EOC CPL Questions by topics

Regulations:
Rigidity magnetic heading
What are the requirements to become a CPL? (61.123)
*be at least 18 years old
*know English – Speak, read, write, understand
*hold a PPL License
*get endorsements from authorized ground & flight instructors
*pass a knowledge test
*pass a practical test
*obtain at least 3rd class medical (2nd to practice as CPL)
*Meet the aeronautical experience

What are the Privileges of a CPL? (61.133) can

act as PIC of an A/C for compensation or hire
can carry passengers for compensation or hire

What are the limitations as a CPL? 61.133

If you are not instrument rating you cannot:
*take pax and compensation or hire
*cannot fly a XC flight that excess more than 50 NM at night

How can you remain current?

*every 24 months (2 years) must have a flight review
Contain 1 hour of flight + 1 hour of ground by authorized instructor
must receive an endorsement from an authorized instructor
(A license renewal – so whatever license you got, it renewed)
*to carry pax
Day - preform 3 TO / Landings past 90 days
Night / Tailwheel A/C - preform 3 TO / Landings at night to a full stop
1 hour after sunset 1 hour before sunrise

*IFR flights
The pilot must perform 6HITS -

6 Holding & Instrument app. Tracking & intercepting Via Navigational systems
*in first 6 month – he can do it by himself
*above 6 month (6-12) – has to preform 6HITS with a safety pilot
*above 12 month – has to do IPC (instrument proficiency check) with an FAA authorized, Check airman…

What is the difference between proficiency and currency? Currency

– being “Legal” proficiency – being “safe”
Current - you have the necessary training to pilot an aircraft
Proficient - you are ready for the situations that might arise during the flight. (Personal knowledge)
or if new avionics on board that u don’t know how to operate 
Yossi Tahar
 What is common carriage & private carriage?
Private carriage - carriage for hire that does not involved “holding out” (advertising yourself)
only for selected customers (18-24 tops) generally on a long term basis
(Airbnb – not listed)
Common carriage - becomes common when it "holds itself out" to the public as willing to
furnish transportation within the limits of its facilities to any person who wants it
(Airbnb – listed ) and you must hold a carriage certificate
the defining common carriage:
1. A holding out of a willingness to ->
2. Transport persons or property ->
3. From place to place - >
4. For compensation or hire.

Questions to be asks
[Link] approached with the request?
I asked someone or someone asked me?
2. Who owns the plane?
I do or someone else do?
3. If someone approached me and asked me to bring
someone? (Transfer a person)
Does he have a commercial operator cert.?
If no, you cannot do this flight
[Link] he ask to me to fly him or someone else?
5. Does the request is within the CPL exceptions
(FIAT-BPM-PCF)

Holding Out
You’re not allowed to hold out as a
commercial pilot. For example, offering
your friend a ride from Point A to Point B
for compensation or hire isn't legal.

Pro Rata Share

If you plan to share the expenses of the
flight, you must not pay less than the
pro rata share of the operating expenses.

Yossi Tahar
 What kind of CPL operations can an operator conduct without operator license and still as private car?
We can remember by using FIAT BPM PCF
Ferry / Training flight
Instructions – student flights
Aerial work operations
Tours (air tours – no more than 25nm)
Banner towing
Parachute operations
Mail – Emergency mail service
Power line / pipeline
Crop dusting
Firefighting
What documents does the pilot must have when conducting a flight?
Whenever a pilot is acting as PIC he must hold 3 documents:
1. Government ID
2. Pilot certificate
3. Medical certificate
What document must be on the Aircraft?
We can remember by using ARROW
A A - Airworthiness certificate (additional A for AD’s)
R- Registration certificate
R- Radio License (for international flights)
O- Operator's handbook (POH)
W- Weight and balance sheet

What are the fuel requirements for VFR/IFR flights?

What maintenance inspections must be done to keep the aircraft airworthy?

We can remember by using AV1ATES (IFR remember VEST)
A- Annual inspection
V- VOR checks (30 days)
1- 100-hour inspection (hire or instructions)
A- Altimeter and Static (24 calendar months)
T- Transponder (24 calendar months)
E- ELT (12 calendar months)
S – Static system (24 month)
Only a certified mechanic holding an inspection authorization (IA) can perform an annual inspection

Yossi Tahar
 What is an AD? What types of AD's do we have?
An airworthiness directive is the medium the FAA uses to notify aircraft owners and
Other potentially interested persons of unsafe conditions that may exist because of
Design defects, maintenance, or other causes the three types are:

 Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM), followed by a Final Rule

 Final Rule; Request for Comments
 Emergency ADs

What is Airworthiness certificate and what types do we have?

Airworthiness certificate is a certificate issued by the FAA to an aircraft that is meeting the minimum
standard safety design and is be proven to fly in safe condition.
There are 2 types of airworthiness certificates:
1. Standard airworthiness certificate – aircrafts in Normal / Aerobatic / Transport / Utility (NATU)
2. Special airworthiness certificate – aircrafts in Primary / RestriCted / Experimental / Limited / Sport
(PRCELS)

What is aircraft registration certificate and how long does it valid?

Before an aircraft is legal to fly in the US airspaces, it must be registered at the FAA and the
registration certificate has to be carried in the aircraft at all time (and visible to the passengers if
needed).
The registration certificate is valid for 36 calendar months from the day it was issued.
Temporary registration certificate is valid for no more than 90 days after it was issued.

What is SAIB? (Airworthiness)

SAIB stands for Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (kinda advisory)
kind of “recommendation” from the FAA regarding any safety features
which are not regulatory (not mandatory)
.‫ אבל זה לא מצדיק השבתה מצידנו‬, ‫ נוציא אזהרה לכולם‬, ‫ הבנו‬,‫במילים פשוטות – שמענו אותך‬

What is special flight permit?

Special flight permit are airworthiness certificate that were issued by the local FSDO to any
US registered aircraft that at the moment, (only allowed to depart and land in the approved
locations, no cargo or no passengers allowed in a flight with a special flight permit)
doesn't meet the applicable airworthiness requirements but is still in condition for safe
flight.
Special flight permit will be issued when:
1. Flying an aircraft overdue annual inspection to a place where the inspection can be done
2. Delivering / exporting the aircraft
3. Flight testing new product
4. Evacuating aircraft from area of danger
5. Conducting customer demonstration in new product
6. Flying the aircraft for repairs / storage / maintenance.
Famous special flight permit – the FAA issued special flight permit to Boeing Company for storing the 737
max all in one place.
Yossi Tahar
 What is type certificate data sheet (TCDS)?
TCDS is a formal description of all the aircraft components; airframe, engine, propeller. The TCDS
describes the conditions and limitation that under those the airworthiness certificate was issued.
The TCDS defines details such as type of engine / propeller, airspeed limits, fuel type etc.

What are the minimum equipment required in an aircraft for VFR day/night/IFR?
ATOMATO FLAMES / FLAPS / GRAB-CARD (IFR)
A irspeed F uel gauge F uses G enerator
T achometer L anding gear lights L anding lights R ate of turn
O il pressure ea. Engine A nti-collision lights A nti-collision Lights A ttitude
M anifold pressure M agnetic compass P osition lights B all ind.
A ltimeter E lt S ource of power C lock
T emp. gauge ea. engine S eatbelts A ltimeter
O il temp. Gauge ea. engine R adio/2 way comm
D irectional Gyro
What are the rights of the way rules?
1st priority – Aircraft in distress
2nd priority - Balloons
3rd priority – Gliders
4th priority - Aerial refueling and towing
5th priority – airships

What is preventative maintenance? Who can perform it?

Preventative maintenance is defined as simple or minor adjustments and the replacement of small
standard parts that doesn't involve any complex assembly operations.

Those operations must be done by authorized holder of at least private pilot certificate
(must be owner / Co-owner), once the operation was done, the pilot who performed the
operation must enter a record at the aircraft's log book stating the operation he did, when he did
it, his name and his certificate number.
few Examples for Preventative maintenance:
changing oil and cleaning spark plugs, replacing safety belts
Replacing bulbs, reflectors, and lenses of position and landing lights

What are the seat belts and shoulder harness regulations?

Each crewmember, during takeoff and landing must keep their shoulder harness fastened while at their
stations, this doesn't apply when:
1. The seat at the crewmember's station isn't equipped with shoulder harness
2. The crewmember would be unable to perform required duties with the shoulder harness
It is the pilot's responsibility to brief and instruct all the passengers how to use their seatbelt

Yossi Tahar
 What is minimum equipment list?
Minimum equipment list is a formal file issued by the FAA that lists all the equipment and instruments
that without them, the aircraft is still able to fly
For our aircraft, the PA44 we don't have any MEL

What is Operating with INOP inst. Or equipment decision tree?

The MEL contain 2 kind of lists

1 what is a must have
2 what is not a must
we need to verify in the MEL in which part our inop is listed
only then we will continue with the decision tree

Yossi Tahar
 What are your responsibilities and authorities as PIC?
1. The PIC of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of the
aircraft.
2. In an in-fight emergency requiring immediate action, the PIC may deviate from any rule of this part
to extent require to meet the that emergency
3. Each PIC who deviates from a rule under paragraph of this section shall upon the request of the
administrator, send a written report of that deviation to the administrator.

What are the Oxygen requirements in pressurized / unpressurized cabin?

To prevent hypoxia in high altitude u need to carry oxygen

pilot on the controls must use a oxygen ‫למה? היפוקסיה‬

mask , if cabin pressure exceeds 14000 ‫אם אחד המטייסים‬
cabin pressure then oxygen starts ‫ יהיה טייס‬, ‫יחטוף‬
“pumping” oxygen , the pilot should have a
quick donning ox. Mask that can be placed
‫נוסף על‬
in 1 hand in 5 seconds ‫הקונטרולס‬
‫רק אם אין קוויוק‬
‫דוניננג אז מי‬
‫שמטיס את המטוס‬
FL350 – the pilot does not need to wear a mask if there are 2 pilot on the controls ‫צריך ללבוש מסיכה‬
and for each pilot there is a quick donning mask that can be placed in 1 hand under 5 seconds
if for any reason one pilot leaves the cockpit – the copilot must use an oxygen mask
AIM 91.211
Relevant - PRESSURE CABIN!!

Yossi Tahar
 What types of oxygen masks do we have?
1. Cannula – plastic tubes running under the nose to administer oxygen till 18000 Ft
2. Continuous-flow Oxygen systems – usually provided to passengers. It has reservoir bag that collects
oxygen when the user is exhaling. Up to 25,000 Ft
3. Diluter demand Oxygen system – supply oxygen when the user inhales through the mask. Tightly
sealed, auto mix lever mixes supplemental with cabin oxygen or 100% oxygen
‫מתאימה את כמות החמצן שמשוחרר לפי גובה המטוס‬
4. Pressure demand Oxygen system – similar to diluter, except the oxygen is supplied to the mask under
pressure at cabin altitudes above 35,000 ft. Air-tight and oxygen tight seals and provides
positive pressure application of oxygen that allows the user's lungs to be pressurized with Oxygen.
(‫ הוא שולח חמצן‬,‫)כמו לעמוד מול מזגן שדוחף לך אויר אם תרצה לקבל או לא‬
5. Electrical Pulse – demand oxygen system, detects and provides oxygen when the system sense that
the user is inhaling, therefore it saves Oxygen needed by 50-85%. The system is incorporated with an
internal barometer that compensates for changes in altitude by increasing amount of Oxygen.

Yossi Tahar
 What is the difference between service ceiling and Absolute ceiling?
Service ceiling – the highest altitude, where the aircraft can maintain 100 ft. / min climb rate with both
engines, 50 ft. / min climb rate with single engine.

Absolute ceiling – defined as an altitude where an aircraft is unable to climb anymore with either
both of his engines or one engine.

Medical
Explain the types of medical certificates, how long are they valid for?
Expiration and Privileges?

IMPORTANT – All months should be states as colander months!

1st class medical / 2nd class medical / 3rd class medical

ATP CPL all school licenses/Sprt/ instrctr

Over 40 / 6 months / 12 months / 24 month’s

_________________________________________________________

Under 40 / 12 months / 12 months / 60 months

Yossi Tahar
 Important tip :
the count on the months begin only from the second month that was issued for example –
medical issued in January so the count will start from February as the first month.

What is SODA? How do you obtain it? State Of Demonstrated Ability a SODA may be granted
instead of authorization to a person whose disqualifying condition is static or non-progressive (for
example: color blind) the proper way to get a SODA:
when the medical doctor first rejects the option to grant a medical cert. for a pilot,
the pilot can ask then to apply for a SODA by a letter to an Federal air Surgeon (at FSDO)
the Federal air Surgeon will then check if the pilot’s “problem” is static or developing,
if not any danger (not developing) exist -> he will approve a SODA for the pilot,
then -> the pilot must return to his Medical doctor with the SODA approval
and then based on the SODA the dr. will then decide which Medical Class to issue for the
pilot

Yossi Tahar
 What is Basic Med? Privileges & limitation? And how to apply?
Basic Med is a relief from the FAA from holding a medical certificate for certain pilots.
Basic Med privileges are the same as for 3rd class medical!

There are limitations:

1. Fly with an aircraft of max 6 occupants
2. Can't fly with more than 5 passengers
3. Max authorized speed is 250 Knots.
4. Max altitude permitted is 18,000 MSL
5. Max aircraft TOW is 6000 lbs.
6. Not fly for compensation or hire.
7. No fly in Class Alpha
8. No international flights

In order to fly under basic Med what is needed?

1. Current and valid US driver license
2. Hold or held at least 3rd class medical that was issued by the FAA after July 14th 2006
3. Answer the health questions on the Comprehensive Medical Examination Checklist (CMEC)
4. Do a physical examination by the state-licensed physician.
5. Take the basic med online education course

In order to maintain basic Med we need?

1. Keep the CMEC that shows we had a physical examination in the past 48 months.
2. Treat any physical / medical condition that may affect safety of flight
3. Complete the online course and keep the certificate that was issued every 24 calendar months.

What are the regulations regarding alcohol & drug?

No person may act or attempt to act as a crewmember of a civil aircraft –
* Within 8 hours after the consumption of alcohol (8 hours ‘from bottle to throttle’)
* While under the influence of alcohol
* While using any drug that affects the person’s abilities.
* While having an alcohol concentration of 0.04 or greater in a blood or breath specimen.

Yossi Tahar
 Airspaces

Airports lights: beacons, runway, taxiways & gun Light

Yossi Tahar
 Weather minimums / requirements / Cloud separation

What are the ADIZ?

ADIZ is define as "Air Defense Identification Zone", those area are established to assist the US
authorities to identify any aircraft that operates near the boundaries of the US airspace. In
order to fly through the ADIZ, the pilot must fly under an IFR flight plan or active a DVFR flight
plan, equipped with mode C transponder, ETA crossing ADIZ, 2 way radio communication.

Where do we need mode C transponder?

1. at or above 10,000 MSL over the US airspace
2. In classes A, B, C
3. within 30NM from Class B airspace
4. Aircraft flying into the ADIZ
Good to know symbols on the sectional chart:

- VFR reporting point

Yossi Tahar
 What are the maximum airspeeds allowed in the US airspace?

What are the types of class E airspace?

We use the acronym SET VODA
Surface area –defined as designated for airspace where control tower is not operating.
Extension - Provide controlled airspace to contain instrument approach procedures
Transition - Class E extends upward from 700ft AGL or 1200ft AGL
Victor airways - From 1200ft AGL to but not including 18000ft MSL
Offshore - Extends upward from specified altitude up to but not including 18000ft MSL to provide
controlled airspace beyond 12nm from the coast.
Domestic
Above FL600 (space)

What is TFR and what kind of special use airspace we have?

TFR is defined as "Temporary Flight Restriction", the purpose of TFR is to protect persons or
property and to prevent any traffic of unauthorized aircraft near the vicinity of an area due to
several reasons:
1. In case of natural disaster
2. VIP visit (US president)
3. Abnormally high barometric pressure
4. Aerial demonstration (Like Fireworks) and major sports events
5. Emergency air traffic rules

Yossi Tahar
 What are the types of special uses airspaces?
1. Prohibited area - aircraft flight are prohibited for security or other reasons

2. Restricted area - airspace that contains often invisible hazard for aircraft, in case of a VFR flight,
the pilot must receive in advance permission from the controlling authority to pass through.

3. Warning area – extends from 3NM outward from the US coasts and contains activity that may be
hazardous to non-participating aircrafts.

4. Alert area – depicted to inform an area that may contain a high volume of pilot training

5. MOA – designed to separate military training from IFR traffic, permission isn't required.

6. Controlled Firing Area (CFA) – contains activity which, if not conducted in a controlled
environment, could be hazardous to non-participating aircrafts. Whenever an aircraft is nearby,
the activity will be suspended.
7. National Security Area (NSA) – airspace of defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at
locations where there is a requirements for an increased security and safety of ground facility
Help to remember- WAR – PC -MN

What is VFR on top?

VFR-Over-The-Top is used by pilots on a VFR flight plan to fly above the clouds while still
maintaining VFR cloud clearances. (3-152, 5-111……)

Yossi Tahar
 42. Airspeeds- max speeds?

Class Echo

*ADSB required in Class Echo airspace!

How to read the airport information on the sectional chart?

E

10000
CT – control tower
119.25 tower Freq. + (CTAF at night), * - means – part time.
RP – Right patterns LP left pattern (number of RNWY will be written next to it)
90 = field elevation
L Light - * pilot controlled lighting
74 – longest RNWY 7400 ft

Yossi Tahar
Where does class Echo starts?
All airspace starts from 14,500MSL to 17,999MSL, including the waters within 12nm off the US
coast, unless otherwise charted is Echo airspace (in FPR class E starts 1200 FT)
Extends either from the surface or a designated attitude to the overlying or adjacent airspace

‫ אלא אם כן צוין אחרת במפה‬,17999 ‫ עד‬14500 ‫"על הדף" מתחיל מגובה‬ ‫משמע‬
14500 ‫ רגל ולא‬1200‫בפורט פירס קלאס אקו מתחיל ב‬

Class Echo?
Class echo is controlled airspace that starts at 14,500 AGL, up to but not including the abutting airspace unless otherwise
depicted.

1. Surface area:
Surface area- extend upward from the surface to a designated altitude, or to the overlying controlled airspace.
(airport must have weather observation and reporting capability)
(‫יהיה מוקף בקו מקווקב חום‬

Offshore (beyond 12NM) - upward from a specified altitude to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL.
For control of incoming and outgoing international flights. Providing controlled
airspace beyond 12 miles from the coast of the U.S in those areas where there is a requirement
to provide IFR
en route ATC services and within which the U.S is applying domestic procedures.

1Mountainous terrain area- echo airspace beginning from 14,500 feet MSL/
, 500 feet AGL
.
‫משמע אם למשל גולף ממשיך ומתקדם להר שמטפס‬
‫ רגל לאורך ההר‬1500 ‫אז יהיה מרווח של‬
‫ רגל הללו יתחיל קלאס אקו‬1500‫ורק מעל ה‬

Yossi Tahar
 Gul

2. Victor airways- includes 4NM to each side of centerline of the airway. The airspace has a floor of 1,200' AGL unless otherwise
specified and extend upward but not including 18,000 feet AGL. (from VOR to VOR)

3. Over FL600- airspace changes from alpha to echo.

What are the minimums altitudes?

1. Minimums prescribed
2. mountainous areas – 2000 Ft above the highest obstacle / 4 NM radios on course
non-mountainous areas – 1000 ft. above higher obstacle / 4 NM radios on Couse 0-179
– Evan thousands, 180 – 359 odd thousands
Cruise Altitude
VFR +500 feet

500 ft rule (VFR)

An aircraft must maintain an altitude of 500 feet above the surface, except
over open water or sparsely populated areas.
In those cases, the aircraft may not be operated closer than 500 feet to any
person, vessel, vehicle, or structure.

1000 ft rule (VFR)

An aircraft must maintain an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle
within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the aircraft over any congested area
of a city, town, or settlement,
or over any open air assembly of persons.

Yossi Tahar
 Aeromedical
What is Hypoxia? 4 types of Hypoxia are?
Hypoxia is not enough oxygen (insufficient oxygen available to body)
1. Hypoxic Hypoxia - the result of insufficient oxygen to the lungs (oxygen is
not coming in - blocked airways) caused by high altitudes (no air) correction
would be: flying at lower altitudes and/or using supplemental oxygen.
2. Hypemic Hypoxia – the blood cant transport sufficient oxygen to the cells of
the body caused reduced blood volume (from severe bleeding), anemia, CO
poisoning (from exhaust) correction Turn the cabin heat fully off, Open windows
if possible, and supplemental oxygen.
3. Stagnant Hypoxia – means “not moving” to the tissues that need the oxygen
caused Cold temperatures, excessive acceleration of gravity (G force) correction
special G suits-or stop maneuver, warmer temp
4. Histotoxic Hypoxia - oxygen is transferred to the cell’s but the body (brain) reject it cause of poisoning
caused Drugs or alcohol correction 8 hours/ no flying

HYPOXIA Oxygen Cells transport brain

Hypoxic X V V V
Hypemic V X V V
Stagnant V V X V
Histotoxic V V V X
*notice the arrow
What is hyperventilation?
a condition in which you start to breath very fast, much more air is coming out then
coming in caused panic attach / stress / anxiety correction restore normal breathing
rate, speak loud, inhale and exhale into a paper bag.
can Couse Loss of consciousness

Yossi Tahar
 Middle Ear and Sinus Problems?
Inside our inner ear we can 3 canals that sense a movements on 3 different axis
there is a liquid that moves and stimulate the hair inside those canal when we move
and by that its sense our orientation and balance and sends this information to our brain

During a climb (for example) the pressure outside the aircraft is decreasing,
the air, always wants to be in a situation of equalization. In case the air
pressure inside the Eustachian tube can't equalize, the eardrum will bulge
outwards resulting in discomfort
It may not be possible to equalize the pressure in the air if a pilot has a Cold
/ ear infection or sore throat
Caused un-equalized pressure between inside and outside
Correction chewing, yawning, or swallowing to equalize pressure. Slow the rate of climb/descent

Spatial disorientation? Lack of orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or movement of
the airplane in space. Symptoms can be illusions that are difficult to overcome (ICEFLAGS)
Caused A “Disagreement” between one of the 3 systems (visual/soma sensory/vestibular) might
lead to loss of orientation
Correction Trust your instruments

What are the illusions the pilot can have? ICE FLAGS
Inversion
Coriolis
Elevator
False horizon
Leans
Auto kinesis
Grave yard / Spiral
Somatogravic

Landing illusions - runway lengths and sizes can visibly look longer or narrow/ higher or lower

Yossi Tahar
 Which illusions are the vestibular illusions?
Inversion
Coriolis
Elevator
Leans
Grave yard / Spiral Somatogravic
All of those illusions related to the body
What Illusions do we have?
Vestibular illusions: (ICEFLAGS)
Inversion - pitch down too quickly from climb to straight & level-> feel like tumbling backward-> want
to pitch down (‫כמו הרגשת רכבת הרים שמתיישרת אחרי טיפוס מהיר‬, ‫(שינוי מהיר ממצב טיפוס למיושר‬
Coriolis - happens in constant long turn -> fluid in the ear move at the same Speed -> thinks
straight & level -> may maneuver into dangerous attitude. ‫ ובום! נפל לי‬,‫התמקדתי בהסתכלות ההחוצה‬
‫ כשמחזיר את הראיה חזרה למיקום הקודם אחווה‬,‫(העיפרון מרים אותו‬
(‫סחרור קל‬
Elevator - catch updraft fast -> feel like in a climb -> pitch down and enter a dive for
example: a bust of air from bellow might make u feel a climb where there is not.
False horizon - aligning the plane to a sloping cloud, ground lights in the dark, obscured horizon.

Leans - enter bank turn too slowly -> fluid not moving -> think straight & level.
example: a situation when a banking is to slow to stimulate the liquid in the ear
and the pilot might assume he is leveled but when he will bank the other way the
bank will be X2

Auto-kinesis - looking at a single point of light against dark background for few sec. ->
the point seems to be moving.
Graveyard spiral - Coriolis escalated-> feeling straight & level -> turning into bank->
feeling like banking in opposite direction-> banking back to original bank.
‫בפניה מאבדים גובה לכן אם הטייס אינו מודע לאיבוד הגובה יכנס לסחרור בלתי ידוע‬
Somatogravic - abrupt acceleration -> tilts head backwards -> (‫ )כמו האצה של רכבת הרים‬feel
like in a nose up attitude-> push the aircraft into nose low/dive attitude.

Explain about motion sickness? Brain receiving conflicting messages about the state of the body
your eyes see one thing, your muscles feel another, and your inner ears sense something else
correction would be opening fresh air vents, focusing on objects outside the airplane, and
avoiding unnecessary head movements may help alleviate some of the discomfort.

What is carbon monoxide poisoning? Toxic gas,

No color/ no smell attaching itself to the hemoglobin in the blood ( ‫כמו‬
‫(גלוטן‬can come out of the carburetor / engine and can cause blockage of
oxygen (takes the place of the oxygen in the blood and prevent it to move)
correction use CO detectors, opening fresh air vent, oxygen

Yossi Tahar
 Explain about Fatigue & Stress?
Fatigue - Tiredness felt after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or lack of sleep
Stress - Stress is the body's reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response.
The body reacts to these changes with physical, mental, and emotional responses

Both are divide to 2 groups

Acute (short term) & Chronic (long term)

Acute fatigue (short term) Effects on performance / Timing Disruption

Appearing to perform a task as usual, but the timing of each component is slightly off
Chronic fatigue (long term) Fatigue extending over a long period of time might has psychological
roots
Acute Stress (short term) involves an immediate threat that is perceived as danger normally,
a healthy person can cope with acute stress
And might even help you to function better in a point of action (like during check ride)
Chronic Stress (long term) a level of stress that presents an intolerable burden
Unrelenting psychological pressures such as loneliness, financial worries and relationship or work
problems, pilot might need professional help

How to cope with stress?

Explain about Dehydration? Critical loss of water from the body

Cause a hot flight decks, wind, humidity, and diuretic drinks
correction Drink water, and limit use of Caffeine & Alcohol 55.
What are the regulation regarding Scuba Diving?

Yossi Tahar
 if bellow 8 with controlled ascent - waiting time before flying – 24hours
if bellow 8 -uncontrolled ascent - waiting time before flying – 12 hours

What is decompression sickness? What are the symptoms and what is

the cure?
Decompression sickness – occurs when the body exposure to low barometric pressure that cause
inert gases (nitrogen) to come out of physical solution and forms bubble in the blood system.
Symptoms – confusion, Headache, numbness of limbs, tingling, joint pain, pain from breathing
correction - IMMEDIATLEY use supplemental Oxygen 100%, emergency descent, may involve a
use of hyperbaric chamber.

Explain about the 3 medical systems: Vestibular / Visual / Somatosensory

1. Vestibular – organs that are located in the inner ear that sense position by the way we are balanced.
2. Visual system – eyes, that sense position based on what we see
3. Somatosensory system – nerves in the skin, muscles and joints that, along with hearing, sense position based on
gravity, feeling and sound.

What are the 3 types of pressure lost? (Pressurizing emergencies)?

1. Slow decompression
Loss of cabin pressure takes more than 10 seconds, most dangerous pilots
might not notice Aircraft is climbing and get hypoxia
2. Rapid decompression
Total loss of cabin pressure can happen from 1-10 second
3. Explosive decompression
Total loss of cabin pressure in less than 1 second
Can cause lungs damage if cabin fill with fog / fog / smoke
(Fog can appear in a rapid drop of temp’)
Loss of time (to respond) is the main issue in this case

What are some of the physical symptoms of decompression?

Hypoxia
hyperventilation
decompression sickness (nitrogen = bubbles)

Explain about night vision and adaptation?

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 Inside our ear, there are light sensitive nerves, the back of the retina is connected to optic nerve
that transmits information to the brain (which create the image)

Cones – located in the center of the Retina, responsible for detecting Color, distance and details.
Rods – located on the peripheral of the retina, Detects movement, makes night vision possible
*The adaptation process takes for the Cones 5-10 min / Rods ~ 30min

Aeronautical Decision making

Explain the PAVE checklist.
PAVE checklist is the checklist for pilot that combines all the sub self-checklists that the pilot should
self-check during the pre-flight

Pilot – IM SAFE
Illness
Medication
Stress
Alcohol
Fatigue
Emotions / Eating

Aircraft Fuel requirements, Maintenance, equipment (on board) also

–documents that the pilot need to curry when in active duty
1. Pilot license
2. At least 3rd class medical
3. Government photo ID

We check the followings: (SP)ARROW (documents for the A/C) AAVIATES (for inspections)

*AD’s as well for inspections

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 v
En ironment
We use the North West KRAFT Weather reports / airport diagrams and approaches / airspace rules

External Pressure outside influence that can create pressure on the pilot
(boss, family ,evil wife ) issues

North West KRAFT reminder

Notam’s
Wx reports and forecast
Knows ATC traffic delays
Runway lengths of intended use
Alternates (if flight cannot be completed)
Fuel requirements
Take off / landing performance

What are the 3P’s? The

3P checklist is:
1. Perceive – perceive the given set of circumstances for a flight. (For
example – loss of alternator)

2. Process – process by evaluating their impact on flight safety. (I’m

going to lose my Comm’s)

3. Perform – perform by implementing the best course of action.

(Land as fast as possible)

The 5P checklist is mostly regard Single-Pilot resource management (SRM):

1. Plan – cross country planning – weather, route, fuel,
2. Plane – system, equipment, maintenance
3. Pilot – IMSAFE checklist
4. Passengers – explain risks, brief and share them with the plan
5. Programming – check systems, EFD, GPS, autopilot etc.

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 61. What are the hazardous attitudes? What is their anti-dotes?

Aircraft Systems
Describe the engine we have and his mechanism?
The PA44 has 2 engines. Each engine is 4 Cylinder, produce 180HP, naturally aspirated
horizontally opposed, manufactured by Lycoming

4 stokes of the engine are?

1. Intake – the Cylinder is filled with the Fuel/Air mixture

2. Compression – the piston is compressing the mixture
3. Power – the Fuel/Air mixture is ignited by the spark plugs in the cylinder (cause piston move
down).
4. Exhaust – the piston pushes up the exhaust out of the cylinder.

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 How does C.G effects the aircraft while Aft/Forward?

What is complex aircraft?

1. Fixed pitch propeller

2. Retractable landing gear
3. flaps

What is a high performance aircraft?

A plane more than 200 horse power

(our Seminoles are 180 horse power therefore they are not high performance aircrafts)

What is a fixed pitch propeller?

Can be described by One word – efficiency,
basically the ability to have a proper configuration of the propeller for best performance
(climb, cruise, descent)
‫דוגמא מצוינת היא להשוות לאופני הרים‬
.‫ וירידה‬, ‫ לשיוט‬, ‫ לעליה‬,‫לאופני הרים יש יכולת התאמת הילוכים לכל מצב‬
.‫לכל מצב נקבל את הביצועים הטובים ביותר שמותאמים אליו‬

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 What types of Flaps are there?
*Plain Flap - The rear portion of the wing airfoil rotates downwards on a Simple
hinge arrangement mounted at the front of the flap.

*Split Flap - The rear portion of the lower surface of the wing airfoil hinges
Downwards from the leading edge of the flap, while the upper surface remains
immobile.

*Slotted Flap - Similar to a Plain Flap but

Incorporates a gap between the flap and the wing to force high pressure air
From below the wing over the upper surface of the flap. This helps reduce
Boundary layer separation and allows the airflow over the flap to remain Laminar.

*Fowler Flap - A split flap that slides rearwards level for a distance prior to
Hinging downwards. It thereby first increases chord (and wing surface area)
And then increases camber. This produces a flap which can optimize both

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 Takeoff (partial extension for optimal lift) and landing (full extension for optimal
lift and drag) performance. This type of flap or one of its variations is found on
most large aircraft.

*Double Slotted Fowler Flap - This design improves the performance of the
Fowler flap by incorporating the boundary layer energizing features of the Slotted
flap.

What is the difference between single and multi-engine aircraft?

There are main 2 things which multi engine is different from a single engine aircraft:

1. Line of thrust: the thrust line is now parallel to the longitudinal axis

2. Induced airflow: aka as "accelerated slipstream", the air from the propeller is striking the wind
and increase the amount of lift
generated by the wing in the vicinity
of the engine nacelles.

Airflow above the engine area is

stronger than above the wing area
(*think induced comes from industrial
)‫תעשייתי‬/‫(מלאכותי‬

What happened when u lose an engine in a multi engine A/C?

it would roll & yaw toward that inop engine
if this happens with maintain directional control and pitch for 88 Vy

if we fly slower then 88?

we might lose directional control of the aircraft

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 What is accelerated stop/go?
Accelerated go distance: total distance required to accelerated before leaving the ground in
a multi engine aircraft to a certain speed and to the point where assuming an engine failure
and with single engine, we will continue the takeoff and will be cleared of 50 ft. obstacle.

Accelerated stop distance: total distance required to accelerate before leaving the ground in
a multi engine aircraft to a certain speed and to the point where assuming an engine failure
and with single engine, we decided to bring to the airplane to a stop on the remaining RWY

Explain about the propeller system?

Components in the Propeller system:

Oil sump, oil pump, pilot valve, spring, flyweights, speeder spring,
unfeather accumulator (contain stored nitrogen pressure and oil pressure)
booster oil

More oil = more RPM = prop spin faster , less oil = less RPM of prop = prop spin slower

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 Speeder
Flyweights spring

Spring

Pilot’s
valve

*when unfeathering after engine lose, oil is not flowing from the sump, this is way we pull the lever
once and strong to release the stored pressure to the prop and by that its “generate” the pump to
start pumping from the sump as normal (we give a little kick to force is to work)

First understand:
when the piston moves forward / Backwards it changes the blades angle to Lower / Higher

the drive gear shaft which rotates inside the governor's housing receiving the RPM from the engine
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 crankshaft

the spring opposes the movement of the oil into the hub

When in over speed condition: (we want to make the prop slower)
due to the centrifugal force (due to the high RPM) the flyweight move out and the valve will allow
the oil to return to the sump,
when the oil is returning to the sump = less RPM = prop spin slower = bigger AoA
when props spin slower – the flyweights move back to their normal position and valve is closed

When in under speed condition: (we want to make the prop faster)
since there is not enough centrifugal force to open the flyweights,
the speeder spring will push the flyweight downward , making the valve move down
and allowing the oil flow to the prop
more oil = more RPM = Props spin faster = smaller AoA
the flyweights move back to their normal position and valve is closed

Counter weight definition: “weights” (‫ )משקולות‬that helps the propeller to to switch to feather
position
start lock latch – a system that prevents the propeller in low RPM (on ground for example)

Explain about the landing gear system?

Components in the landing gear system:

Reservoir, Hydraulic fluid, Hydraulic pump, shuttle valve, pressure switch
Hydraulic chamber, down limit switch ( ), cylinders (wheels), emergency extension,
Toggle gear switch (up / down switch in the cockpit)

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 When gear to move up
[Link] fluid will flow from the reservoir through the hydraulic pump to the hydraulic
chamber (High pressure side)

2. The shuttle valve will move left so fluid can flow down to the bottom of the 3 cylinders
(See below)

3. the fluid will be distributed to the bottoms of the gear and will “push” up the existing fluid in
the 3 cylinders via the low pressure (blue) back to the reservoir

4. When wheels are locked back up, the pressure switch will be activated at PSI 1800
the result would be to turn off the pump & to close the valve

When gear to move down

1. Hydraulic fluid will flow from the reservoir through the hydraulic pump to the
hydraulic chamber (low pressure side)

2. The shuttle valve will move right so fluid can flow down to the bottom of the 3 cylinders
(See below)

3. The fluid with be distributed to the tops of the gear,

*gravity will push the wheels down
*High pressure fluid will be squeezed out from the 3 cylinders via the high pressure chamber (red)
back to the reservoir

4. Once the gear is fully down & locked position, all 3 of the down limit switches engages
result would be to turn off the pump & to close the valve

Emergency gear extension operation (while in the up position -> would want gear down)
when opening the Emergency gear extension we open a value
*hydraulic fluid will flow
from the High pressure side via the Emergency gear extension into the low pressure side
and a circulation of fluid distribution of both H and L and will equalize (=) in the
cylinders as a result of the equalization the gear will drop + gravity and the
additional low pressure provided in the cylinders

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 High p – pushes up
Low p – pushes down
Emergency
extension

What is the landing gear power pack? (PEPH)

Pressure switch
Electric driven motor
Pressure relive valve
Hydraulic pump

What are the landing gear safety features?

ATP WPC
Airspeed safety switch – 59-63 TKS prevent retraction on the ground
Pressure switch – keep the pressure needed for the gear to stay up at 1800 PSI
Warning horn – alert the pilot if the gear down not meet the correct power setting
(Speed during landing or when flaps extended beyond 16 and gear not down yet)
Position lights – 3 greens (locked) / 1 red (in transition)
Circuit breaker – 15 AMP protect the gears, 40/5 AMP protect the power pack

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Each main gear or the nose gear has an
up‐limit switch and a down‐limit switch to sense gear position.
The left and right main gears have a squat switch.
Squat switch:
Determines if the airplane is airborne or still on the ground.
The left squat switch prevents accidental gear retraction on the ground,
while the right squat switch activates the stall warning horn
when the gear is retracted, it is held in the UP position only by hydraulic (PSI 1800)

what can you do if we don’t know if our landing gear is down?

1 we can climb to a higher altitude and momentarily idle the engine to see if we can hear our
warning horn
2 we can fly near the tower and ask them to check if our gear is down

Explain about the fuel system?

Components in the fuel system:

L/R main tanks, L/R selectors, L/R Filters, L/R Aux Pump, L/R engine drive Pumps
L/R primer solenoid (second route the fuel can take), L/R Engines (Cylinders),

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 L Heater fuel pump, Heater, L/R carburetor (before entering the Cylinder)
Selector Toggle button (cockpit) , 2 Drains/ air vents per tank Total
Fuel Capacity – 110 gallons Total Useable Fuel – 108 gallons two
55 gallon total fuel (54 usable), heater takes 1 GPH from Left tank

Scupper
Drain

*When left toggle set – on

left tank will feed Left Engine
*when right toggle set – XF left
tank will feed right engine
*If fuel is spilled by the fuel cap, or if the tank is over filled, a drain called a scupper drain
Removes the excess fuel. The Scupper Drain is located underneath the engine on each wing
*from solenoid – fuel will flow to 1 / 2 / 4 cylinders (from the EDF it will flow to all 4 cylinders)
Cylinder 3 is user for manifold pressure
*drains are connected to drain from the Filters

Explain about the electrical system?

Components in the electrical system:
Memory aids: FAESEL, SAP-LEFT-H, AVI1 CANT-E, AVI2 MBCN, VRB-SH

Remember BATMAN! 
1. Battery Bus
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2. Avionics Bus #1
3. Tie Bus
4. Main Bus
5. Avionics Bus #2
 Non assen. Remember
VRB-SH
L – MAIN Remember R – MAIN Remember
SAP-LEFT-H Vent
FEASAL
FL EASA(‫; פייסל‬-)
Reco lights
Stall horn Blower
fuel pumps
Alternator Stand by lights
engines
Pitot heat Heater
alternator
starter Landing gear I/W
anon. panel Engine
Fuel pump
lights (L/N/A)
Turn / bank
Hydraulic pump

70 AMP
14 Volt

70 AMP
14 Volt

Avionics1 Remember avionics2

Remember
AVI1 CANT-E
AVI2 MBCN
Comm1
Audio panel Marker beacon
NAV1 Comm2 AMP / VOL
Transponder NAV2
Electric trim

Vmc Factors and Certification

What is Vmc? – defined as the minimum airspeed, which the aircraft will still be able to maintain
directional control when the critical engine become inoperative. (in CAS!)
[

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 What is Critical engine? - In multi engine aircraft conventional twin, critical engine is defined as the
engine, that when he becomes inoperative will cause the most adverse condition.

How does the pilot knows he had lost directional control?

If one of the following occur: (unable to maintain…)
1. More the 20 degree of heading
2. more than 150 LBS rudder force (full rudder pressed)
3. Bank more than 5 degree

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF VMC UNDER CERTIFICATION?

FAA gives you kind of a handbook how they came up with Vmc number.
According FAR’s 23.149:
Requirements:
1. CAS (must be counted in CAS)
2. Vmca ≤ 1.2*Vs1 (Vmc on airborne must be ≤ the summation of Vs1 * 1.2)
3. Vmcg (optional) (this is more relevant for big planes and not small ones)
4. Vsse- must be determined (safe speed / single engine- must be given for practice)
5. Outside Ground effect (not while on ground effect)
*Vmca- red line- airspeed indicator. (Must be presented on the Airspeed indicator)

Condition:
* Prop of critical engine - windmill
* Critical engine inop
* Power- t/o
* Landing gear - up
* Sideslip- not more than 5 bank
* Density alt sea level
* Flaps- up
* Weight- unfavorable
* CG- unfavorable
.Vmc ‫ הכשירו את המטוס ל‬FAA ‫בעצם זה איך‬

conv twin – props spins clockwise

non conv twin – props spins counter clockwise

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 foreward

Can we fly slower in 88 if we lost an engine?

Not recommended to get closer to the Vmc speed 

Lost engine in ME what happens?

Yaw and roll to the side of inop

Vmc Factors guidelines:

always start Vmc factors with explanation what is Vmc and what is critical engine as preview
always explain what is law of lever at first and use example (for a door) A*F=M
always Draw each Vmc factor on a board with  and 
always explain when we lose an engine, we have a tendency toward the inop and draw the tendency
always draw a plane and mark an - X on the inop engine
always draw the relevant tendency for each factor (yaw / Roll)
always use different colors on the board, it will remove any confusion
always use a small airplane model to demonstrate the tendency, it will make your life easier!

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 Describe each Vmc factor: Propeller's condition *
While the propeller's blades are in Wind milling condition, they are creating drag
therefore the blades will face a lot of air and will create drag moment.
This Parasite Drag will cause the aircraft to yaw towards the dead engine and require more rudder
force. (‫)כמו משוט של סירה בצד אחד במים‬
*While the propeller's blade are in Feathered condition, they will minimize the drag created in
compare to the wind milling condition thanks to the fact that the blade AoA will be almost close to
Parallel to the relevant direction of the wind (Very high AoA).

Propeller
let’s sum this Vmc Factor is 6 points.
* Once we have an inop engine – we know we have a tendency toward that inop engine,
The prop of the inop engine is still spinning Couse of the airflow hitting it,

* If the prop is still spinning while it is on W it creates more drag

and act as an additional force to the yawing tendency (making the tendency even worst)

* To fight this tendency we use our rudder force,

but.. What if we press our rudder fully and still unable to maintain dir. control?

* we need to remember that rudder is an airfoil ,airfoil that creates lift ,

a way that we can make the airfoil more effective is to increase our speed
(to created more lift & add additional counter acting moment to fight the tendency
but – as we increase our airspeed , we are also increasing our Vmc speed. 

* If the prop still spinning while it is on F it creates less drag

(basically the relative air will pass like a knife through the Propeller, creating the least
amount of drag 

* This is why if we have inop engine, we would want the inop’s prop for be Feathered 
and not in Wind milling position 

Why?
More drag will “enhance" the tendency of the airplane toward the dead engine
what
if we feather the inop engine we don’t have the additional force of the yaw
tendency

Yossi Tahar Rudder is how we counteract the tendency, but if we are already with full rudder
and still not enough, we will increase our speed to create more lift (rudder is
Airfoil, we want more lift (lift is a force) on the rudder, but this more speed, all
Vspeeds goes up include Vmc )
 Critical engine
As we know, on a single engine we have the Left turn tendencies (causing roll+yaw to the left).

Same we have in Conventional twin engine aircrafts. (Not the PA44)

In case we lose the critical engine (left) the right engine will create more left turn tendencies When
are talking about Critical engine are talking about:
1. Law of lever = Force X Arm = Moment

PAST
2.A. P Factor (view from above) (Yaw) (Yawing moment) Rudder
2.B. Accelerated slipstream (view from behind) (roll) (rolling moment) bank
2.C. Spiral slipstream (view from above) (Yaw) (Yawing moment) Rudder
[Link] reaction (view from behind) (roll) (rolling moment) bank

in all those cases the moment will represent how much rudder force will we need?
More rudder or less rudder? Bigger the moment the more rudder force we will need
For that we will look how the law of lever will change in each case of the PAST

*in the Vmc factor Critical engine we want to explain why the LEFT engine is the critical engine on a
conventional twin (clockwise spin) and not on non-conventional (counterclockwise spin).
(In all the rest of the Vmc factors we don’t really care which engine is the dead engine)

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 P Factor (view from above) (Yawing moment)

Explanation
1. The blades spin faster at the edge of the propeller (down going blade – bigger bite of air- meaning
the down going blade creates the strongest thrust so this is why we measure from there)
2. Law of lever Force X Arm = Moment we know the bigger the moment->more rudder Force needed
3. We implement the law of lever to see which engine will generate a bigger moment
4. We know the force remain the same (100) in both cases of engines (so - not relevant)
5. We know the Arm is measured as the distance from the CG to the highest thrust point
the Moment of the Left engine is shorter ARM,
in case we lose the left engine we will need small amount of rudder
This is why the LEFT ENGINE is the critical Engine! (For P Factor)

* The arrows represents - thrust distance!!

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 Accelerated slipstream (view from behind) (rolling moment)
accelerated slipstream talks about the rolling moment again,
here to we use the law of lever as reference
The Distance (ARM) between the down going blade to the CG is measured

Almost same explanation as P Factor (with the arrows and law of lever, but this the arrow represents
lift and not thrust
(the down going blade creates the strongest lift so this is why we measure from there)
When left engine inop the rolling moment is bigger than the rolling moment of the right engine
meaning, if we lose the LEFT engine
We will need more force to counter acting the banking tendency of the rolling

This is why the LEFT ENGINE is the critical Engine! (For accelerated slipstream)

* The arrows represents - lift distance!!

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 Spiral slipstream (view from above- (Yawing moment), during a climb , the down going
blade of the propeller creates more thrust due to its high AoA ,
This thrust creates airflow behind the propeller faster behind the down going blade as
a result of more thrust created (in our case – to the right side)

The blades on a conv. Twin moves to the right, so this is the spiral moves to the right!
Steps:
1. First remind the single engine Spiral slipstream left tendency from PPL single engine
2. Second - explain the same theory on multi engine (2 engines has spiral)
3. Draw the inop and the relevant tendency <-> , Start with the left since it’s the critical one
[Link] spins to the right : so -> left engine oper : spiral hits the tail , right engine oper: spiral hits nothing

Start with this side!

as the left engine operating
and right is inop

When we lose the left when we lose the right

Engine, engine,

The right (operative) the left (operative)
Engine spiraling engine spiraling slipstream
slipstream spiral to the spiral hits the tail of the
Right and hits NOTHING plane and creates a force
on the way that helps counteract the
Yawing
tendency
so we need less
rudder pressure


This is why the Left

engine is the
CRITICAL engine!

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 Torque reaction (view from behind) (rolling moment)
Newton’s 3rd law of motion state: for every action there is an opposite and equal reaction

In other words, the tendency of the aircraft to rotate in a direction opposite the direction
of the propeller. In a conventional twin, the prop tur clockwise,
Which means it create a tendency of roll to the left (counter clockwise)

In case of losing the left engine

The plane will want to bank to the left, but!
The Torque effect that will work on the right operating engine will help to balance the plane to right
(so actually remain straight

And this is way in a conventional twin, the left engine is the Critical Engine!
Steps:
[Link] Newton’s 3rd law
[Link] the inop roll tendencies of each engine - roll
[Link] the torque on both engines on all propelloers
4. See which side “help” to fight” the tendency and which side make the tendency worst
[Link] moves to the right in a conv. Twin -
5. Finish with: This is why the LEFT ENGINE is the critical Engine!

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 Power condition
*in Vmc Power condition we use again in the law of lever Force X Arm = Moment
*in Vmc condition power condition we refer to the yawing tendency
*an increase in power will generate an increase of thrust (Force) thus = bigger moment
And therefore the Yawing moment will increase (which is bad for Vmc)
*as power increase, an additional counteract force is needed, which means more rudder deflection

in VMC power setting we want to show why High power setting is bad for Vmc
as we know by the Law of lever A*F=M moment
the change this time comes from the Thrust which is the force (f), the bigger the force , the bigger the moment
the bigger the moment, the more rudder force is needed,
when in Inop condition , the plane has a Yaw tendency toward the Inop engine
so if we are in high power setting our moment will be bigger
if we are in low power setting our moment will be smaller

the smaller the force (power) the less tendency = less rudder force needed

Asymmetrical thrust = the power balance is not the same for both engines

There for
High power setting is bad for Vmc 
Low power setting is good for Vmc 

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 Density altitude
come with congested with Power setting, and this is why:
when the aircraft fly low (at low density alt) the air is more
dense
when the aircraft fly high (at high density alt) the air is less
dense,

by the Law of Lever (A*F=M) the bigger the moment,

the more rudder force is needed
we know that as in low altitude we will get more power
cause the air has more air molecules ,
the more air we get = more force (F) we will have

We have
less force

We have
more
force

and as we seen before in Vmc power setting:

high power is bad for Vmc as it will enhance our tendency
so we will rather have high density altitude
so we can have low power setting.

Therefor
Low density altitude is bad for Vmc 
High density altitude setting is good for Vmc 

Yossi Tahar
What is Critical density altitude?

Now we want to talk about critical density altitude

this we will explain with a graph
(vertical = density alt, horizontal = speed)
as we know , every plane has its constant stall speed that the
manufacture gives us ,
when the airplane will reach that speed, it would stall
stall speed will be represented by the blue line as constant line
the Vmc will be represented by the red line – as we climb higher the
Vmc decrease – (the pilot can maintain dir. Control in low airspeed)

*as we go up in density altitude , we decrease our Vmc speed*

at some point , the 2 lines will cross each other,
the point the lines meet called critical density altitude,
meaning = at that point
the plane will stall + lose directional control  .‫וסגרנו ת'בסטה‬

This subject is relevant for recovery procedures!

Where do we meet first the loss of dir. Control or stall
the mark bellow = we will loss dir cont
the mark above = we will stall, for each one there is a relevant recovery

Here we stall first

Here we lose directional

control first

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 CG location
need to know and understand this
*when are talk about CG we r talking about rudder effectiveness
*in case of lost engine we will have tendency toward the inop engine
*in order to compensate the yawing Tendency, the rudder must be deflected (pressed)
How much rudder we need? (a big amount of rudder or small amount of rudder?)

in case of inop, we need a counter acting moment to compensate the tendency (rudder)
to create a counter acting moment – we need a force and Arm (of our rudder)
As we know, Rudder is an Airfoil:
it has a force (F) (how much we press)
and Arm (A) , this Arm is measured from the CG to the rudder of the airplane , so :
The bigger the arm = the bigger the counter acting moment

Therefore
AFT CG is bad for Vmc 
FWD CG is good for Vmc 

‫תהיה לנו יותר החרפה לכיוון המנוע המת היכן שמומנט יהיה גדול יותר‬
‫תהיה לנו פחות החרפה לכיוון המנוע המת היכן שמומנט יהיה קטן יותר‬

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 Side slip
In side slip condition we refer to the flight where the relative wind “is at” across the aircraft
instead of aligned with it (‫(איפה הרוח היחסית נמצאת בכיוון למטוס‬
Side slip towards INOP = BAD for Vmc, Side slip toward oper engine = Good for Vmc
lets divide this to 3 parts:

0 bank angel (ball is in the center) (no banking)

Best combination
2-3 Bank angle (ball is on the border between) (Little bank)

Best for Vmc

5+ Bank angle (ball is not in the center)
Toward the operating
0 sideslip engine

Sideslip toward inop

engine

For
Vmc
[Link]
Why?
of lift (bank)
Rudder force
+ thrust force [Link]
both will cause sideslip of lift
toward in the inop
engine
Why?
this called We want to maintain direction control
Weather vanning the addition of the bank will cancel the weather
‫המטוס טס ישר אך עם האף‬ vanning tendency, here the (HL) & rudder
‫ מעלות‬45‫לכיוון צד ב‬ resisting each other, so we have only thrust
‫כאילו מושכים אותו קדימה‬ force will “lead”
‫ולצד ביחד התוצאה תהיה‬
‫אלכסון‬ Why?
We want to maintain even better direction control
When are talk Performance
about Vmc in wise: the–best performance would be the best position that will not create Drag
side slip
we are talking (both
about option Here of
1 + 3 the plane is not flying straight and the body
rudder effectiveness (Hplane
thethe L) & rudder cancelling
create drag aseach other, but
it hits
Yossi Tahar
(‫אפקטיבי‬ ‫כמה הוא‬ the (HL) is now much bigger
'‫כמה האנגל אוף אטק של הראדר וכו‬ so we will have sideslip towards the operative engine
 the wind, each side will create drag toward its side of slip)
+5 is also good for Vmc but bad for Performance

Option 1 / option 3 (0 bank / +5 bank) both will result the aircraft not flying forward by so both will create more Drag
with the body of the airplane 

1 = crabbing (will result low AoA)

3 = high AoA (+16 bank) enter into rudder stall (badddddddddd for performance  ) so for performance will come last
although option 3 will give us the most directional control , it would also danger us to stall due to the possibly to reach a
critical high angle of attack

therefore
option 3 (+5 bank) would be the best for Vmc and is the most resist the inop tendency
but would also endanger the plane to stall

so this is why the best combination of both would be option 2 (2-5 bank – zero sideslip)
which is good for Vmc:
1 we gain directional control ,
2 least amount of drag
3 wont stall the plane

Weight

Yossi Tahar
 When the aircraft is leveled, the weight has no effect on Vmc but,
when we are in a turn - Weight has 2 components:
Horizontal component of weight
Vertical component of weight

*the weight of the aircraft determine the amount of total lift required by the airplane to maintain in
a level flight (we use numbers as examples to explain this)

The more weight (we have during a turn) -> the angle of bank can be lower -> less rudder force
needed

‫במילים פשוטות‬,
‫ מעלות בנק‬2-5 -‫נצא בהנחה שאיבדנו מנוע לפי סייד סליפ שלמדנו קודם לכן הגענו למסקנה ש‬
‫ האם משקל נוסף יכול לסייע או לגרוע‬..‫ נדבר על המשקל‬,‫לכיוון המנוע החי הוא האידיאלי כעת‬
?‫את מצבינו‬

‫ נגדיל את ההוריזנל קומפננט אוף וויט‬: ‫ אם נוסיף משקל‬, (‫ מעלות )בפניה‬3 ‫בהנחה שאנו בבנק של‬
‫ משמע על ידי הגדלת המשקל הגדלנו את "כח" הפניה‬, ‫ מעלות‬5 ‫מה שבעצם כביכול" ידמה" בנק של‬
:‫למען הוי אמ סי – נעדיף להיות עם משקל גדול יותר כך שאם ניישם את הנלמד‬, ‫לכן‬

(The Greater Weight, the greater Horizontal component of weight for any given bank)
As weight increase, the Vmc Decrease!
so - in a turn, weight will help to prevent the Aircraft to sideslip towards the inop engine
therefore – generate a zero sideslip condition
*Helps to overcome the Yawing tendency so the rudder doesn’t have to work so hard.

When the A/C in a turn:

When The A/C is we have 2 comp. :
levelled, weight Vertical component of W
has no effect horizontal component of W
on Vmc

First we will show that in a levelled

flight - the forces are equal
Lift = weight

Yossi Tahar
 Steps:
1. At first we explain the 4 force acting on a plane (lift= Weight, thrust = Drag)
[Link] explain the forces in a turn (Horizontal component of Weight / Vertical component of Weight)
3. The Greater Weight, the greater Horizontal component of weight for any given bank)
As weight increase, the Vmc Decrease!

(Remember that weight acts as a pendulum)

And this is why,

increase of weight is good for Vmc
and Decrease of weight is bad for Vmc

Yossi Tahar
Flaps
when we are talking about Vmc Flaps we need to remember the forces acting on a plane
thrust = Drag
when we lose an engine , we still have one engine operative that created Thrust
as we know thrust = Drag, so the operative engine is also creates drag

now – as we also know , Flaps creates Drag as well

*when extending flaps,

This created DRAG between the both wings (one more drag, one less drag)

*both wings creates DRAG with the Flaps down,

But the Flap behind the working engine creates additional Drag (due to the induces airflow hitting it)
the flaps helps even more to resist to the tendency

FLAPS will increase the counter acting moment! (Help to fight the tendency even more)
Asymmetrical Drag = the Drag balance is not the same for both engines

As we can see
More drag from the operating engine will help to counter act the tendency toward the inop engine 
,‫ "נניח" שבמקום ללחוץ על "ברקס" בצד הימיני (לפי הדוגמא) שנוצר על ידי כח המנוע הפעיל‬: ‫בעברית פשוטה למפגרים‬
.‫ יהיה "ברקס" כפול בכח‬,‫כח ה"ברקס" הימיני יחד עם הגרר שנוצר מהפלאפס‬
‫מה שיטא את כיוון המטוס חזרה למסלולו במקרה של איבוד מנוע‬
‫ נרצה להוריד מדפים בכדי לשמור על דירקשיאניל קונטרול‬,‫ולכן במידה ונאבד מנוע‬

Therefore
Flaps up is bad for Vmc 
Flaps down is good for Vmc 

Yossi Tahar
 Landing Gear when we are talking about Vmc Landing gear we are talking
about 2 effects: KEEL effect (lateral) + FIN EFFECT (directional)

landing Gear down will effect on the lateral stability of the Aircraft
KEEL effect is referring to flying in a bank,
The weight always apply a force to Earth from the CP (center of Pressure)
we measure (ARM) by law of level the distance from CP to the CG (distance)
arm

the lowering of the landing gear helps to counter act the yawing tendency by
extending the ARM and by this we have a bigger counter acting moment to fight the tendency

In the left pic In the right pic

we hold a pencil in a we increase the ARM
"turn”, slightly slightly higher this time
above the middle extending the distance – ARM

the pencil will align the pencil will “fall” gravity

with gravity after 2-3 will pull the pencil down much
seconds and faster now,
eventually will in less than a one second and
become straight become straight

By lowering our landing gear we are making the ARM longer (as the landing gear extracted)
from the CP (above) to the CG (bellow) the Earth’s Gravity comes in effect to help the Airplane
maintain leveled

This is why by (KEEL effect)

landing gear down is good for Vmc 
landing gear up is Bad for Vmc 

Yossi Tahar
 FIN EFFECT
* in FIN effect we are referring to the door of the nose gear
* an aircraft has the tendency to fly head-on into the relative wind
* due to the airflow hitting the side of the vertical tail fin, this creates a yawing tendency
*when we open the nose gear door, this help us to counteract the Yawing moment
By lowering the nose
gear door we add additional side surface that increase the “impact” area before the CG
(The relative wind is now hitting the door and this helps to counteract the Yawing moment
(the plane fly in weather veining so its flying in crabbing)

the lowering of the landing gear helps to counter act the yawing tendency by
extending the ARM and by this we have a bigger counter acting moment to fight the tendency

This is why by (FIN EFFECT)

landing gear down is good for Vmc 
landing gear up is Bad for Vmc 

Yossi Tahar
Climb performance (3 blocks on white board)
First of all we define what it climb?
Climb is vertical motion away from the surface

when we talk about climb performance - we talk about excess power

what is excess power? By definition – the most important to know!
Excess power = power available – power required
might be enough for this topic to just know this formula

let’s explain each of them: what is power required & what is power available

for a better understanding of what is Excess power , Let’s take 2 cars climbing a hill on 150 KPH )‫(קמ"ש‬
Toyota corolla (small engine = little power available)
Lamborghini (strong engine = a lot of power available)

the Lamborghini has much more power available ,will get to the top of the hill much before the Toyota , this is excess power
= (the distance between the power I got to the power I need)

block 1 - draw a plane with 4 forces acting on a plane – explain that all forces are equal
block 1

Block 2 - draw a graph for Drag / Airspeed ratio

Explain about 2 types of drag + total drag – explain all

1. Parasite drag (increase as airspeed increase) – produces from the design of the A/C
explain all 3 types - form, interference, skin friction drag
2. Induced drag – by product of lift (downwash created by the back of the wing created drag)
the summation of both drags = total drag (Parasite drag + induced drag = total drag)
(for CFI only – the point of both drags meets is Vg speed)

Yossi Tahar
Drag

PI

Connection point : )‫(קישור לגרף הבא‬

write this on the board between block 2 / block 3
we know also that total Drag = power required
(it is the power we need to maintain straight & leveled)
(means = the curve of thrust (power) required looks the same as total drag)
what is excess power? (block 3 (graph 3)
Excess power = power available – power required
power required = force * speed (velocity)
(P=F*V)
Power available = breaks horse power * propeller efficiency
(in our aircraft we have 360 horse power available)
the max distance between the Power available and power required is our Vy
‫המרחק הכי גדול בין העקומות שיתן לי את יחס הטיפוס הטוב ביותר‬
‫ מייצג את המהירות שבה הציר בין העקומות הוא הארוך ביותר‬88 ‫במקרה של איבוד מנוע למשל‬
‫ אך יחס הטיפוס שלי יקטן‬88‫בכל מיקום אחר של הציר בין העקומות יתן לי מהירות גדולה או קטנה מ‬

Yossi Tahar
the power required is 140 horse power (to keep the aircraft flying in straight & leveled)
our multi engine is 360 horse power
when we lose en engine – we lose 180 horse power (50%)
but actually climb performance is reduced by at least 80%
360 – 140 = 220 (excess power)

Power condition Power available Power required Excess power Rate of climb
(same as total drag)
2 engine operating 360HP (2*180) 140 HP 220 HP 1861 FP NM
1 engine inop 180 HP 140 HP 40 HP 338 FP NM
-50% 0% 82% -82%

the power required is 140 horse power (to keep the aircraft flying in straight & leveled)
the ratio between 220 / 140 = 82%
meaning that in a case of S.E climb I will lose 82% of climb capability

Block 1 Block 2 Block 3

total Drag = power required
Remember!
Looks like a
fish!

-> ->

[Link] we lose an engine the power available will be reduces , as result = less excess power
[Link] faster we fly the less thrust the engine will develop (curve going down as increase speed in block 3)

Factors effecting climb performance?

We have 4 factors that affect climb performance:

remember = 4 factors (almost the same as 4 forces acting on a plane, switch Lift with airspeed)

1 Airspeed – too little or too much will decrease climb performance

2 Weight – pax, baggage & fuel load Will effect climb performance
3 Power – amount available in excess of that needed for a level flight
4 Drag – landing gear, flaps, propeller cond., side slip cond. Will effect climb performance?

Yossi Tahar
 What are the Speeds of PA44?

Vso Stall speed in landing config. (Bottom of white arc) - 55

Vs1 Stall speed in clean config. (Bottom of green arc) – 57
Vx - Best angle of climb – 82
Vy - Best rate of climb – 88 (blue radial line)
Vr - Rotation speed – 75
Vg – best glide – 95
Vfe - Max flaps extended A/S (top of white arc) – 111
Va - Maneuvering speed – 135
Vno - Maximum structural cruising speed (top of green arc/ bottom of yellow arc) – 169
Vne - Never exceed speed (red radial line) – 202
Vref - Landing reference speed – 80
Vmc - Minimum controllable speed single- engine ops. (red radial line) – 56
Vsse - Minimum A/S safe single engine ops. – 82
Vyse - Best rate of climb single engine ops. (blue radial line) – 88
Vlor - Maximum speed retracting landing gear – 109
Vle - Maximum speed extending landing gear – 140

Va + Vg will not be referenced on the airspeed indicator as they change with weight
(Va / Vg formula’s)

Yossi Tahar
 Aerodynamics
what is Lift?
Bernoullii’s principle -> coanda effect -> newton’s 3rd law = LIFT

Stream of “air” or “liquid”

is moving above the surface
create a downwash
High pressure always try to
get to low pressure
Assisting the creating of lift

What is Load Factor?

How strong it should be to the withstand if while in a turn measured in G (force)
it’s the combination of weight (pulling down by gravity) and the centrifugal force
if a person weight 100 Kg , so while in a turn he will weight double like 200 Kg
Load factor: Proportion between lift and weight. Any force applied to an
aircraft to deflect its flight from straight line produces a stress on its
structure. The amount of this force is called the load factor.
Load factor is important because it’s possible that the pilot impose a
dangerous overload on the aircraft structure and also
because an increase in load factor increases stall speed.

What is G force? The ratio between the weight and how much imposed on the
wing (while in a turn) A good example would be
In while a level flight we ask a pax to raising his leg few time (he will succeed)
Then we turn and while in a turn, we ask him to raise his leg again (this time he won’t be able due
to G force applied as his weight doubled

What is centrifugal force?

The equal and opposite of the horizontal component of lift the
reaction of the aircraft to the change in direction
What is ground effect?
Caused by the cancelation of induced drag by the surface
“caused by the interference of the earth’s surface with the airplane flow pattern
(high pressure that is trying to go to low pressure above the wing) from bellow the wing get destroy
by the surface) airplane flied better in ground effect

Yossi Tahar
 What are the forces acting in a turn?

Explain the difference between density and pressure altitude.

Pressure altitude - height above the standard datum plane (SDP),
where the weight of the atmosphere is 29.92 "Hg (1,013.2 mb).
In order to know the pressure altitude, you set the barometric altimeter to 29.92 "Hg.

Density altitude- vertical distance above sea level in the standard atmosphere at which
a given density is to be found.
It is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard Temperature.

WHAT IS THE LIFT FORMULA?

CL = coefficient of lift for a given airfoil (AoA)

p = air density
V2 = airfoil velocity (variable – can change)
S = the surface area of the wing
What is the Va definition and formula?
The speed at which the airplane will stall before exceeding its
design limit – load factor in turbulent condition
(The maximum speed at which application of full available aerodynamic control will not overstress
the airplane) Example:
Va Formula

Va = [135] X √ (LDG Weight ) ((from your W&B)

1
(Max gross weight) (From the POH)
Publish POH Va 2 3
Vg Formula
Vg=Vg (max weight)[73] X √( TO Weight ) ((from your W&B)
Max gross weight ((from the POH))
The speed at which the drag is as low as possible while the wing is still producing a large amount of
lift Publish Vg

Yossi Tahar
Factors that can effect stall speed?
Weight Stall speed increases as weight increases, 
CG Location (forward CG= higher stall speed/ aft CG= lower stall speed )
Turning (in a turn we lose horizontal comp. of lift and increase stall speed )
Load Factor increases stall speed. 
When you turn, you need to increase your total lift to maintain altitude.
You increase your total lift by increasing your angle of attack,
which means you're closer to stall than you were in wings-level flight
Flaps decrease stall speed 
wing contamination such as frost or ice can reduce the amount of lift produced by the wing, also raising the stall
speed.

Vno speed Vne speed

Effects of Weight on Flight Performance
The takeoff/climb and landing performance of an airplane are determined on the basis of its maximum allowable
takeoff and landing weights. A heavier gross weight will result in a longer takeoff run and shallower climb, and a faster
touchdown speed and longer landing roll. Even a minor overload may make it impossible for the airplane to clear an
obstacle which normally would not have been seriously considered during takeoffs under more favorable conditions

1G Force (as seen) is at normal operation, when the ratio is balance

between the Lift and the Drag
but it any turbulence or gusts occur this ratio balance will change
thus we will no longer stay on a 1 G force component

what would be best to maintain as close to 1 G is to slow the plane down

so the ratio will remain this way and not change & will not increase the
G force (up limit the plane can handle is 3.8 G force before it break)

Yossi Tahar
How to read crosswind component?
example active runway is 13 , winds comes from 180 (south) at speed of 25 Kts

1. Find the angle between your RNWY and the wind direction (180 – 130 = 50 Yellow)
2. Draw a line that mark the wind velocity (25)
3. Draw a vertical line from the velocity as see the crosswind (19)

Yossi Tahar
Explain about turbojet
Turbojet: Consist of 4 sections: Compressor, combustion chamber, turbine section, exhaust.

The compressor section passes inlet air at a high rate of speed to the combustion chamber. The combustion
chamber contains fuel inlet and igniter for the combustion. The expending air drives a turbine connected by a
shaft to the compressor sustaining the engine operation. The accelerated exhaust gases provide the thrust.

On aircraft powered by turbine engines,

bleed air from the engine compressor
section is used to pressurize the cabin.
Air is released from the fuselage by an
outflow valve.
By regulating the exit, the outflow valve
allows constant inflow of air to the
pressurized area.
Turbofan:
designed to create additional thrust by diverting a secondary airflow around the combustion chamber.
The turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust, cools the engine and aids in exhaust noise suppression. It
provides turbo jet cruise speed and low fuel consumption.

Pressurization of the cabin is necessary in order to

protect the occupants from hypoxia. 8000ft altitude
pressure is maintained because no oxygen
supplements is needed at this altitude

N1 Indicator:
N1 represent the speed of the low pressure compressor —>The N1 turbine wheel is connected to
the low pressure compressor through a concentric shaft.
N2 Indicator:
N2 represents the speed of the high pressure compressor —>the high pressure compressor is
governed by the N2 turbine wheel. The N2 turbine wheel is connected to the high pressure
compressor through a concentric shaft.

Bleed air – is the air we breathe in the cabin after being compress by
the engine compressors and “filtered” by the bleed air system to the
cabin, hot air from the compressor is being cooled down
and regulates its temp by the pilots in the cockpit by a cooling unit
then distributed & filtered & recycled and use again in the cabin
before leaving the plane
outflow value (located bellow the fuselage) is used to regulate the
pressure of the aircraft

Yossi Tahar
 Instruments
what are the accelometer and magnometer?
(Seminole have glass cockpit so instruments and powered by accelometer and magnometer)
Both are the source that provides the AHRS its information
(AHRS – Attitude, heading reference system)
regarding the attitude – accelometer
regarding the heading – magnometer
1 magnometer, 3 gyroscopes and 3 accelometers

Explain about the ADC (Air data computer)

the ADC contain the information of the classic pitot system
and provide information to the ASI, VSI and Altimeter
and in addition provide information about outside air temp (TAT total air temp)
(which calculates true airspeed)
and wind information
TAT – Total air temp
Piper uses pitot mast, Cessna uses pitot tube

Yossi Tahar
 How does the VSI works?
the VSI is based only on static port (if during climb or descent does not move, this means we have a
port blockage, and need to switch to alternates source) the pressure inside the diaframe comes
direct from the port (outside pressure) *calibrated leak – insert fix slow amount of air pressure
*when in straight and leveled both the diaframe and the case have equal of pressure: so needle will
show 0 (balanced) when both pressures are not the same, the needle will climb or descent
What is the standard rate of turn formula?
True airspeed (TAS) / 10 + 5

What instruments uses the gyro

system? Attitude indicator heading
indicator

(Turn coordinator uses also uses the electrical system)

all uses both principles:
Rigidity in space
precision

What instruments are based on vacuum system? Attitude

indicator
Heading indicator both are engine driven - so in case of engine failure may Couse them to be inop
Explain about the different airspeeds?
IAS – indicated airspeed – the air speed that is shown on the ASI
CAS - calibrated airspeed, corrected for instrument errors
TAS – based on the airspeed combined with other variables like temp …
Ground speed – the speed of the A/C as it was moving on the ground + Winds
What instruments uses the static system?
Airspeed indicator (ASI)
vertical speed indicator (VSI)

Altimeter (can be found in ADC – Air data computer)

What are the magnetic compass errors?

Variation error – the difference between true north and magnetic north
Deviation error – comes from the electronics on the aircraft
Oscillation error – bounces of the magnetic compass if encounter strong winds / turbulence
DIPS – the liquid inside the magnetic compass:
UNOS – undershoot north, overshoot south (when flying north or south)
ANDS - Accelerate north, decelerate south (when flying east or west)
must be aligned every 15 minute!

Yossi Tahar
 Explain about the ASI (air speed indicator) the ASI uses both static tube and port, static tube –
capture the relative wind that is blowing into the tube and measure the airspeed static port –
capture ambient outside pressure (for altitude) alternate static source is located inside the cockpit
and in case of use (if outside blockage Accor) will show a Higher air pressure, meaning data is the
indicator will be higher than it really is
Static system blockage:
1. Blockage Accor in the front pitot hole - no relative wind will access the tube, the air inside the
case will exit from the pitot drain hole (with no replacement of new air coming) and needle will
drop to 0 - we can use the pitot heater if ice is blocking the hole
2. Full blockage of the Pitot tube (front and drain hole) – means air from the port will “manage”
the ASI by pressure during climb – we will see the needle goes up (instead going down) during
descent – we will see the needle goes down (instead going up) (*in normal - during climb the
airspeed drops, and during descent the airspeed will get higher)
3. Static port blockage – all 3 gauges are effected, if during climb or descent does not move, this
means we have also a port blockage, and need to switch to alternates source

How will you know if the ADC or AHRS is not working?

The relevant “instrument gauge” will be marked with a red X if not operative
(as seen as starting the A/C on the PFD)

Yossi Tahar
 Icing
What types of Icing we have?
1. Instrument icing
2. Structural icing (clear, rime, mixed)
3. Induction icing
(The danger of induction icing is that it will block the passage of the fuel/air mixture to the engine
and will lose power
Induction ice - Intake Ice – Blocks the engines intake
induction ice - Carburetor Ice – may form due to the steep temperature drop in the carburetor
ventury, require usually conditions of -7° to 21°C and high humidity (above 80%)

What types of structural icing?

1. Clear ice – Big drops that freeze when hits the A/C is most dangerous one, heavy,
can cause weigh, reduce lift can happen while flying in rain (also move heavy)
Clear ice is formed when only a small part of the super cooled water droplet freezes on impact
2. Rime Ice – small droplets, freeze on impact when hits the A/C can happen while flying
during IMC
(“Light” in weight), Rime ice looks like Ice in the freezer
Rime ice is forms at the moment the touch the A/C surface
3. Mix Ice – a combination of Clear and Rime ice

What are the condition for Icing to be made?

1. Visible moister below freezing levels
2. Can form in temp’ that are up to 20 deg. and relative humidity for 80%

Why wing Icing can be dangerous?

Ice on the wing can destroy the smooth airflow over the wing and can cause loss of lift,
increase Drag if during an approach don’t use flap it can cause Tail-stall

What should the pilot do if encounter Icing during flight? Immediately leave the area of visible
moisture (if above, bellow or turn around) to look for warmer altitudes)

Yossi Tahar
 What is Carburetor Icing? Carburetor icing can Accor when there cold air (below freezing) pass
through the Ventori (a passage of low pressure cold air that can freeze in case of freezing levels and
visible moisture) while the cold air speeds up and compressed in the passage,
it can block the Ventori passage if freezing, which can prevent the Fuel / Air mixture,
carburetor heating will melt this icing with warm filtered air from the exhaust filter
can happen in less than 21°C and high humidity (above 80%)

How can we recognize icing during flight? How can we prevent? We might sense some engine roughness
elevator would be less effective prevent:
PRE FLJGHT –
Winds aloft - Be aware of icing conditions at, bellow or above your en route flight altitude!
(Remember - in case of temp inversion – lower altitude might be colder then above!)
Check Airmets – (Zulu – for icing conditions) check Ceilings check pireps – they are the
most reliable source of actual live information for icing levels Descent (or climb – if
encounter inversion) to warmer alt. use De-icing if equipped if case of an approach –
increase airspeed by 10 kts,
No flaps (using Flaps in icing cond. Can increase stall speed) inform ATC about icing situation

How can we recognize tail plane icing?

Remember- small surface of the A/C will freeze first! Like tail wing, antenna’s, the tail
is a way to balance the power plant’s heavy weight when we level the yoke we keep
the plane in balance to the weight of the P.P if ice is accumulated on the tail the
balance will be from the P.P plant pitching the nose down The Yoke will buffet in the
control, the recovery will be to pull the yoke

What is the definition of freezing level?

The lowest altitude in which the temp. Drops below freezing (0)

What are the conditions for Structural icing?

Visible moisture below freezing temp, at the point the moisture hits the Aircraft

What De-icing equipment we know about?

1. Pitot heat
2. Carburetor heater
3. De-icing boot (inflatable)
4. Windshield defrost

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 5. Alcohol or electric heating (for the propeller), just like cars

Weather

VFR / IFR visibility and Ceiling rules?

Visibility / Ceiling
Low IFR 0.5-1sm / <500 Ft.
IFR 1-3sm / 500-1000 ft.
MVFR 3-5sm / 1000-3000 ft.
VFR 5+sm / 3000 ft. +
Special VFR 1sm / Clear of clouds
Ceiling is the lowest reported layer of clouds that are broken or overcast

How freezing rain produces?

It produces when there is a warm temp above the flight altitude

What is TAF?
TAF is terminal aerodrome forecast contain forecast data valid for 24 hours
issued 4 times a day (0000, 0600, 1200, 1800) covers 5 MN of the airport
vicinity

What is AWOS? Automated weather observation station Automated active service contain
Weather information (like in KOBE)

What is frost? Ice crystal that freeze on ground or (a wing surface)

and can cause loss of lift

What is ASOS? Automated surface observation station same as ATIS but automated (like
in FPR when tower is closed)

What are AIRMETs? How long does it valid? How many time issued?
Dangerous to small aircrafts few types of Airmets
*airmet Sierra – IFR (ceiling / visibility) / obscurations
*airmet Tango - turbulence (more than 30 kts wind/ low level wind shear)
*airmet Zulu – icing basically anything below IFR
Issued 6 times a day valid for 6 hours
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 Types of fog?
Radiation fog – ground cools the air below the dew point
advection fog –during winter around coastal areas, warm humid air over cold surface
upslope fog – sloping terrain, climb to a cold air area below the dew
steam fog - water vapor adding to the air
Ice fog – ice crystals adding moisture in the air

What are SIGMETs? How long does it valid? How many time issued?
Sigmets are:
*severe turbulence
*severe Icing
*volcanic ash
*dust storms lowering visibility
Issued as required valid for 4 hours

What are CONVECTIVE SIGMETs? How long does it valid? How many time issued?
Convective Sigmets associated with:
*thunderstorms
*tornados
*winds stronger than 50 Kts
*hail greater of 3 quarter inch
*squall lines
*precipitation covers more than 40% of area of over 3000 sq. mile
Issued hourly +55 (for example 00:55)
Valid for 2 hours

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 What are the types of fronts?
Cold front (moves fast) associated with: thunderstorms
Warm front (moves slowly, associated with: drizzle and decrease in visibility)
Occluded front - fast moving cold air catches up slow moving warmer air associated with fog and
thunderstorms
Stationary front (mix of both warm and cold, when both fronts meet) usually stay for a long time
till one pushes the other, associated with both warm and cold front Wx
Ridge – associated with High pressure (remember ridge = bridges are high )
Traff (colored in orange) associated with low pressure

Occluded front - fast

moving cold air catches up
slow moving warmer air
associated with fog and
Yossi Tahar thunderstorms
 What are the 3 stages of thunderstorm?
1. Cumulus stage - Lifting action of air, Strong updrafts
2. Mature stage - begins when precipitations has become to fall from the cloud base,
3. Dissipating stage rain activity can be present + strong downdrafts and the cell die rapidly

In order that a thunderstorm will be able to develop?

1. Temperature Inversion Squall line TS
2. Sufficient water vaporization (moist)
3. Lifting mechanism
4. Unstable laps rate

What are some of the hazards in thunderstorm ?

* go into IFR
* downdrafts and updrafts
 Severe turbulence
 Hail
 Heavy precipitation
 Lighting

where I can find information about thunderstorms forecast?

HIWAS (if during a flight)
graphical forecast
convective Sigmets
weather advisory by centers

*it is recommended to avoid TS at least

20 NM of flight distance

What reports are observation? (Current synopsis)

The following reports are observation reports:
*Surface analysis chart (every 3 hours)
*weather depiction chart (every 3 hours)
*Radar summery chart (updated hourly)

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 What are the wind speeds symbols mean?

What is Surface analysis chart report?

Low / High pressures Fronts Isobars Temps / Dew points issues every 3 hours
(observation) conversion to minibars - add 10 before the figures and a . Before
the last number:
For example: 1030 = 10103.0

What are Isobars?

Isobars are pressure patterns (associated with wind and turbulence)
When the isobars are close to each other this means the pressure in that area is not stable
and changes rapidly (windy / turbulent )
When the isobars are far from each other the pressure is more stable in the area the
isobars are on jumps of 4 between each other

What is HIWAS?
Hazard inflight weather advisory service
Information regarding airmet, Sigmets, convection Sigmets and Pipers Can be found the station info
– if station have HIWAS available – a letter H will show on the upper right side of the box on the
map

Explain the Radar summery chart report?

Detects top of precipitations
Radio waves that detect water droplets (rain) where
they are and how far they are from the station,
update every hour, observation report

Explain the low level prognostics charts?

Low level prog. Chart are forecast for 12 / 24 hours issued every 4 hours
this chart explain the surface analysis chart when forward in time, where are
the fronts and pressures will expect to move in the next 12/24 hours and will

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 show the movements of the fronts in red = IFR In blue = MVFR
moderate turbulence / severe turbulence

What is FSS? What is the meaning of R in the Freq.?

Flight service station – open / close IFR flight plans, search and rescue, provide Wx briefing

R – stands for receiver (in case the pilot talk with the FSS on the R Freq. But
they might get back to him on the VOR freq. to talk, check on map)

What are super cooled droplets?

Cold liquid (like rain) that freeze on impact (like a wing) this
is how clear ice is formed

METAR / TAFs: best explanations how to read METAR and TAF’s

[Link] part 1 [Link]
part 2

What is wind shear? When to expect?

Wind shear is defined as sudden, drastic change in wind speed and direction over a very small area.
Wind shear can expose aircraft to a very strong Updrafts / Downdrafts (most dangerous is near the
ground). Usually wind shear is associate with Thunderstorms, temperature inversion, passing
frontal systems.
What is a microburst?
The lifespan of a microburst is about 15 minutes during which it can produce downdrafts of up to 6,000 feet per minute
(fpm).

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 WINDS ALOFT chart?
Winds aloft chart contain information about Direction of winds, speeds and
temp in true heading (this is way we need to correct it on NAV LOGS) we can
extract turbulence and icing data from this report
(Updated 2 times a day - 0400Z/1600Z)

Structure of winds aloft

2306+13 direction of wind – 230
speed – 06
Temp – 13

Another example
781734
If start with 7 this means the winds are greater than 100 kts if
start with 7 we subtract 5 7-5=2 280
The direction 117 is the speed and the temp is -34 (if the alt is above 24,000
ft.) Tips: from 3000-12000 = MSL above 12000 = pressure altitude 99=calm
7799 – winds are over 200 kts above 24000 all temps are bellow 0

What hazard can expect in the area of thunderstorms?

Turbulence
Hail
precipitation
lighting

What is humidity?
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere at a given time.

What is dew?
On cool, calm nights, the temperature of the ground and objects on the surface can cause temperatures of the
surrounding air to drop below the dew point.
When this occurs, the moisture in the air condenses and deposits itself
on the ground, buildings, and other objects like cars and aircraft.
This moisture is known as dew and sometimes can be seen on grass in the morning.
the same will be Frost if the temp is bellow freezing

Inflight questions
What are the things you should be aware of during steep turns? (Load factor+ Stall speed)? Load
Factor - G force due to centrifugal force during a turn-> raises the stall speed (Accelerated
stall).
Adverse Yaw- nose into the direction of raised wing due to increased lift and thus Increased
induced drag.
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 Overbanking Tendencies- The outside wing in a steep turn travels more distance
Than inside wing, at the same time range, thus meaning the outside wing travels faster than the
inside wing, which creates more lift, causing the aircraft to overbank in a steep turn.
How does the C.G. change as you burn fuel?
It would move the C.G forward.

How to recover from a spin? PARE

Power to idle
Ailerons neutral
Rudder opposite
Elevator forwarded

How to recover from a wing stall / tail stall? Wing stall – normal recovery
*yoke forward (this will reduce the AOA)
*Full RPM tail stall – opposite of normal recovery Tail stall can happen during an approach in icing
conditions *yoke back
*raise flaps (no flaps) *reduce RPM

What to do if flying an approach in icing conditions?

Increase 10 KTS to airspeed, don’t use FLAPS

What is ILS Critical Area?

Critical area that must be kept clear of all obstacles in order to ensure quality of the broadcast signal.
Meaning to be able for aircraft to receive proper signal while doing an ILS
approach aircrafts on the ground must not disturb in the way *lighting is operating
in:
1 any case of low visibility in the airport
2 any time the ILS approach is in use by any Aircraft doing an approach

Where does the fuel contained in the plane?

Behind the engines itself (not in the wings like PA28 / C172)

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 What types of NOTAM do we have? (Few examples)
1. Noam D – civil aviation
2. FDC Notam – issued by the national flight data center and contain information that is regulatory
in nature pertaining to flight. Those Notam’s contain such things as changes in flight data, which
affect instrument approach, aeronautical charts, flight restriction prior to normal publication
3. SAA Notam – issued when Special activity Airspace (SAA) will be activate outside the published
schedule times
4. Military Notam –Army, Marine and Navy navigational aids there are many more types of
Notam’s

Which Weather report we use if we fly in an area that the TAF is not covering?
(More than 5 NM from any airport)
We will use the Area forecast report

What are the antennas of the Seminole?

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How to find the correct approach freq. if it does not show the Freq. on the sectional chart?
Depends our heading – we can see the headings we should refer to if we come from that heading
and use the Freq. advised

on the sectional chart in the legend section we can see a

How to find the correct approach freq. if I want to get into restricted?
in the map there is no Freq. on special areas (see example)

look in the chart supp – look for ARTCC (Air Route Traffic Control Center)
under Miami center – there u will see a list of freq. to talk with under the controlling agency of that restricted

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 How to join the pattern in a unfamiliar uncontrolled airport (VFR)
1. Know which runway is relevant for landing
2. Check it RP / LP + set rnwy heading in heading bug to know where is your 90 deg cross (RP in this example)
2. Cross 2000 ft above the runway 90 deg. of runway heading (mid field)
3. After – tear drop to join the downwind and only then descent to traffic pattern altitude

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