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Subject PSYCHOLOGY

Paper No and Title Paper No.11- Human Development

Module No and Title Module No.17- Language Development-Part B

Module Tag PSY_P11_M17

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Defining Language
4. Language Development through different ages
4.1 Infancy
4.2 Early childhood
4.3 Middle and late childhood
4.4 Adolescence
4.5 Adulthood
5. Summary

PSYCHOLOGY Paper No.11- Human Development

Module No.17- Language Development- Part B
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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module you shall be able to

 Identify how language develops in different age groups and through different phases of
life
 Evaluate the major changes taking place in the vocabulary and communicative skills with
age
 Analyze how language development varies in pace and quality across different age
groups
 The role of globalization in language development
 How environmental and parental factors influence the linguistic capabilities of children
 How language development continues beyond childhood and school age.

2. Introduction
Language development is an important part of our growth. It is a gift of life that make us the
supreme species of this planet. It is a sophisticated skill that we learn in the beginning of our life
span, a thing so important and yet taken for granted like many other gifts of nature. As a newborn
comes to this world, cries for the first time till the day he leaves the earth as an old man, language
development continues throughout the lifetime. This development occurs at a variable yet an
almost predetermined pace. The speed and the agility with which this occurs can sometimes be
astounding. Millions of years of evolution has attempts at communication have finally resulted in
what we have today: a language- a sophisticated system of communication between two or more
persons. Several theories have been put forward to explain the process of language development
which have been discussed in the previous module. The preceding module has also explained
how an infant acquires the basics and beyond of language.

The previous chapter has discussed on what language is, how we define it, and what the various
components of language are and the various theories of language development. The major
theories include behavioral perspective which believes that language development is acquired
from the environment and biological perspective which emphasizes that language development is
an inborn tendency. Language development is shaped by a mix of several factors- genetic,
environmental and biological. And it will be followed by the concepts of language development
through our lifespan. It will throw light on several questions like what the various changes taking
place in the process of language development are. This chapter shall discuss how language
acquisition goes on beyond infancy. Like in infancy language development in childhood is also
not short of a miracle. It is no doubt not a child’s play so as to speak but every child masters it
albeit step after step. The development in phonological awareness, vocabulary, semantics, syntax
and pragmatic during early childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescents and adult will be
discussed in this module.

PSYCHOLOGY Paper No.11- Human Development

Module No.17- Language Development- Part B
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3. Language

3.1 Defining Language

Like mentioned earlier language is a very important aspect of our life. In simple terms language is
a systematized means of communication between human beings. Language is a form of
communication whether spoken, written or signed, that is based on structures of rules and
symbols. The definition explains that language does not include only the verbal form of
communication but also consists of written signs and symbols that we use in order to express our
views and ideas to others. There are many different languages and each language has different
dialects but whatever we speak the meaning we express and the emotion we express are still the
same.

4. Language Development through Different Ages

4.1 Infancy

Apart from walking language development is one of the major accomplishment made by the baby
which is eagerly awaited by parents. Whatever language they learn, infants all over the world
follow a similar pattern in language development. Language development covers not only the
development taking place when a child starts to speak verbally. Rather it also involves how a
child uses various signs and gestures in order to attract attention and communicate before they
acquire the ability to convey their message verbally. Language development in infancy occurs at
amazing pace. As a child acquires language he reaches certain milestones at predetermined ages.
These include cooing at first two months, babbling at 6 months, use of gestures at 8-12 months
and speaking of first word at 13 months. Along with this the process of language development
and the achievements made in the areas of phonology, vocabulary, semantics, syntax and
pragmatics in infancy and the milestones of language have been dealt with in the previous
module. These milestones have been discussed in the previous chapter. Failure to reach these
milestones at appropriate age may signal a language problem.

4.2 Early Childhood

Phonology

By early childhood ability to combine three or four words to form simple sentences is gradually
acquired. The transition from simple sentences to complex sentences begins at the age of 2 to 3
years. They begin to grasp the basic rules governing the language system. During the preschool
year most children gradually became sensitive to sounds of the spoken words. They also know
morphological rules and syntax (Budwig, 1993). They show a growing mastery of complex rules
of how word should be ordered. They become skilled at using syntactic rules to construct lengthy
and complex sentences. Although most of the phonological development is largely complete by
the age of 5, a few syllables stress pattern are not acquired yet. Advances in the pragmatic can
also be seen in this stage. Their knowledge of meaning also rapidly advances. Their speaking
vocabulary also increases.

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Semantics

During the elementary year the vocabulary increases four-folds. The speaking vocabulary of a 6
years old child ranges from 8000 to 14000 words (Carey,1977). On average children learn about
22 words a day (Miller,1981). A child’s ability to understand the meaning of these many words
makes us wonder how they acquire this ability in such a short period of time. Fast mapping is a
process in which children can understand a new word with an underlying concept after only a
brief encounter.

Grammatical

At 3 years, three-word sentences begin to appear in which children clearly follow a subject-verb-
object order. Between the age of two and half and three years, children create sentences in which
adjectives, articles, noun, verb and proposition start to conform to an adult structure indicating
they have mastered the grammatical aspects of their language. They also start to add grammatical
morphemes – small marker that change the meaning of sentences, as in John’s dog and he is
playing. But once they learn to apply the regular morphological rule, they extent it to words that
are exception, a type of error called over-regularization.

Pragmatics

Children begin to show different situation call for different forms of speech around the age of
three. They adjust their speech, depending on the listener, and begin to use polite forms. Their
acquired ability to sense mood coupled with the repeated instructions of their parents let them
react according to the situation. Research has found that preschoolers have problem with
referential communication, but when observed in natural settings, young children do show
sensitivity to the needs of their communication partner. Preschoolers show the beginnings of
metalinguistic awareness. Their understandings are good predictor of vocabulary and
grammatical development literacy development in case of phonological awareness. The major
advancement in metalinguistic skills takes place in middle childhood.

Preparing for literacy

In today’s generation education is considered as one of the most essential aspect for leading a
successful and better life. It is very crucial to recognize the importance of language and literacy in
preparing children to succeed in school. Though children do not attend any school at this stage
literacy development starts early in life. The preschool years set the stage for literary
development. During these years children may have many print related interactions such as
having books read to them, looking through books and magazines, and learning to write their
names. For children who participate in print related interactions as preschoolers, literary skills
often come quickly in school. However, many children who have not had print-related interaction
in the preschool years will take longer to develop literacy (Pressley, 2003).

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Limited interaction with language and literacy during early

childhood might be related to reading difficulties later on.
Well-conceived curriculum, adequate teacher training, and clarity of purpose are well known
determinants of successful language development in early childhood. Family support and
background literacy also influence a child’s language development in a major way.

4.3 Middle and Late Childhood

Vocabulary and Grammar

Beyond early childhood children develop rapid advances in language skills. The middle part of
childhood is characterized by a rapid spurt in vocabulary. This spurt is influenced in a big way by
the linguistic interaction with parents and also the socio-economic status (Santroke, 2007). With
age they begin to not just acquire but also to categorize their vocabulary by parts of speech. They
are able to use complex grammar during talking and make conversation more alive. These skills
make them able to speak in a more descriptive and narrative way than before.

Metalinguistic Awareness

Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to think about language as a system; in short
cognition of language. It improves greatly during the elementary school years. It is the knowledge
about language which allows children “to think about their language, understand what words are
and even define them” Gleason (2005). The education imparted in class along with the
interaction with family and mates greatly enhances the knowledge of language, meaning of
words, the syntax and parts of speech (Ely, 2005). One visible way in which children
demonstrate their metalinguistic awareness is through language play (humor and metaphor) like
intentionally mislabeling objects, creating funny words, telling jokes or riddles or using words in
a figurative sense.

Pragmatics

By elementary school children learn to react and converse as the situation demands. During this
period illocutionary intent also develops. Illocutionary intent means what a person means to say,
even if the form of utterance is not perfectly consistent with it. Children at this age begin to
understand the subtle meaning and the intonations of spoken language. For example an 8 year old
who has forgotten to do his chores understand that when his mother says “the garbage is
beginning to smell,” she really means “take the garbage out”. (Ackerman, 1978)

Bilingualism

We live in a cosmopolitan world. Globalization brings inevitable changes- migration, religious

and cultural assimilation. There is hardly a city or town which is inhabited by a single
community. Due to this throughout the world many children grow up bilingually, and sometimes
they learn more than two languages. Bilingualism is the ability to speak two languages. It has
found to have positive effects on children’s cognitive development and metalinguistic awareness.

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Children became bilinguals in two ways: (1) by acquiring both

languages at the same time during early childhood and (2) by
learning a second language after mastering the first. The latter happens in more often cases.
Second language or non-mother tongue language is acquired mostly during middle childhood as
the child starts to interact out of family.

Reading and Writing

Elementary school teaches children to read and write for the first time. Children learn to speak
language before they acquire the ability to read and write. Unlike speaking which involve simply
listening to what others are saying, before learning to read and write it is important to learn what
each word is, learn how to recognize and talk about sounds and also learn the alphabetic
principles.

4.4 Adolescence

Identity formation is one of the major developments taking place during adolescence and
adulthood. It is the stage when a person tries to understand who he really is and what he wants to
be and starts to discover himself. Since it is a very important life event, most of the studies of
adolescents are focused more on studying identity development.

Phonology

Increased intellectual ability and experiences during childhood allows adolescents to use words
and sentences with increased complexity. They develop the ability of abstract thinking and
analyzing the function of word plays in a sentence. They master the stress pattern of abstract
words. The stress pattern of few words signaling subtle differences in meaning are acquired in
adolescence and it still continues throughout adulthood. Adolescents can comprehend the
meaning of over 40000 words, including many abstract terms (Berk, 2013). Along with it studies
have found that the vocabularies often continue to increase throughout most of the adult years, at
least until late adulthood.

Semantics and Syntax

Adolescents make stride in the field of semantics. They master the understanding of metaphors
and the ability to understand and use satire, sarcasm, proverbs and irony (Berk, 2013). This
ability and the advances in logical thinking helps them to understand complex literary works.
They are able to organize their thoughts and ideas before they speak or write. Adolescents also
often use jargon and improvised words in communicating among themselves. For example when
they meet with friends, they prefer to say “give me five” instead of saying “hello”.

Pragmatics

By this age a person will have mastered the skill to communicate clearly and in accordance with
social expectations in diverse situations. Adolescents develop the ability to speak in detailed well
expressed narratives. They are able to adapt their language style to social context. Their growing
experience with different life situation gives them the skills and cognitive self-regulation which
helps they in dealing with different kind of situations in more appropriate manner like being able

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to speak in persuasive, well organized fashion (Berk, 2013).

They have also learn how to speak appropriately in different
context. For instance they talk with sensitivity and respect when with elders, with care or
authority with youngsters and casually among themselves.

4.5 Adulthood

It is a wide held belief that language development occurs and gets complete by adolescence. As
such most of the studies of language development generally emphasized on infancy and
childhood. Many believe that adults do not acquire new language skills but the truth is far from
that. In fact adults continue to improve their knowledge of words and word meanings with age.

Phonology

The stress pattern of few words signaling subtle differences in meaning are acquired in
adolescence and it still continues till adulthood.

Semantics and Syntax

With age adults continue to improve their vocabulary stock and writing and communicating
skills. In contrast to young age it is their experiences and self-study that fuels this growth.
Santrock (2007) said that some decrements in language might appear in the late adulthood which
may be due to the deterioration of physical (like hearing problem) as well as mental health
(decline in memory skills) of the person. During adolescence they refine complex grammatical
structures, such as passive voice and infinitive phrase. They continue to inculcate the higher and
refined grammatical structures in their adulthood.

Pragmatics

By this age a person will have mastered the skill to communicate clearly and in accordance with
social expectations in diverse situations. The pragmatic skills honed during adolescence are
refined and fine-tuned during adulthood. All adults eventually come to possess the ability to
speak in the most demanding situations in very appropriate and meaningful ways.

PSYCHOLOGY Paper No.11- Human Development

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AGE PHONOLGY SEMANTICS GRAMMAR PRAGMATICS

Birth-2 Coos, then babbles Begins to comprehend Develop sensitivity to Engage in vocal
words and recognized clauses and phrases exchanges and turn
Organize speech familiar words taking games
sounds into
phonemic categories Uses gestures

1-2 years Recognizes correct Says first words Combine two words Engage in
pronunciation of into telegraphic conversational turn
familiar words Vocabulary increases speech taking and topic
to several hundred maintenance
Uses strategy to words
simplify word
pronunciation
3-5 years Improves in Coins words to fill in Gradually generalizes Adjusts speech to
phonological for words not yet grammatical forms listener’s perspectives &
awareness mastered to social expectations
Continue to add
Improves in word Understand metaphor grammatical Produces chronological
pronunciation based on concrete morphemes in a narratives
sensory comparisons regular order
6-10 years Extends Understand the Refines complex Communicate clearly in
phonological meaning of about grammatical demanding situations
awareness of all 10000 words structures
phonemes in words Uses advanced
Acquire meanings of conversational strategies
Masters syllable new words from
stress pattern context and definition
11 years – Masters syllable Comprehend over Continues to refine Ability to communicate
adulthood stress of abstract 40000 words, complex grammatical clearly and in accord to
words including many structures social expectations in
abstract terms diverse situation
improves
Understands subtle,
nonliteral word
meanings as in
sarcasm, irony and
proverbs

Figure 2 Milestones of language development (Adapted from Berk 2013)

PSYCHOLOGY Paper No.11- Human Development

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5. Summary
 Language is symbolic and structured way of conveying meaning between two or more
people. It facilitates cooperative social systems and transmission of ideas and knowledge.
 It is a skill not present at birth but acquired soon afterwards in our lifetime
 The definition of language includes not only the verbal form of communication but also
consists of written, sign and symbols that we use in order to express our views and ideas
to others
 Language development begins in early infancy and gradually picks up throughout
childhood.
 The ability to speak simple sentences appears as early as 18 months followed by complex
sentences at the age of 2 to 3 years.
 During middle and late childhood, a sudden increase in vocabulary and grammatical
skills occur. Meta-linguistic awareness, pragmatics also develops.
 With the increase in abstract thinking abilities, language development in adolescence
involves an enhancement in the use of words and sentences in more complex manner.
 Adult years are characterized by increase in vocabularies and increased understanding of
metaphor, satire, sarcasm, proverbs and irony.
 By adulthood a person becomes sufficiently skilled to communicate clearly and in
accordance with social expectations in diverse situations.

PSYCHOLOGY Paper No.11- Human Development

Module No.17- Language Development- Part B