not being eaten by another animal in the next trophic
level.
(B) All the food eaten by an animal is not useful, thus a part of energy containing food is passed out as
waste products.
(C) A large amount of energy is lost in respiration to drive organisms metabolism and thus, there is not
much energy left to support higher trophic levels.
Primary eS condary Top
Herbivores carnivores carnivores carnivores
Producers
T2 T3 T4 T5
T1

Decomposers
T6
Fig : Trophic levels in Ecosystem

• The amount of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium present in the oil at any given time is
termed as standing state.

15.1 (d) Functions of an Ecosystem :

(i) Productivity : Ecosystem helps of maintain the productivity, of the system. The rate of organic matter
or biomass production is called as productivity. The study of biomass production in the ecosystem is
called as production ecology.
(ii) Energy flow : Energy flow in an ecosystem is a key function of an ecosystem. It determines the
following two laws of Thermodynamics :
(A) First law : It states, that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be transferred from
one from to other.
(B) Second law : It states, that every energy change involves the degradation or dissipation of energy,
from concentrated to the dispersed form due to metabolic functions, so that only a small part of energy
is stored in the biomass.
(iii) Nutrient cycles : All living organisms get matter from the biosphere component i.e. lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere. Essential elements or inorganic substances are provided by earth and are
required by organisms for their body building and metabolism, they are known as biogeochemical or
biogenetic nutrients.
(iv) Development and stabilization : This function is necessary for the development and giving stability to
various life form’s by undergoing certain modifications.
15.2 FOOD CHAIN :
• The chain of organisms which involves transfer of energy from one trophic level to next trophic level is
called as food chain.

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 • The flow of food or energy is an ecosystem is called Food chain. Those organisms which join with the
food chain are termed as Trophic levels.
• Usually, there are four trophic levels present in the ecosystem because level of energy decreases during
the flow of energy from one trophic level to the another trophic level.
First trophic level [T1] : Producers
Second trophic level [T2 ] : Primary consumers
Third trophic level [T3] : Secondary consumers
Fourth trophic level [T4 ] : Top consumers
• The flow of energy occurs in an ecosystem from the first trophic level to the fourth trophic level in the
food chain. These are five trophic levels also found in a highly complex ecosystem in which tertiary
consumers are present in between the secondary consumer and top consumers, then fifth trophic level
(T5) formed by the top consumers.

Food chain in nature (a) in forest , (b) in grassland & (c) in a pond

15.2 (a) Types of food Chain :

There are three types of food chains which are found in nature.
(i) Predator food chain (ii) Parasitic food chain (iii) Saprophytic food chain
• Predator food chain extends from producers through herbivores to carnivores, parasitic food chain stat
from producers but ends with parasites and saprophytic food chain starts with decomposers.
Producers are autotrophic organisms which synthesize organic food from simple inorganic raw
material through photosynthesis by utilizing solar energy. A part of food synthesized by the producers
is used in their body building, while the rest is utilized in providing energy for various life activities.
• Some common predator food chains are given below :
• Vegetation → Grasshopper → Shrew → Hawk
• Vegetation → Rabbit → Wolf → Tiger

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 • Vegetation → Frog → Snake → Peacock
• Plant → Rat → Snake → Hawk.
• Aquatic food chains :
• Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Small crustacians
→ Predator insect → Small fish → Large fish → Crocodile
• Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Small fish → Large fish
Shark
• Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Fish → Crane → Hawk.

15.3 FOOD WEB :

In nature, the food chins are not isolated sequences but are rather interconnected with one another. “A
network of food chains which are interconnected at various trophic levels, so as to form a number o feeding
connection amongst different organisms of a biotic community is called as food web. The food web opens
several alternate pathways fro the flow of energy. Generally, food web operates according to test and food
performances of the organisms at each trophic level, yet availability of food source and other compulsions
are equally important. The concept of food web appears to be more real than that of simple food chain. The
food web increases the stability of an ecosystem by providing alternate source of the food and allowing
endangered population to grow in size. Many food chains are interlinked together to form food web in a
big ecosystem in which flow of food takes place through many directions such as forest. A food web which
is present in forest ecosystem is a highly complex and permanent (stable) type of food web.

• As much as food web complexes are there as much ecosystem is permanent or stable, such type of
ecosystem does not degenerate naturally and continues for longer time period.
• The ecosystems which have simple food webs are not more stable. It means that this type of food web
can be finished at nay time. Any attack or cutting of plants can causes the destruction of while
ecosystem e.g. Gondwana forest is converted into the desert by the activity of men. this is the example
of desertification by men.

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB

Food chain Food web

1. Food chain is the straight single path of 1. t consists of a number of inter – connected
transfer of food energy in the ecosystem. food chains through which food energy is
passed in the ecosystem.
2. Members of higher trophic level feed upon a 2. Members of higher trophic level can feed as
single type of organisms of lower trophic level. a number of alternative organisms of the lower
trophic level.
3. Presence of food web increases the stability
of the ecosystem.

15.4 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS :

An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of an ecological parameter like number of individuals
or amount of biomass or amount of energy present in various trophic levels of a food chain with producers
forming the base and top carnivores from the tip. Ecological pyramids could be upright, inverted or spindle
shaped. There are three important parameters of each trophic level in a food chain i.e. number of
individual, amount of biomass and amount of energy.

15.4 (a) Pyramid of Number :

In this type of pyramid the number of individual organisms in various trophic levels is shown. These
pyramids may be upright or inverted. The number of organisms of any trophic level depends upon the
availability of organisms which are used as food on lower level so that availability of food is the main
factor. These producers are of two types :
(i) Phytoplanktons : They are the inactive floating plant, because hey do not have locomotors organs e.g.
Diatoms.
(ii) Phytonektons : These plants swim actively in water, because in them locomotary organs are present.
Usually flagella are preset in these plants. e.g. Chamydomonas and dinoflagellates. The number of
phytoplanktons and phytonketons are higher per unit area of water because they are unicellular.

Producers
Pyramid of Number in Aquatic Ecosystem

• In a tree ecosystem the pyramid of number is inverted. This is called as parasitic ecosystem because bird
depend upon tree and parasites depend upon birds. Therefore with the increase in the number of trophic
levels, the number of the organisms increases sequentially.

Pyramid of number in tee ecosystem

• Pyramid of number shows biotic potential of an ecosystem.

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 • The number of members of any particular species in a favorable condition is called as their biotic
potential.
• When the number of the members of any species increases then it is called as population explosion.

15.4 (d) Pyramid of Biomass :

The biomass of each trophic level is shown by this pyramid. Mostly these pyramids are also upright (erect).
e.g. Tree ecosystem.
• Pyramid of biomass in aquatic ecosystem is inverted, because in this producers are micro organisms
and their biomass is lesser than other trophic levels.
• Pyramids of biomass show the standing crop of ecosystem. It means total amount of living matter at a
particular time in an ecosystem is called as standing crop.
• Total amount of nonliving matter in an ecosystem is called as standing state.

15.4 (c) Pyramid of Energy :

It always remains erect, because flow of energy is not cyclic. i.e. during the flow of energy at each trophic
level goes on decreasing.
• According to the 10% law of Linderman the 90% part of obtained energy of each organism is utilized
in their various metabolic activities and only 10% energy transferred to the next trophic level. So that
90% energy is lost at each trophic level therefore, top consumers like lion etc., are weakest ecologically.
• Pyramids of energy show the productivity of any ecosystem.
• Plant community : All types of plants present at a particular place to form a community, is called as
plant community. The distribution of any species at a place depends upon social nature of the species
which indicates cooperation between them.
• Synecology : The ecological study of any plant community is called as “gynecology”.
• Phytosociology : The study of structure of plant community is known as “phytosociology”
• Phytogeography : The study of distribution of the plants on the earth is called as “phytogeography”.
Some characteristics of plant community are as follows :
(i) Species diversity : There are many verities of organisms found in a community. The total number of
species of plants called as population. The ecological study of population is called as Autecology’s.
The maximum species diversity is found in tropical forest. The plants are called as flora and animals
are termed as fauna. The lowest species diversity is found in Tundra biome or Arctic desert.
(ii) Dominant species : The highest number of plants of a species present in a community is called as
dominant species and whole plant community is knows as the name of the species. Such as Prosop is
community on Aravali hills and Aravali hills and Pinus community on Himalaya.

• B.O.D. It shows the deficiency of oxygen in the water. Daphnia is the indicator of B.O.D.

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15.5 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION :
Between 20 and 26 km above the sea level ozone layer is present and the part of atmosphere containing it is
called ozonosphere (Stratosphere). This layer is established due to an equilibrium between photo
dissociation of ozone by UV - radiations and regeneration of ozone. The thickness of this ozonosphere
averages 5 km. The ozone layer acts as an ozone shield and absorbs the harmful UV - radiations of the
sunlight so protect the earth’s biota form the harmful effects of strong UV - radiations. So this layer is very
important for the survival and existence of life on earth.

15.5 (a) Causes of Thinning of Ozone Layer :

The decline in spring - layer thickness is called ozone hole. Ozone hole is largest over Antarctica and
was just short of 27 million sq. km. during September 2003. Main chemicals to be responsible for
destruction of ozone - layer are : chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halogens (used in fire extinguishers),
methane and nitrous oxide. Out of these, most damaging is the effect of CFCs which are a group of
synthetic chemicals and are used as collants in refrigenratorsare a group of synthetic chemicals and are
used as collants in refrigerators and air conditioners; as cleaning solvents, propellants and sterilant etc.
These CFCs produce “active chlorine” in the presence of UV - radiations. These active chlorine radicals
catalytically destroy ozone and convert it into oxygen. Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a
product of UV radiation acting on oxygen (O2) molecule. The higher energy UV radiations split apart
some molecular oxygen (O2) into free oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular
oxygen to form ozone as shown -
O 2 UV
 O+O
→
O + O2 
→ O 3
( Ozone)

In 1987, the United National Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded in forging an agreement to
freeze CFC production at 1986 levels.,
• Nitrous oxide: is produced in industrial processes, forest fires, solid waste disposal, spraying of
insecticides and pesticides, etc. Methane and nitrous oxide also cause ozone destruction.

15.5 (b) Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion :

The thinning of ozone layer results in increase in the UV radiation (in the rage of 290 - 320 nm) reaching the
earth’s surface. It is estimated that 5 percent loss of ozone results in 10 per cent increase in UV - radiations.
These UV - radiations can :
(i) Increases in incidences of cataract and skin cancer.
(ii) Decrease in the functioning of immune system.
(iii) Inhibit photosynthesis in most of phytoplankton so adversely affecting the food chains of aquatic
ecosystems.
(iv) Damage nucleic acids of the living organisms.

15.6 MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES :

15.6 (a) Introduction :

We often hear or read about environmental problems. These are often global-level problems and we
feel helpless to make any changes. There are international laws and regulations, and then there are our
own national laws and acts for environmental protection. There are national and international
organisations also working towards protecting our environment. The multi crore project of Ganga
Action Plan came about in 1985 because the quality of water in the ganga was so poor.

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15.6 (b)Pollution of the Ganga:

The Ganga runs its course of over 2500 km from Gangotri in the Himalayas to Ganga Sagar in the Bay of
Bengal. It is being turned into a drain by more than a hundred towns and cities in Utter Pradesh, Bihar and
West Bengal that pour their garbage and excreta into it. Largely untreated sewage is dumped into the
Ganga every day. In addition pollution is caused by other human activities like bathing, washing of clothes
and immersion of ashes or unburnt matter also. And then, industries contribute chemical effluents to the
Ganga’s pollution load and the toxicity kills fishes in large section of the river.
• Three R’s to save the environment :
(i) Reduce : This means ‘to use less’. We van save electricity by switching off unnecessary lights and fans.
We can save water by repairing leaky taps.
(ii) Recycle : This means that we can collect plastic, paper, glass and metal items and recycle these materials
to make required things instead of synthesizing or extracting fresh plastic, paper, glass or metal. In order to
recycle, we first need to segregate our waste so that the material that can be recycled is not dumped along
with other waste.
(iii) Reuse : This is actually even better than recycling because the process of recycling uses some energy. In
the ‘reuse’ strategy, we can simply use things again and again.

15.6 (c) need of Manage Our Resources :

Our natural resources are limited with the rapid increase in human population. Due to improvement in
health care, the demand for all resources is also increasing. Management of natural resources requires long
term perspective to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Natural resources should be
managed in such a way that every one of the society is benefited from its development. The waste
generated from exploration of natural resources should be disposed off safely. For instance, mining causes
pollution due to discard of large amount of slag during metal extraction.

15.7 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT :

It is the development which can be maintained for a long time without undue damage to the environment.
The objective of sustainable development is to provide the economic well being of the present and the
future generations and to maintain a healthy environment and life support system. It encourage forms of
growth that meet current basic human needs, thus sustainable development implies a change in all aspects
of life. It depend upon the willingness of the people to change their perceptions of the socio economic
environmental conditions and use of natural resources.

15.8 BIODIVERSITY :
It is the existence of a wide variety of species of plants, animals and microorganism in a natural habitant
within a particular environment. Biodiversity of an area is the number of species or range of different life
forms found there. Forests are ‘biodiversity hotspots’.

15.9 PRACTICES FOR CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT :

Conservation means ‘to keep safe’ whereas preservation means ‘to maintain the environment at it is’.
Various practices which can help in conserving and protecting our environment are as follows :
• The practice of crop rotation helps in conserving soil.

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 • Judicious use of fertilizers, intensive cropping, proper irrigating and drainage help in the conservation
of soil.
• The treatment of sewage prevents pollution of water bodies and helps in conserving fishes and other
aquatic life forms.
• National parks and wildlife sanctuaries should e established throughout the country in order to protect
and conserve will animals, birds and plant species.
• New trees should be planted in place of those cut for various purposes, which will protect the earth
from excessive heating.
• Harvesting of rain helps in the conservation of groundwater.
• Composting of solid organic waste for biogas and manure.

15.10 WILDLIFE :
It means all those naturally occurring animals, plants and their species which are not cultivated,
domesticated and tamed.

15.10 (a)Conservation :
It is the sensible use of the earth’s natural resources in order to avoid excessive degradation and betterment
of the environment. It includes - the search for alternative food and fuel supplies when these are
endangered, an awareness of the dangers of pollution and the maintenance and preservation of habitats
and its biodiversity.
(i) Steps for conservation of wildlife :
(A) Laws should be imposed to ban poaching or capturing of any animal or bird belonging to an
endangered species.
(B) The natural habitats of wild animals and birds should be preserved by establishing National Parks,
Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves throughout the country.
(C) The Government Department should conduct periodic surveys of National Parks, Sanctuaries and
Biosphere Reserves to have a knowledge of all the species of wild animals and birds.
(D) More attention should be given to conserve the endangered species of wild animals and birds to
prevent their extinction.
(E) Unauthorized cutting of forest trees should be stopped.

15.11 STAKEHOLDERS OF FORESTS :

The conservation of forests depend on its forest resources or its various stakeholder, who are as follows :

15.11 (a) People Who Live in or Around Forests :

(i) They depend on forest produce, for various aspects of their life.
(ii) The local people need large quantities of firewood, small timber.
(iii) Bamboo is used to make slats for huts and baskets for collecting and storing food.
(iv) Implements for agriculture, fishing and hunting are largely made of wood.
(v) People collect fruits, nuts and medicines from forests, their cattle also graze in forest.

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15.11 (b) Forest Department of the Government :
(i) Which owns the land and controls the forest resources.
(ii) People develop practices to ensure that forest resources are used in a sustainable manner.
(iii) The forest resources were overexploited after the British took control of the forest.
(iv) Forest department of independent India then owned the land and control the resources of the forest but
local needs such as herbs, fruits and fodder were ignored.
(v) Monoculture of pine, teak or eucalyptus have been started which can destroy the bio-diversity of the
area.

15.11 (c) Industrialist :

(i) Industries consider the forest as a source of raw material for its factories.
(ii) These industries are not interested for the sustainability of the forest in one area as they go to a
different area after cutting down all tree in one area.

15.11 (d) Wildlife and Nature Enthusiasts :

(i) They are not dependent of the forest but conserve nature and take part in its management.
(ii) Conservationists started with conserving large animals but are now preserving biodiversity as a whole.
(iii) The local people, for instance the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan worked for conservation of forest
and wildlife as a religious act. Thus management of forest resources has to take the interests of various
stakeholder into account.

15.12 TRADITIONAL USE OF FOREST :

• Alpine grasslands in Himalayas were grazed by sheep in summer.
• Nomadic shepherd drove their flock every summer in this area.

15.12 (c) Causes of Damages to Forests :

(i) Local people damage forest to fulfill their daily needs.
(ii) Deforestation caused by industrial needs.
(iii) Deforestation caused for development projects like building roads or dams.
(iv) By tourists or in making arrangements for tourists.

15.12 (b) Conservation of Forests :

• it includes the following methods :
(i) Afforestation . It is the practice of transforming an area into forest have not grown there, it involves
three types of forestry programmes.
(A) Social and Environmental forestry. It involves raising of trees for firewood, fodder and
agricultural implements for the benefit of rural and trial community.
(B) Agro forestry. It is an absolute commercial forestry developed to fulfill the need of various forest
based industries. It is done on the fallow land or free-grazing lands.

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 (C) Urban forestry. In involves growing of ornamental trees along roads, vacant lands and common
parts of urban areas.
(ii) People participation in forest management :
(A) The Sal forests in West Bengal got reduced alarmingly in 1972.
(B) Surveillance and policing to protect resulted frequent clash between forest official and the villagers.
(C) The department then changed its strategy and in Asabari forest, villagers were involved in
protection of the badly damaged Sal forest.
(D) In return, villagers were given employment and were allowed to collect firewood and fodder at
nominal fee.
(E) By 1983, the Asabari forest showed a remarkable recovery.
(iii) Economic growth and Ecological conservation :
(A) Forest resources should be used in an environmentally and developmentally sound manner.
(B) The benefit of controlled exploitation of resources goes to the people and the environment is also
preserved.
(C) If the exploitation is too high, economic and social development will be faster but the environment
will further deteriorate.
(D) We should use natural resources cautiously so that economic growth and ecological conservation
go hand in hand.
(E) Amrtia Devi Bishnoi National Award. In 1731, Amrita Devi Bishnoi sacrificed her life along with
63 persons for the protections of ‘Khejri’ trees in Khejrali village near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. In the
memory Government of India have recently instituted this award for Wildlife Conservation.’
(F) Chipko Movement : During 1970, In Reni village of Garhwal, a contractor was allowed to cut trees
in a forest near the village. When the contractor’s workers went to the forest to cut trees the woman of
the village hug the tree trunks to prevent the workers from cutting trees, Chipko means ‘hug’ and the
movement started by the villagers by hugging tees is called Chipko Andolan’.

15.13 WATER AS A BASIC NATURAL RESOURCE :

• It is a valuable national asset.
• It is the main requirement of human being.
• Water is of two types - salt water and fresh water.
• Fresh water is an unlimited natural resource, it can be obtained from three natural resources - rain
water, surface water and ground water.
• Human intervention pollutes water and also changes the availability of water in various regions.

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15.13 (a) Water Sources :
(i) Rain in India re due to monsoon.
(ii) Failure to sustain underground water due to loss of vegetative cover, development of water demanding
crop and pollution from industrial effluents.
(iii) Small dams, canals and tank were used for irrigation purpose and to fulfill the basic minimum needs.
(iv) Large dams and canals were made by British as well as our own government.
(v) Due to the mega project, local irrigation methods got neglected and the local people lost control over
management of local water sources.
(vi) Large dams and canals were made by British as well as our own government.

13.13 (b) Management of Water Resources :

It includes :
(i) Interacted water-shed plan for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses.
(ii) Flood control
(iii) Transfer of surplus water to water deficit basins by inter-linking of rivers.
(iv) Hydro geological survey to identify over-exploited areas.
(v) Artificial recharging of the ground water.
(vi) Mass awareness programmes through public or private agencies.
(vii) Dams : They are massive barriers built across rivers and streams to confine and utilize the flow of
water for human purposes such as irrigation and generation of electricity.
• Large dams can also ensure the storage of adequate water.
• Canal system leading from dams transfer large quantity of water upto great distances, e.g. Indira
Gandhi Canal or Rajasthan brought greenery to considerable areas.
• Purposes for building a dam :
• Generation of electricity
• Irrigation
• Control of flood which either stops or slows the amount of water in the river.
• Criticism about large dams :
• Social problems : They displace large number of farmers and tribals.
• Economic problems : They consume huge amount of public money without proportionate benefit.
• Environmental problems. As they cause deforestation and loss of biological diversity.

15.13 (c) Mismanagement of Water Distribution :

Due to mismanagement in distribution of water, the benefit of contracting a dam goes to few people only.
For example, people close to the water source grow water intensive crop like sugarcane and rice while
people farther downstream do not get any water. This resulted in discontentment among the people who
has been displaced by building of dam.

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 (i) Watershed management : It means scientific conservation of soil and water to increase the biomass
production.
• Watershed management not only increases the production and income of the watershed
community but also overcomes drought and flood.
• It increases the life of downstream dam and reservoirs.
(ii) Water harvesting : It means capturing rainwater where it falls or capturing the runoff water in a
local area and talking measures to keep the water clean by not allowing polluting activities to take
place.
(A) Techniques of water harvesting : Water harvesting techniques are mainly location specific. It is
an age - old concept in India.
• Khadins, tanks and nadis in Rajasthan.
• Bandharas and tals in Maharashtra
• Ahars and Pynes in Bihar
• Kulhs in Himanchal Pradesh
• Ponds in kandi belt of Jammu.
• Eris (tanks) in Tamilnadu.
• Suragams in kerala.
• Kattas in Karnataka.
• Due to own control of the local population over exploitation of the local water
resources in reduced.

(B) Some of the water harvesting techniques are :

• Capturing of runoff water roof tops.
• Capturing of runoff water from local catchments.
• Capturing seasonal flood water from local streams.

(C) Benefits of water harvesting :

• Provide drinking water.
• Provide irrigation water.
• Increase in ground water resources.
• Reduces storm water discharge, urban flood and overloading of sewage treatment plants.

(D) Advantages of ground water :

• It does not evaporate.
• It spreads out to recharge wells.
• It provides moisture for vegetation.
• It does not provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
• It is relatively protected from contamination by human and animal waste.

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 (E) Traditional water harvesting system :
• The water harvesting structures are mainly crescent shaped.
• Monsoon rains fill ponds behind the structures.
• The large structure hold water throughout the year while most dry up after monsoon.
• The main purpose of this system is to recharge the ground water and not to hold surface water.

Traditional water harvesting system

15.14 FOSSIL FUELS :

These fuels are obtained from the remain of plants and animals, which got buried beneath the earth
millions of years ago, changed into coal, petroleum and natural gas due to excessive heat and high pressure
inside the earth.

15.14 (a) Non-Renewable Energy Sources :

These are energy sources which cannot be replaced easily when the get exhausted and are also called
conventional sources of energy. They are used traditionally for many years and take millions of years to
form e.g. Fossil fuels.
(i) Coal : It contains carbon and its compound mainly with nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and hydrogen. It also
consists of inorganic matter.
(ii) Petroleum : ‘Petro’ means rocks and ‘oleum’ means oil, petroleum is therefore the oil found in rocks. It
is a complex mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. It also contains small amounts of other
compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Large reservoirs of petroleum have been
preserved by nature for millions of years between porous rocks beneath the earth.

15.14 (b) Formation of Non-Renewable Energy Sources :

(i) Formation of coal. Coal is formed organic matter which got buried under the earth 300 million years
ago. Due to high pressure and temperature inside the earth, this organic matter changed into coal, that is
why, coal is called fossil fuel.
(ii) Formation of petroleum. It is formed by the decay of very small (tiny) marine animals and plant buried
under the earth about 400 million years ago. Due to excess of heat and pressure it changed into oil called
petroleum. It is a fossil fuel.

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15.14 (c) Conservation of Coal and Petroleum :
It means more efficient use with regard to economic, social and environmental cost and benefits which
result in attainment of higher efficiency, minimisation of wastage and protection of the environment.
• We can conserve coal and petroleum by their judicious use and substituting them by other resources
wherever feasible. Conservation of coal and petroleum is a joint responsibility of the industries, citizens and
government where each one has significant role in Management of Natural Resources.

15.14 (d) Necessity of Judicious Use of Coal and Petroleum :

The fossil fuels, coal and petroleum get exhausted and their combustion pollutes our environment, so a
judicious use of these resources is necessary. When combustion take place, oxides of carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and sulphur are formed. Carbon monoxide is formed instead of carbon dioxide if there is
insufficient are. The oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon monoxide are poisonous at high concentrations.
Carbon dioxide is a green-house gas which leads to global warming.

15.14 (e) Uses of Fossil Fuels :

(i) In thermal power plants and steam engines.
(ii) Petroleum products like petrol and diesel are used as fuel in motor vehicles and ships. Other products
like kerosene and LPG are used for cooking purpose.

15.14 (f) Management of Fossil Fuels :

The natural gas is a good alternative to fossil fuels like coal and petroleum. The use of alternative source of
non-conventional energy such as solar energy, which energy, biomass energy, etc., should be promoted to
save the reserves of fossil fuels. Biogas can also be used for various purposes.

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 DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 15
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Ecosystem term was coined by

(A) Odum (B) Mishra (C) Reiter (D) Tansley
2. Pyramids of biomass are
(A) upright or inverted (B) always inverted (C) mostly upright (D) mostly inverted
3. Vultures in an ecosystem are
(A) predators (B) scavengers (C) consumers (D) top carnivores
4. In which of the following trophic levels in any ecosystem the maximum energy is stored ?
(A) Producers (B) Herbivores (C) Carnivores (D) Top carnivores
5. In an ecosystem the
(A) primary producers are more than that of primary consumers
(B) secondary consumers are largest, because they are powerful
(C) primary consumers are out of number
(D) primary consumers are least dependent upon primary producers
6. In an ecosystem the function of the produces is to
(A) convert organic compounds into inorganic compounds
(B) trap solar energy and convert in into chemical energy
(C) utilize chemical energy
(D) release energy
7. The importance of ecosystem lies in
(A) flow of energy (B) cycling of materials (C) both of the above (D) none of the above
8. In other to maintain proper ecological balance
(A) the existing forests should be cleared and new ones should be planted
(B) some quick growing annuals should be planted if a tree must be cut for other uses
(C) tree must be curt whenever necessary because the underground part performs the useful purpose
(D) a tree should be planted in place of one to be cut
9. A biosphere is composed of
(A) living organisms
(B) living organisms and lithosphere
(C) living organisms, lithosphere and atmosphere
(D) living organisms, lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere
10. Pyramid of energy in a forest ecosystem is
(A) always inverted (B) always upright
(C) both upright and inverted (D) first upright then inverted

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SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. How is ozone formed in the stratosphere ?
2. What is the function of ozone layer ?
3. Write a note on ozone depletion.
4. What is the significance of wildlife ?
5. What are fossil fuels ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTONS

6. What is ecosystem ? Explain the food chain and food web.
7. Explain the different components of ecosystem.
8. What is meant by management and conservation of natural resources ?
9. What is significance of biodiversity ?
10. What is the name of the award given in honour of the movement started for protection of ‘Khejri’ trees ?
11. Why is the management of forest and wildlife resource considered as a challenging task ?

ANSWERS
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 15

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. D A B A A B C D D B

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ORIGIN AND ECOLUTION OF LIFE

BL - 16
16.1 INTRODUCTION :
All living organisms have arisen through the evolutionary process and show diversity, yet some similarities
exist among them. e.g. Amphibians, reptiles and mammals have limbs for locomotion in water, fishes have
fins for swimming in water and birds have wings for flying.
• A close examination reveals that the limb, fins and wings are formed on the same basic structural plan.
• All such examples can be explained if we consider that the diverse groups of organisms share a
common ancestor from who they have diverged and formed two different species. Such process of
change in biological system is called as evolution.
• The Doctrine of the Organic Evolution state that the organisms existing at present are the descendants
of much simpler ancestors.

16.2 EVOLUTION :
The term ‘Evolution’ means “unrolling or unfolding” change from one condition to another. It means
members of a species change generation after generation with environmental requirements to turn into
better organized and more complex new species. The changes in the properties of population of organisms
or groups of such populations over the course of generations are considered as organic evolution. It is a
process of cumulative change of living populations and in the descendant populations of organisms. In
other words, it is “descent with modifications.” Evolution is a change in the genetic composition of a
population. There is an inbuilt tendency of variation during reproduction, both because of errors in DNA
copying and as a result of sexual reproduction.

Variations in a population –inherited and otherwise

• Illustration. Let us consider a group of twelve red beetles, which reproduce by sexual reproduction
and lives in the bushes with green leaves. They are preyed upon by crows. As we know that more the
crows eat, the fewer beetles are available to reproduce. Now let us consider various causes of variation
in the population of red beetles.

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 • Case I. The process of sexual reproduction results in the formation of few green beetles instead of red
beetles. These green beetles were able to pass the colour on to its progeny, so that all it progeny beetles
are green. These green beetles cannot be seen by crows so, they are not eaten. As a result, with passage
of time there will be more number of green beetles than red beetles. In this case, natural selection is
directing evolution in the beetle population. The natural section is exerted by the crows. The more
crows there are, the more red beetles would be eaten and more the proportion of green beetles in the
population would be. So, natural selection brings about improved adaptive relative between organisms
and environment by favouring the reproduction and survival of those individuals which are found
more suited to the given environment.

• Case II The process of reproduction again results in the formation of another colour variant i.e., blue
colour beetles. These beetles were also able to pass the colour on to its progeny, so that all its progeny
beetles are blue. These beetles can be seen by crows, so they are eaten. in initial stages there are more
number of red beetles in comparison to blue beetles in a population. But at this point, an elephant
comes by and stamps on the bushes where the beetles live This kills most of the beetles. But by change
free beetles that have survived are mostly blue. These beetles (blue) will now slowly increase their
number. In this case, the colour change gave no survival advantage. It is simply a matter of accident
survival of beetles of one colour that changed the common characteristics of the resultant population.
The elephant would not have caused such major havoc in the beetle population if the beetle population
had been very large. This random change in the gene frequency occurring by change irrespective of its
being beneficial or harmful is called genetic drift. For this reason, is small population, some
unfavourable characters may also be fixed or beneficial characters may be lost.

• Case III. In this case, beetle population goes on increasing but, the bushes stat suffering from a plant
disease. The amount of leaf material for the beetles is reduces so that average weight of adult beetles is
reduced. The average weight of adult beetles decreases because of scarcity of food. After a few years,
when bushes once again become healthy due to the absence of disease, then the average weight of
beetles should once again increase, due to adequate availability of food.

16.3 SPECIATION :
• Speciation is Origin of New Species : A species comprises of several populations. Interbreeding is
very frequent among the individuals of a population and is occasional among the populations of a
species whereas inter breeding is absent among the individuals of different species. There is a free gene
flow within the members of a population and a free gene flow could be maintained among the
members of different population of a species, provide an opportunity to interbreed. But free gene flow
between two species does not occur on account of marked difference in their genotype, it means new
species arise by the establishment of reproductive isolation (intrinsic barrier to interbreeding of natural
population)

The separation of species populations in due course of time

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 Consider that beetle population has become very large and has spread over a mountain range. The
individual beetles feed mostly on a few nearby bushes throughout their life time. So, in this huge
population of beetles, there will be sub-populations in neighborhood. The process of reproduction will
occur mostly within these sub populations or rarely between two different sub-populations. So, gene
flow will take place between two different sub populations. If, however between two such sub-
populations a large river or a creeping glacier or a mountain cut develops then the two populations
will be further isolated. The levels of gene flow will further decrease between two populations. Over
generations the process of natural selection and genetic drift will further isolate two sub-populations of
beetles. Now, members of these two sub-groups will be incapable of reproducing even after they meet
each other.
There can be a number of ways by which interbreeding between two beetles of two subgroups stop.
The changes in DNA structure or number of chromosomes will make the gametes incompatible and
prevent fertilization. The morphology of reproductive organs may change, which prevents
compatibility and fertilization. The difference in the Behaviour of male and female will also prevent
mating. The organisms may have developed different breeding periods.

16.3 (d) Evolution by Stage:

The evolution in an organism or its organs from simple to complex forms has taken place in stages.
It is has taken bit by bit over generation. The evolution cannot takes place by a single DNA change.
Let us take few examples.
(i) Feathers were firstly developed dinosaurs, but they could not fly. Probably, it was
developed to provide insulating in cold weather. Later on feathers developed in birds,
where they were used for flight. This indicates that birds are closely related to reptiles
(dinosaurs were reptiles). Also indicates that the character which developed for one
function is late on used for different function.
(ii) Eyes for the first time developed in Planaria. Rudimentary eyes present in Planaria and just
photosensitive eyespots. Simple as well as compound eyes have developed in insects and
crustaceans. Eyes have also developed in Octopus and vertebrates. The structure of the eye
in each of these organisms is different enough for them to have separate evolutionary
origins.

Planarian has very simple eyes

(iii) Man has been taking the advantage of genetic variations for improving the qualities of
domesticated plants and animals. He selected the individuals with desired characters and
separates them from those which do not have such characters. The selected individual are
interbred. This process is termed as artificial selection. If it is repeated for many generations
it produces a new breed with desired characters.

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 Some crop plants produced by selective breeding

(iv) By this selections process, very dissimilar looking structures may evolve from a common
ancestral design. One of the classical examples is wild cabbage plant. Humans have
cultivated wild cabbage as a food plant, and generated different vegetables from it by
selection even more than two thousand years ago. The various crop plants developed from
wild cabbage plants are :
• Cabbage : it is selected for its terminal buds, where there is a very short distance
between leaves.
• Kohlrabi : It is selected for its swollen stem position.
• Broccoli : It is selected for its flowers (arrested flower development) and stem.
• Cauliflower: it is selected for its flower cluster (sterile flowers). The other way of
tracing evolutionary relationship depend on the changes in DNA during
reproduction. If we compare the DNA of different species then we can directly
estimate how much DNA has changed during the formation of these species.
16.4 ORIGIN OF LIFE :

Several theories have been put forward to explain the origin of life.

16.4 (a) Theory of Special Creation :

According to this theory life was created by some Super Natural Power (God). This theory has not
evidence, hence it is a rejected theory.

16.4 (b) Theory of Spontaneous Generation :

According to this theory life is originated repeatedly from nonliving materials, automatically from time to
time. This theory was supported by Thales and Aristotle.

16.4 (c) Theory of Biogenesis :

Scientist like Redi, Lazzaro Spllanazani, Louis Pasteur proposed and proved the biogenesis concept of
Huxley and Harvey that new organism arises from pre-existing ones.

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16.4 (d) Cosmozoic Theory :
It states that, life came to earth from some heavenly bodies in the form of spores and seeds.

16.4 (e) Modern Theory (Naturalistic Theory) :

Life originated upon earth by a long series of physiochemical changes which brought about a gradual
evolution of first inorganic and then organic compounds (chemical evolution). It results in the formation of
protoplasm. This includes -
(i) Oparin - Haldane Theory.
• It independently proposed the origin of life by chemical evolution.
• Oparin’s views were later on published in his book “The origin of life”.
• According to this theory earth was formed about 4600 million years ago. The atoms of nitrogen,
hydrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon etc. formed the primitive atmosphere.
• The atmosphere was reducing because hydrogen atoms were most numerous and most reactive in
the primitive atmosphere.
• As, the earth began to cool, it’s matter began to condense. But still it was so hot that water could
exist only in vapour form.
• Large quantities of H2, N2, water vapours, CH4 and NH3 were present, but free oxygen was not
present in significant amount.
• Further fall in temperature allowed H2O to remain in liquid form so that oceans and water bodies
were formed containing large amounts of dissolved NH3 , CH4 , HCN, nitrides, carbides and
various gases.
• Reacting with water and it’s oxygen, simple saturated hydrocarbons such as CH4 formed
unsaturated hydrocarbons like ethylene, acetylene. Later aldehydes, ketones, alcohols and organic
acids were formed.
• Abundant energy was available in the form of heat, cosmic rays and lightening. Using this energy,
the organic molecules of ocean water formed complex compounds like amino acids, sugar, glycerol,
fatty acids, nitrogenous organic bases etc.
• These molecules further formed large linear polymers, or macromolecules like protein,
carbohydrates, and fats, the oceanic water became a rich mixture of organic compound called
“Prebiotic soup”.

(ii) Stanley Miller and H.C. Urey Experiment [Experiment for verification of prebiotic soup] :
• This experiment verified the Oparin Haldane theory by creating [stimulating] in their laboratory
the probable conditions on the primitive earth.
• They built an apparatus of glass tubes and flasks and created as atmosphere containing H2, CH4,
NH3, H2 O in one chamber - energy was also supplied by electric sparks.
• The resultant mixtures were allowed to condense. Experiment was run for one week. Chemical
composition of the liquid revealed glycine, alanine and aspartic acid.

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 • Thus biotic synthesis of organic molecules was confirmed

Fig : Miller’s Experiment

16.5 ORGANIC EVOLUTION :

(i) Though life originated by chemical evolution on the primitive earth. It was later replaced by organic
evolution.
(ii) Organic evaluation states “Descent with modification” i.e. present day complex living organism have
evolved from earlier simpler organisms by small but gradual changes which have occurred over
million of years.
(iii) Though living organisms show great diversity in size, structure, function, Behaviour etc. They also
show basically similar metabolic process indicating some common ancestors.

16.6 FOSSILS :
• The plants and animals that lives in remote past have in many cases left proofs of their existence in the
form of remains in the rocks. These are called as fossible.
• Paleontology is the study of fossils.
• Leonardo-a-vinci is called as the father of Paleontology.
• Founder of modern paleontology is George Cuvier.

16.6 (a) Fossils Can be of Three Different Types :

(i) Petrified : Replacement of some of the organic parts by mineral deposits is called as petrification.
(ii) Moulds and casts : Moulds are hardened and fossilized mud that surrounds a dead organism.
Sometimes the moulds are found with petrified fossils of the organisms and then they are called as
casts.
(iii) Prints : Foot prints or prints of wings, skin, leaves, stem etc. made in soft mud which subsequently
became fossilized.

16.6 (b) Dating of Fossils :

It is also called as the “clock of fossils”. It is the process of determining the age of fossils. This include the
following 3 methods.
(i) Lead method (ii) Radio Carbon method (iii) Potassium-Argon method

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 How do fossils form layer by layer ?

Let us start 100 million years ago. Some invertebrates on the sea
bed die, and are burred in the sand. More sand accumulates, and
sandstone forms under pressure.

Millions of years later, dinosaurs living in the are die, and their bodies, too, are buried in mud. This mud is
also compressed into rock, above the rock containing the earlier invertebrate fossils.

Again millions of years later, the bodies of horse-like creatures dying in the area are fossilized in rock above
these earlier rocks.

Much later, erosion by, say, water flow ears away some of the rock and exposes the horse-like fossils. As we
big deeper, we will find older and older fossils.
.

16.7 MORPHOLOGICAL EVIDENCES :

16.7 (a) Homologous Organs or Homology :

[Same structure but different function] Homology can be defined at the relationship between the structures
which have similarity due to common ancestors, although these structures may show difference in their
function. .e.
(i) fore limbs of vertebrates having pentdactyl limbs of similar origin and similar arrangement of bones,
muscles etc.
(ii) Legs of different insects.
(iii) Teeth of man.

Whale birds Bat Horse Man

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16.7 (b) Analogous Organs or Analogy :
[Different structure but similar function] Analogy can be defined as a relationship between structures,
which though differ anatomically but would have superficial similarity due to similar function.
e.g. (i) Wings of insects and wings of birds (ii) Sting of bee and scorpion.
(iii) Find of fishes and flipper of whales.

16.7 (c) Vestigial organs :

Those organs which have no longer function are known as vestigial organs. These organs have reduced
structurally as well as functionally.
• It appears that these organs were well developed in ancestors but due to their reduced or less use they
became functionless.

Vestigial organs of man

• There are many vestigial organs in human body e.g.

(i) Vermiform appendix in man (ii) External ear in man
(iii) Nictitating membrane (iv) Wisdom teeth

16.8 Common Ancestry and Inter-relationship :

• Various organisms are interconnected.
• Their resemblance suggest a common ancestry e.g.
• (i) Heart of fish is two chambered
(ii) Heart of amphibian is three chambered
(iii) Hearts of birds and mammals are four chambered

16.9 CONNECTING LINKS:

Animals are sharply differentiated and classified into phyla and classes but there are some existing animals
which represent an intermediate position between the two groups. Such organisms are called as connecting
links e.g.
(i) Lung fish shows connection between fishes and amphibians.
(ii) Amphibian show connecting links between fishes and reptiles.

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 (iii) Virus shows connecting links between living and non-living.
(iv) Euglena shows connecting link between and animals.
(v) Protopongia between protozoa and porifera.

16.10 Embryological Evidences :

• Embryology can be defined as a branch of science
that deals with study of development of an
organisms from zygote to an adult form inside the
egg or mother’s womb.
• The study of embryo’s form various organisms
reveals similarity in the early stages of embryo
development and this theory suggests that these
organisms have evolved from common ancestors.
e.g. Embryos of fish, tortoise, child, rabbits and m
an show the similarity during embryo
A B C D E
development. F

Fig : comparison of ts ga es in the development of vertebrate embryos

A. Fish, B, laS ma na der C. Tortoise, D. Chick, E. Calf, F. Human

16.11 PALENTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES :

• Palaentology is a branch of science that deals with the study of fossils.
• The study of fossils of some of the organisms show similarity between the two groups, e.g. Fossils of
Archaeopteryx shows characteristics of both reptiles and birds.

16.12 EVIDENCES FROM ATAVISM (REVERSION) :

Sometimes in some individuals such characters appear which were supposed to be present in their
ancestors but were lost during the course of development. This phenomenon is known as atavism or
reversion. Atavism proves that animals developing atavistic structures have evolved from such ancestors
in which these structures were fully developed e.g.
(i) Human baby with tail
(ii) Cervical fistula
(iii) Long and pointed canine teeth represent carnivorous accentors.
(iv) Large and thick body hair reflect our relationship with apes.
(v) Presence of extra nipples (more then two)

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16.13 EVIDENCES FROM PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY :
Different organisms show similarities in physiology and biochemistry. Some clear examples are-
(i) Protoplasm : Structural and chemical composition of protoplasm is same from protozoa o mammalia.
(ii) Enzymes : Enzymes perform same functions in all animals like trypsin digests protein from Amoeba to
man, amylase digests starch from porifera to mammalia.
(iii) Blood : Chordates show almost same composition of blood.
(iv) ATP: This energy rich molecule is formed for biological oxidation in all animals.
(v) Hormones : Secreted in different vertebrates perform same functions.
(vi) Hereditary material : Hereditary material is DNA in all organisms and is basic structure is same in all
animals.
(vii) Cytochrome C: It is a respiratory protein situated in the mitochondria of all organisms. Physiology
and biochemistry thus prove that all animals have evolved from some common ancestor.

16.14 DARWINISM OR THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION :

“Darwinism” or Theory of natural selection was proposed jointly by Charles Darwin and Alffred Wallace
in 1859. This theory was later on explained by Charles Darwin in his Book “The origin of species” by
means of “Natural Selection” (1859)

16.14 (a) Postulates of Darwinism :

He had proposed six important postulates namely
(i) Multiplication of individual of species in a geometric proportion.
(ii) Existence of variation.
(iii) The operation of natural selection on the existing variability in order to select the best fitted variations.
(iv) Due to geometric multiplication and due to the availability of limited food and space for these
individuals the struggle for existence is seen. Since the requirement of the members of the same species
would be similar, such a struggle would be more intense amongst the members of the same species.
(v) Variations : They are rule of nature and proved to the beneficial for between existence.
(vi) Natural selection : Natural selection is the principle element of Darwin’s theory. The principle by
which the preservation of useful variations is brought about was called as natural selection.

16.14 (b) Merit of Darwinism :

(i) The major achievement of Darwin was to recognize one of the major factor in adaptation i.e. natural
selection.

16.14 (c) Demerits of Darwinism :

(i) In Darwin’s natural selection principle the death of the unit and the survival of the fittest was conceived.
(ii) Darwin’s also believed that the natural selection operates on variations but he did not consider the
possibility of the origin of new hereditary variations, which are really responsible for origin of species.
(iii) Darwin also did not distinguish between hereditary and environmental variations.

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16.14 (d) Neo-Darwinism :
• It is a modified form of Darwinism, along with the recent researches of Weisman, Mendel,
Huxley, Gates, Devries etc.
• They performed various experiments to remove objections against Darwin’s Theory.
• Neo - Darwinism comprises three important postulates :
(i) Genetic variability : It means the variation that occur in the genetic constitution of an
organism. They cold be of following types :
(A) Chromosomal aberrations [deletion, duplication, translocation and inversion]
(B) Chromosomal numbers [haploidy, polyploidy etc.]
(C) Gene mutation
(D) Hybridization
(ii) Natural selection : According to Neo - Darwinism the organism which is more adapted
towards environment matures first and produces more progenies, as compaired to less
adapted organism.
• It shows positive selection method.
• It can overcome environmental stress.
• It produces greater progeny than others
(iii) Reproductive isolation : it is the failure of interbreeding between the related groups of
living organisms and is essential to prevent the dilution of differences between the
genetically different species.

16.15 LAMARCKISM :
First theory of evolution was proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744 - 1829) Book Philosophie
Zoologiuie (1809). The term Biology was given by Lamarck & Treviranus.

16.15 (a) Basic Concepts of Lamarckism :

(i) Internal Vital Forces : Some internal forces are present in all organisms. Bu the presence of these forces
organisms have the tendency to increase the size of organs or entire body.
(ii) Effect of environment and new needs : Environment influences all types of organisms. Changing
environment gives rise to new needs. New needs or desires produce new structures and change habits
of the organism.
(iii) Use and disuse of organs : If an organ is constantly used, it would be better developed whereas disuse
of organ results in its degeneration.
(vi) Inheritance of acquired characters : During the life time of an organism new characters develop due
to internal vital forces, effect of environment, new needs and use and disuse of organs. These acquired
characters are inherited from one generation to another. By continuous inheritance through many
generations these acquired characters tend to make new generation quite different from its ancestors
resulting in the formation of new species.

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 • Examples in support of Lamarckism :
(i) Long neck and large fore limbs of Giraffe.
(ii) Aquatic birds stretch their toes and developed webs.
(iii) Snakes have lost their legs.
(iv) Deer become a good runner by the development of strong limbs and streamlined body.
(v) Retractile claws of carnivorous animals.

16.16 (b) Criticism of Lamarckism :

(i) According to first concept organisms tends to increase their size but it is not a universally truth, e.g.
Among angiosperms the trees seem to have been primitive and the shrubs, herbs and grasses evolved
from trees but the size is reduced during evolution.
(ii) Second concept is false as we can’t have a sprout wings wishing to fly like birds.
(iii) The third concept have some truth like the well developed biceps of black smith and less developed
wings in flightless birds. But this concept also have many objection like the eyes of regular reader do
not increase in size and power with increasing age, the constantly beating heart maintains a constant
size through generations.
(iv) Forth concept is completely false because acquired characters are not inherited.

16.17 WEISMANN :
Weismann cut off tails of rats for about twenty two generations but there is no reduction in the size of the
tail. On the basis of this experiment Weismann proposed the theory of continuity of germplasm.

16.17 (a) According to Weismann :

• Two types of mattes are present in organisms, sometoplasm and germplasm.
• Sometoplasm in somatic cells and germplasm in germinal cells.
• Sometoplasm dies with the death of an organism while germplasm is transferred into next
generation.
• If any variation develops in germplasm it is inherited while if variation develops in sometoplasm it
is not transmitted.

16.18 NEOLAMARCKISM :
Although Lamarckism remained controversial but some scientists gave following evidences in favour of
Lamarckism they are called as neo-lamarckians. According to neolamarckism environment affected the
inheritance of acquired characters. According to it changing environment gives rise to some physical and
chemical changes in organism which effect germplasm, and these acquired characters are definitely
inherited.

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 DAILY PRACTICE PROBLEMS # 16
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Which one of these is likely to have been absent in free form at the time of origin of life ?
(A) Oxygen (B) Hydrogen (C) Ammonia (D) Methane

2. The famous book “Origin of Species” was written by Charles Darwin in

(A) 1809 (B) 1859 (C) 1885 (D) 1871

3. Charles Darwin toured in a ship for five years it was

(A) Vikrant (B) Phillips (C) Alexander (D) Beagle

4. The term evolution in Biology means that

(A) fossils are old (B) life began in Sea
(C) living things constantly change (D) none of the above

5. The theory of Natural selection of Darwin to explain organic evolution was based on
(A) modification in organs through used and disuse
(B) probability of reproduction, struggle for existence and survival of the fittest
(C) Inheritance of acquired characters
(D) appearance of sudden large variations, then inheritance and survival of those having these variations

6. Homologus structures have

(A) similar origin & dissimilar function (B) dissimilar origin but similar function
(C) structurally as well as functionally similar (D) normally non-functional

7. Analogous organs are those which are

(A) structurally similar (B) functionally similar
(C) structurally as well as functionally similar (D) normally non-functional

8. The idea of “Survival of fittest” was given by

(A) Darwin (B) Herbert Spencer (C) Lamarck (D) Devries
9. Evolution is the best defined by
(A) inheritance of acquired characters (B) descent by modifications
(C) spontaneous generation (D) struggle for existence

10. Which one is not a vestigial organ in man ?

(A) Vermiform appendix (B) Plica seminualris (C) Ear muscles (D) Epiglottis

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11. Who wrote the “Origin of Species” ?
(A) G.J. Mendel (B) Lamarck (C) De-Vries (D) Charles Darwin

12. When as organ is used it will develop and it is not used, it weakens to become vestigial. Who could have
said this theory ?
(A) Darwin (B) De-Vries (C) Lamarck (D) Mendel

13. Fossils are

(A) fovea in the retina of vertebrate eye (B) remains of organisms presents in the rocks
(C) the fossa present in the bones (D) foramens through which nerves pass

14. An experiment to prove that organic compounds were the basis of life, was performed by
(A) Oparin (B) Miller (C) Melvin (D) Fox

15. Connecting link between Reptiles and Birds is

(A) dimetrodon (B) dodo (C) archaeopteryx (D) sphenodon

16. According to the Neo-Darwinian theory which of the following is responsible for the origin of new species?
(A) Mutations (B) Useful variations
(C) Mutations together with natural selection (D) Hybridization.

17. Fossils are dated now by

(A) stratigraphic position (B) amount of calcium residue
(C) association with other animals (D) radioactive carbon contents

18. Nucleoprotein gave most probably the first sign of

(A) life (B) amino acid (C) soil (D) sugar

19. According to one of the most accepted theory the earth atmosphere before any life has originated consisted
of water vapour, hydrogen, NH3 and

(A) methane (B) nitrogen (C) oxygen (D) carbondioxide

20. Origin of life is due to

(A) spontaneous generation (B) God’s will
(C) effect of sun rays on mud (D) chemical evolution

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SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What are the different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a population ?
2. Why are traits acquired during the life-time of an individual not inherited ?
3. Why are the small numbers of surviving tigers are cause of worry from the point of view of genetics ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

4. Explain how sexual reproduction gives rise to more viable variations that asexual reproduction ? How does
this affects the evolution of those organisms that reproduce sexually ?
5. How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the progeny ?
6. Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a population. Do you
agree with this statement ? Why or why not ?

ANSWERS
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 16

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B D C B A B A B D

Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. D C B B C C D A A D

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