ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Strength of Material I (MEng 2112)

By: Abdena Zewude (MSc. In Manufacturing Engineering)

March, 2025
Chiro, Ethiopia
1
 Chapter One: Stress and Strain
1.1. Introduction
Strength of Material: When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation, and
due to the cohesion between the molecules, the material of the body opposes the deformation. Within a certain
limit the internal resistance offered by a material is proportional to the deformation on a material induced by
external force, i.e. the internal resistance force is equal to the external force.
The material going to fail if the internal resistance force is less than the external force applied on a material.
Generally, Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid bodies
subjected to various types of loading.
An understanding of mechanical behavior of a solid body or a material is essential for the safe design of all
types of structures, whether airplanes and antennas, buildings and bridges, machines and motors, or ships and
spacecraft.
The force of resistance of a body of the material (equal to the external force exerted in a material) per
unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as stress and is denoted by the Greek letter 𝜎
(sigma).
𝑃
𝜎 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
𝐴
2
 Cont...
Where, 𝜎=stress
𝑃=external force or load
𝐴=cross sectional area
Units of stress: The unit of stress depends upon the unit of load and unit of area.
• In SI unit, the unit of force is 𝑁 and area is 𝑚2, hence the unit of stress 𝑁/𝑚2, or 𝑃𝑎.
• In US unit, the unit of force is pound (lb.) or kilo pound(kip) and cross sectional area is square inch (𝑖𝑛2),
hence the stress is expresses in pound per square inch (𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2) or 𝑝𝑠𝑖, kilo pound per square inch (k𝑠𝑖).
Strain
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of the body. The ratio of
change of dimension of the body to the original dimensions is known as strain. strian is dimensionless and
denoted by a greek letter 𝜖 (𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑛).
Mathematically: ϵ = 𝛿𝐿 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
𝐿
Where, ϵ =strian
𝛿𝐿 = change in length of the body due to external load
𝐿 =origional length of the body before the load is applied.

3
Strain may be:
Tensile strain: is the ratio of increase of length to the original length of the body if there is some increase in
length of a body due to external force.
Compressive strain: is the ratio of decrease of length to the original length of the body if there is some
decrease in length of a body due to external force.
Volumetric strain: is the ratio of change of volume of the body to the original volume .
Shear strain: is the strain produced by shear stress.
1.2 Types of Stresses
The stress may be normal stress or a shear stress. Normal stresses are stress which acts in a direction
perpendicular to the cross sectional area of the body, whereas shear stress is the stress which acts tangentially
across the area. Normal stress further divided into tensile or compressive stress.
Tensile Stress. The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls as shown in Fig.
1.1 (a) as a result of which there is an increase in length, is known as tensile stress. The ratio of increase in
length to the original length is known as tensile strain. The tensile stress acts normal to the area and it pulls on
the area.

4
 •Figure (a) shows the external applied
forces (P).
•Figures (b) and (c) depict the internal
resisting forces (R) that develop within the
material to counteract the external forces.
•Figure (d) shows a simplified
representation where these internal
resisting forces are distributed throughout
the cross-section

Fig. 1.1
5
Cont...
Let P = Pull (or force) acting on the body,
A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
L = Original length of the body,
𝑑𝐿 = Increase in length due to pull P acting on the body,
𝜎 = Stress induced in the body, and
𝑒 = Strain (i.e., tensile strain).
Fig. 1.1 (a) shows a bar subjected to a tensile force P at its ends. Consider a section x-x, which divides the bar
into two parts. The part left to the section x-x, will be in equilibrium if P = Resisting force (R). This is shown in
Fig. 1,1 (b). Similarly the part right to the section x-x, will be in equilibrium if P = Resisting force as shown in
Fig. 1.1 (c). This resisting force per unit area is known as stress or intensity of stress.
𝑅e𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑅)
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠(𝜎) = (𝑃 = 𝑅)
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

Tensile strain is given by, 𝑒 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑑𝐿)

𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿)

Compressive Stress. The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes as shown in
Fig. 1.2 (a) as a result of which there is a decrease in length of the body, is known as compressive stress.
6
 Cont...
And the ratio of decrease in length to the original length is known as compressive strain. The compressive stress
acts normal to the area and it pushes ,on the area. Let an axial push P is acting on a body’s cross-sectional area
A, due to external push P, let the original length L of the body decreases by 𝑑𝐿.

Fig. 1.2

7
 Cont...
The compressive stress is given by,
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑅) 𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ (𝑃)
𝜎= =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
𝑃
=
𝐴
and the compressive strain is given by,

𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝐿
𝑒= =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿
Shear stress: the stress induced in a body, when
subjected to two equal and opposite forces
which are acting tangentially across the resisting
section as shown in Fig. 1.3, as a result of which
the body tends to shear off across the section the
corresponding strain is known as shear strain. it Fig. 1.3
is represented by 𝜏.

8
 Cont...
Consider a rectangular block of height h, length L, and width unity. Let the bottom face AB of the block be
fixed to the surface as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a). Let a force P be applied tangentially along the top face CD of the
block. Such a force acting tangentially along the surface is known as shear force. For the equilibrium of the
block, the surface AB will offer a tangential reaction P equal and opposite to the applied tangential force P.

Fig. 1.4

9
 Cont...
Consider a section 𝑥 − 𝑥(parallel to applied force), which divides the block into two parts. The upper part will be
in equilibrium if P=Resistance (R). This is shown in Fig. (b). Similarly the lower part will be in equilibrium if
P=Resistance (R) as shown in Fig. 1.4 (c). This resistance is known as shear resistance. And the shear resistance
per unit area is known as shear stress.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 𝑃
𝑆hear stress, τ = = = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐿×1
As the bottom face of the block is fixed, the face ABCD will be distorted to AB𝐶1𝐷1 through an angle 𝜙 as a
result of force P as shown in Fig. 1.4(d).

Shear strain (𝜙) is given by,

𝜙 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 or 𝜙 = 𝐷𝐷1 = 𝑑𝑙 . . . . . . . . Fig. 1.4(d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐷 ℎ
10
Cont…

11
 1.3 Elasticity, Modulus of Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Factor of Safety

When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If the external force is
removed and the body comes back to its original shape and size (deformation disappears completely), the body is
known as an elastic body. This property, by virtue of which certain materials return back to their original position
after the removal of the external force, is called elasticity.
The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by the external force, is with
in the certain limit. Thus there is a limiting value of force up to and with in which, the deformation completely
disappears on the removal of the force. The value of the stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as
elastic limit of the material.
If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the material loses to some extent its
property of elasticity. If now the force is removed, the material will not return to its original shape and size and
there will be a residual deformation in the material.

Hooke’s law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is proportional to the strain
produced by the force. This means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic
limit. This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity or Elastic Moduli.
12
 Cont..

The ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to the corresponding strain is a constant. This ratio is known as
Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity and is denoted by 𝐸.
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸= or 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑒

The ratio of the shear stress to the corresponding shear strain within the elastic limit is known as Modulus of
Rigidity or Shear Modulus and is denoted by G or N.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏)
𝐺 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 (𝜙)

It is defined as the ratio of ultimate tensile stress to the working stress (permissible stress).
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑎ctor of safety = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

13
 1.4 Relation between Stress and Strain

The relationship between stress and strain for a unidirectional stress (i.e. for normal stress in one direction only)
is given by Hooke’s law, which states that when a material is loaded within its elastic limit, the normal stress
developed is proportional to the strain produced. This means that the ratio of the normal stress to the
corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is represented by E and is known as
modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus of elasticity.
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
Mathematically, 𝐸 = = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 (𝐴)
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑒

Before knowing the relationship between stress and strain for two-dimensional stress system, we shall have to
define longitudinal strain, lateral strain, and Poisson's ratio.
1. Longitudinal strain. When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an increase in the length of
the body. But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right angles to the line
of action of the applied load. Thus the body is having axial deformation and also deformation at right angles
to the line of action of the applied load (i.e., lateral deformation). The ratio of axial deformation to the
original length of the body is known as longitudinal (or linear) strain. The longitudinal strain is also defined
as the deformation of the body per unit length in the direction of the applied load.
14
 Cont...
Let, 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦, 𝑃 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 , and 𝛿𝐿 =increase in length of the
body in the direction of P. Then, longitudinal strain= 𝛿𝐿 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 (𝐵)
𝐿
2. Lateral strain. The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. Let a
rectangular bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to an axial tensile load P as shown in Fig.1.5.
The length of the bar will increase while the breadth and depth will decrease.
Let, 𝛿𝐿 = increase in length of the body, 𝛿𝑏 =decrease in breadth of the body, and 𝛿𝑑 =decrease in depth of the
body. Then, lateral strain= 𝛿𝑏 or 𝛿𝑑 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 (𝐶)
𝑏 𝑑

Fig. 1.5
15
 Cont...
i. if longitudinal strain is tensile, the lateral strain will be compressive.
ii. if longitudinal strain is compressive, the lateral strain will be tensile.
iii. hence every longitudinal strain in the direction of load is accompanied by lateral strain of the opposite kind
in all directions perpendicular to the load.
3. Poisson's ration. The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material, when
the material is stressed within the elastic limit. This ratio is called Poisson's ratio and it is generally denoted
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
by 𝜇. 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝜇 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 (𝐷)
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

as lateral strain is opposite in sign to longitudinal strain, hence, algebraically, lateral strain is written as
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −𝜇 × 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 (𝐸)
4. Volumetric Strain
The ratio of change in volume to the original volume of a body (when the body is subjected to a single force or a
system of forces) is called volumetric strain. It is denoted by 𝑒𝑣.
Mathematically, 𝑒𝑣 = 𝛿𝑉 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.8(𝑎)
𝑉

Where 𝛿𝑉 and 𝑉 are change in volume and original volume respectively.

16
 Cont…
Volumetric strain of a rectangular bar which is subjected to an axial load P in the direction of its length.
Consider a rectangular bar of length L, width b and depth d which is subjected to an axial load P in the direction
of its length as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Let, 𝛿𝐿 = change length of the body, 𝛿𝑏 =change in breadth of the body, and 𝛿𝑑 =change in depth of the body.
Final length of the bar= L + 𝛿𝐿
Final width of the bar= b + 𝛿𝑏
Final depth of the bar= d + 𝛿𝑑
Now original volume of the bar, V = L. b. d
Final volume = L + 𝛿𝐿 . b + 𝛿𝑏 . d + 𝛿𝑑
=𝐿. 𝑏. 𝑑 + 𝑏𝑑𝛿𝐿 + 𝐿𝑏𝛿𝑑 + 𝐿𝑑𝛿𝑏 (the product of 𝛿𝐿. 𝛿𝑏. 𝛿𝑑 = 0) Fig. 1.6
Change in volume , 𝛿𝑉 =Final volume-original volume
= 𝐿. 𝑏. 𝑑 + 𝑏𝑑𝛿𝐿 + 𝐿𝑏𝛿𝑑 + 𝐿𝑑𝛿𝑏 − 𝐿𝑏𝑑
= 𝑏𝑑𝛿𝐿 + 𝐿𝑏𝛿𝑑 + 𝐿𝑑𝛿𝑏
Volumetric strain, 𝑒𝑣 = 𝛿𝑉 = 𝑏𝑑𝛿𝐿+𝐿𝑏𝛿𝑑+𝐿𝑑𝛿𝑏 = 𝛿𝐿 + 𝛿𝑏 + 𝛿𝑑 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.8(𝑏)
𝑉 𝐿𝑏𝑑 𝐿 𝑏 𝑑

17
 Cont…
Here, 𝛿𝐿 =Longitudinal strain and 𝛿𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝑑
are lateral strains.
𝐿 𝑏 𝑑
Substituting these values in the above equation, we get
𝑒𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 2 ∗ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 , we have 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −𝜇 × 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 and
we get finally,
𝑒𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 2𝜇 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(1 − 2𝜇)
𝛿𝐿
= 1 − 2𝜇 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ……………….1.8(c)
𝐿
4. Relationship between stress and strain for two dimensional stress system
Consider a two-dimensional figure ABCD, subjected to two mutually perpendicular stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2. Referring
to Fig. 1.7,
Let 𝜎1 = Normal stress in 𝑥 −direction and 𝜎2 = Normal stress in 𝑦 −direction.
Consider the strain produced by 𝜎1. This stress will produce strain in the direction of 𝑥 and also in the direction of
𝑦. The strain in the direction of 𝑥 will be longitudinal strain and will be equal to 𝜎1 whereas the strain in the
𝐸
𝜎1
direction of 𝑦 will be lateral strain and will be equal to −𝜇 × .
𝐸

18
 Cont…
Now consider the strain produced by 𝜎2, the stress 𝜎2 will produce strain in the direction of 𝑦 and also in the
direction of 𝑥. The strain in the direction of 𝑦 will be longitudinal strain and will be equal to 𝜎2 whereas the strain
𝐸
in the direction of 𝑥 will be lateral strain and will be equal to −𝜇 × 𝜎1.
𝐸
Let 𝑒1 =Total strain in 𝑥 −direction, and 𝑒2 =Total strain in 𝑦 −direction
Now total strain in the direction of 𝑥 due to stresses 𝜎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 = 𝜎1 − 𝜇 × 𝜎2, similarly total strain in the direction
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎2
of 𝑦 due to stresses 𝜎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 = −𝜇 × 𝜎1.
𝐸 𝐸

𝑒1 = 𝜎1 − 𝜇 × 𝜎2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.8 (𝐹)
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎2 𝜎1
𝑒2 = −𝜇× … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.8 (𝐺)
𝐸 𝐸

Fig. 1.7 19
 1.4.3 For Three dimensional stress system
Fig. 1.8 shows a three dimensional body subjected to three orthogonal normal stresses 𝜎1, 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 acting in the
direction of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 respectively. Consider the strains produced by each stress separately.
The stress 𝜎1 will produce strain in the direction of 𝑥 and also in the direction of 𝑦, 𝑧. The strain in the direction
of 𝑥 will be 𝜎1 whereas the strains in the direction of 𝑦 and 𝑧 will be −𝜇 × 𝜎1.
𝐸 𝐸

Similarly the stress 𝜎2 will produce strain 𝜎2 in the direction of 𝑦 and strain of −𝜇 × 𝜎2 in the direction of 𝑥 and 𝑦
𝐸 𝐸
each.
Also the stress 𝜎3 will produce strain 𝜎3 in
𝐸

the direction of 𝑧 and strain of −𝜇 × 𝜎3 in the direction

𝐸
of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Total strain in the direction of 𝑥 due to stresses
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜎3 = 𝜎1 − 𝜇 × 𝜎2 − 𝜇 × 𝜎3.
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
Similarly total strains in the direction of 𝑦 due to stresses Fig. 1.8

𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜎 3 = σ 2 − μ × σE2 − μ × σE1.

E
20
 Cont…
And total strain in the direction of 𝑧 due to stresses 𝜎1, 𝜎 2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜎 3 = σ 3 − μ × σ 1 − μ × σ2.
E E E

Let 𝑒1, 𝑒2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒3 are total strains in the direction of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 respectively. Then
σ1 σ2 σ3
𝑒1 = −μ× −μ× … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.8(H)
E E E
σ2 σ3 σ1
𝑒2 = −μ× −μ× … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.8(I)
E E E
σ3 σ1 σ2
𝑒1 = −μ× −μ× … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.8(J)
E E E

21
 Example 1.1
Determine the change in length, breadth and thickness of a steel bar which is 4m long, 30 mm wide and 20mm
thick and is subjected to an axial pull of 30 𝐾𝑁 in the direction of its length. Take 𝐸 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 and
Poisson's ration=0.3.
Solution: Length of the bar: 𝐿 = 4𝑚 = 4000𝑚𝑚
Breadth of the bar: b= 30𝑚𝑚
Thickness of the bar: 𝑡 = 400𝑚𝑚
We can find the area as: A= 𝑏 ∗ 𝑡 = 30 ∗ 20 = 600𝑚𝑚2
Axial pull: 𝑃 = 30𝐾𝑁 = 30000𝑁
Young's modulus 𝐸 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Poisson’s ratio 𝜇 = 0.3
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃 30000
Now strain in the direction of load = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 𝐴𝐸 = 600∗2×105 = 0.00025
𝐸 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎∗𝐸

But longitudinal strain=𝛿𝐿 = 0.00025. Change in length(𝛿𝐿)=0.00025* 𝐿 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓 ∗ 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝒎𝒎.

𝐿
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Poisson’s ratio = = 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 0.3, 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 0.3 ∗ 0.00025 = 0.000075.
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 0.00025
𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑑 𝛿𝑡
We know that lateral strain= 𝑜𝑟 ( ), 𝛿𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝟑𝟎 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒎
𝑏 𝑑 𝑡
Similarly, 𝛿𝑡 = 𝑡 ∗ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝟐𝟎 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒎. 22
 Example 1.2
A metallic bar 300𝑚𝑚 × 100𝑚𝑚 × 40𝑚𝑚 is subjected to a force of 5𝐾𝑁, 6𝐾𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4𝐾𝑁 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) along
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 directions respectively. Determine the strains produced in the block. Take 𝐸 = 2 × 105 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 and
Poisson's ration=0.25.
Solution:

Length of the bar: 𝐿 = 300𝑚𝑚 (x − direction)

Breadth of the bar: b= 100𝑚𝑚(𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Thickness of the bar: 𝑡 = 40𝑚𝑚(𝑧 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Load in x − direction 5𝐾𝑁 = 5000𝑁
Load in 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 6𝐾𝑁 = 6000𝑁
Load in 𝑧 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4𝐾𝑁 = 4000𝑁 Fig. 1.9
Young's modulus 𝐸 = 2 × 105 𝑁ൗ 𝑚𝑚2
Poisson’s ratio 𝜇 = 0.25
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑥−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 5000𝑁 5000
Stress in x − direction (𝜎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝑦×𝑧
= = 1.25 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚 2
100∗40
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑦−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 5000𝑁 6000
Stress in y − direction (𝜎 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝑥×𝑧
=
300∗40
= 0. 5 𝑁Τ
𝑚𝑚 2
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑧−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Stress in z − direction (𝜎𝑧 = = 5000𝑁 = 4000 = 0.133 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚 2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥×𝑦 300∗100
23
 Cont…
Now we can find the corresponding strain values:
σx σy σz 1.25 0.5 0.133
𝑒𝑥 = − μ × − μ × = − 0.25 − 0.25
E E E 2 × 105 2 × 105 2 × 105
1 −5.
= 1.25 − 0.25 ∗ 0.5 − 0.25 ∗ 0.133 = 0.55 × 10
2 × 105

σy σx σz 0.5 1.25 0.133

𝑒𝑦 = −μ× −μ× = − 0.25 − 0.25
E E E 2 × 105 2 × 105 2 × 105
1
= 0.5 − 0.25 ∗ 1.25 − 0.25 ∗ 0.133 = 0.08 × 10−5.
2 × 105
σz σy σx 0.133 0.5 1.25
𝑒𝑧 = − μ × − μ × = − 0.25 − 0.25
E E E 2 × 105 2 × 105 2 × 105
1
= 5
0.133 − 0.25 ∗ 0.5 − 0.25 ∗ 1.25 = 0.15 × 10−5.
2 × 10

24
 1.5 Expression of Young's Modulus, Bulk Modulus in terms of each other
1.5.1 Bulk Modulus
When a body is subjected to the mutually perpendicular like and equal direct stresses, the ratio of the direct stress
to the corresponding volumetric strain is found to be constant for a given material when the deformation is with
in a certain limit. This ratio is known as Bulk modulus and is usually denoted by K. Mathematically:
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
𝐾= = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.9
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
1.5.2 Young's Modulus and Bulk Modulus
𝛿𝐿
From equation 1.8(c) we have volumetric strain 1 − 2𝜇 . The term 𝛿𝐿 is strain and this strain according to
𝜎 𝐿 𝐿 𝜎
Hooke’s law is given by . Therefore volumetric strain for one side can be 1 − 2𝜇 . For, a three dimensional
E E 3𝜎
mutually perpendicular stresses with same intensity and same dimension throughout can be 1 − 2𝜇 .
E
𝜎 𝐸
𝐾= 𝜎 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.10
3 1 − 2𝜇 3 1 − 2𝜇
E

25
 1.6 Stress-Strain Diagram
In designing various parts of a machine, it is necessary to know the mechanical properties of a material which are
commonly determined from a standard tensile test. This test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a
material and noting the corresponding values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures.
The axial stress 𝜎in a test specimen is calculated by dividing the axial load P by the cross-sectional area. When the
initial area of the specimen is used in the calculation, the stress is called the nominal stress (conventional stress
and engineering stress). A more exact value of the axial stress, called the true stress, can be calculated by using
the actual area of the bar at the cross section where failure occurs. Since the actual area in a tension test is always
less than the initial area, the true stress is larger than the nominal stress.

The average axial strain e in the test specimen is found by dividing the measured elongation 𝛿between the gage
marks by the gage length L. The original distance between the two reference points is known as gauge length. If
the initial gage length is used in the calculation then the nominal strain is obtained. Since the distance between
the gage marks increases as the tensile load is applied, we can calculate the true strain (or natural strain) at any
value of the load by using the actual distance between the gage marks. In tension, true strain is always smaller
than nominal strain. The values of the stress and corresponding strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram of
the material tested. A stress-strain diagram for a structural steel, also known as mild steel or low-carbon steel
under tensile test is shown in Fig.1.10.
26
Cont…
a)

b)

Fig. 1.10: a) Stress-strain diagram for a typical mild steel or low-carbon steel in tension, b) Specimen
27
 Cont…
1. Proportional limit: The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A, which means that
the relationship between stress and strain in this initial region is not only linear but also proportional.
Beyond point A, the curve slightly deviates from the straight line. It is thus obvious, that Hooke's law holds
good up to point A and it is known as proportional limit. It is defined as that stress at which the stress-strain
curve begins to deviate from the straight line. The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the
modulus of elasticity. Because the slope has units of stress divided by strain, modulus of elasticity has the
same units as stress.
2. Elastic limit: It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A up to the point B, the material
will regain its shape and size when the load is removed. This means that the material has elastic properties
up to the point B. This point is known as elastic limit. It is defined as the stress developed in the material
without any permanent set.
3. Yield point: With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more
rapidly for each increment in stress. Consequently, the stress-strain curve has a smaller and smaller slope,
until, at point B, the curve becomes horizontal Beginning at this point, considerable elongation of the test
specimen occurs with no noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C). This phenomenon is known
as yielding of the material, and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the
yield stress of the steel. In the region from B to C ,the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that
it deforms without an increase in the applied load.
28
 Cont…
4. Ultimate stress: After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel
begins to strain harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its crystalline structure,
resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Elongation of the test specimen in this
region requires an increase in the tensile load, and therefore the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope
from C to D. The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is
called the ultimate stress.
5. Breaking stress: Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture
finally occurs at a point such as E. After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed,
which decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen (the reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly
visible and a pronounced necking of the bar occurs) , as shown in Fig. 1.10 (b). A little consideration will
show that the stress (or load) necessary to break away the specimen, is less than the maximum stress. The
stress is, therefore, reduced until the specimen breaks away at point E. The stress corresponding to point E is
known as breaking stress.
If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow part of the neck is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-
strain curve (the dashed line CE’) is obtained. The total load the bar can carry does indeed diminish after the
ultimate stress is reached (as shown by curve DE), but this reduction is due to the decrease in area of the bar and
not to a loss in strength of the material itself. In reality, the material withstands an increase in true stress up to
failure (point E’).
29
 Cont…
6. Percentage reduction in area: It is the difference between the original cross-sectional area and cross-
sectional area at the neck (i.e. where the fracture takes place). This difference is expressed as percentage of
the original cross-sectional area.
Let 𝐴 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎,
a= 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘
Then reduction in area= 𝐴 − 𝑎 and percent reduction in area= 𝐴−𝑎 × 100
𝐴
7. Percent elongation: It is the percentage increase in the standard gauge length (i.e. original length) obtained
by measuring the fractured specimen after bringing the broken parts together.
Let 𝑙 = 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ,
L = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Elongation=L − 𝑙 and percent elongation = L−𝑙
𝑙
× 100
Note : The percentage elongation gives a measure of ductility of the metal under test.

30
 1.7 Analysis of Bars under Axial load
Consider a bar which is a straight structural member having the same cross section throughout its length, and an
axial force is a load P directed along the axis of the member. Then the stress and strain can be found using the
previous simple equations.
Example 1.3: Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire, which is used to raise a load of 4000N if the stress in the
rod is not exceed 95 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2.
Solution:
Given: P=4000N, 𝜎 = 95 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2=95 × 106 𝑁/𝑚2=95 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋
Let D= diameter of wire in mm, 𝐴 = 𝐷 2
4
Now stress=𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑃
𝐴 = 95 = 4000
𝜋 𝐷2 or 𝐷 2 = 4000∗4 = 53.61𝑚𝑚2, 𝑫 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝜋∗95
4

Example 1.4: Find the Young’s Modulus of a brass rod of diameter 25 mm and of length 250 mm which is
subjected to a tensile load of 50 KN when the extension of rod is equal to 0.3 mm.
Given: D= diameter of rod=25 mm
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴= 𝐷2 = 252 = 490.87𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Tensile load, 𝑃 = 50𝐾𝑁 = 50, 000𝑁
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 𝑑𝐿 = 0.3 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 𝐿 = 250 𝑚𝑚 31
 Cont…
Stress 𝜎 = 𝑃 = 50,000 = 101.86 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2.
𝐴 480.87

Strain is given by e = 𝐷𝐿 = 0.3

= 0.0012.
𝐿 250

Finally we can found the Young’s Modulus of a brass for the above response as:
′
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 101.86𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 84883.33𝑁
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐸 = = = = 84.883 𝐺𝑃𝑎.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 0.0012 𝑚𝑚2
Example 1.5: The safe stress for hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 2.1 × 103 𝐾𝑁 𝑖𝑠 125 𝑀𝑁/
𝑚2. If the external diameter of the column is 30cm, determine the internal diameter.
Given: Safe stress, 𝜎 = 125 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2=125× 106 𝑁/𝑚2
Axial load, P = 2.1 × 103 𝐾𝑁 = 2.1 × 106 𝑁
External diameter, 𝐷 = 30𝑐𝑚 = 0.3𝑚, Let, 𝑑 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜋
The cross sectional area of a hollow steel column is given by: 𝜋 (𝐷 2 −𝑑 2 ) = (0.32 −𝑑 2) … … … … … … … (𝑎)
4 4

First find the area from the relation of stress and load 𝜎 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑃𝜎 = (2.1 × 106 𝑁)/(125 × 106 𝑁/𝑚2)
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟖𝒎𝟐
𝜋 4
0.0168 = (0.3 −𝑑 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑑 = (0.3 −0.0168 ) → 𝑑 2= 0.0686, 𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝟗𝒎 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟏𝟗𝒄𝒎. 32
2 2 2 2
4 𝜋
 Cont…
Example 1.6: The ultimate stress for hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 1.9 MN is 480𝑁/𝑚𝑚2. If
the external diameter of the column is 200 mm, determine the internal diameter. Take factor of safety as 4.

Given:
Ultimate stress, 𝜎𝑢 = 480 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2, Axial load 𝑃 = 1.9 𝑀𝑁 = 1.9 × 106𝑁, External diameter 𝐷 = 200𝑚𝑚,
Factor of Saftey 𝑛 = 4.

Let, 𝑑 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚. The cross sectional area of a hollow steel column is given by: 𝜋 (𝐷2−𝑑2) =
4
𝜋 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 480
(2002−𝑑2). Factor of Saftey 𝑛 = = = 4.
4 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

The working stress is found from the mathematical formula as: 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜎) = 480 = 120𝑁/𝑚𝑚2.
4

This stress can help us to find the diameter of the column by: 𝜎 = 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑃 = (1.9 × 106 𝑁)/(120𝑁/𝑚𝑚2),
𝐴 𝜎
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟓, 𝟖𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒎𝟐.
𝜋 4
15,833.33 = (200 −𝑑 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑑 = (200 −15,833.33 ) → 𝑑 2= 19,840.37𝑚𝑚 2, 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝒎𝒎.
2 2 2 2
4 𝜋
33
 1.7.1 Analysis of Bars of Various Cross Sections
A bar of different length and of different diameters (and hence of different cross sectional area) is shown in Fig.
1.11. Let this bar is subjected to an axial load P. Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the
stresses, strains, and change in length will be different. The total change in length will be obtained by adding the
change in length of individual section.

Let, 𝑃 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟,

𝐿1 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1,
𝐴1 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝐿2, 𝐴2 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2,
𝐿3, 𝐴3 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3,
𝐸 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟

Fig. 1.11 34
 Cont…
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
Stress for section 1, 𝜎1 = = .
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝐴1
𝑃 𝑃
Similarly stresses for the section 2 and section 3 are given as, , 𝜎 2 = 𝐴 and 𝜎3 = .
2 𝐴3
𝑃 𝑃
Strain of section 1, 𝑒1 = 𝜎1 = , because 𝜎1 = 𝐴
𝐸 𝐴 1𝐸 1
𝑃 𝑃
Similarly strains for the section 2 and section 3 are given as, 𝑒 2 = 𝜎2 = and 𝑒3 = 𝜎3 =
𝐸 𝐴 2𝐸 𝐸 𝐴 3𝐸

But strain in section 1=𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1, 𝑒 1 = 𝑑𝐿1, where 𝑑𝐿 1 − 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝐿1
𝑃𝐿1
Therefore change in length of section 1 (𝑑𝐿1)=𝑒1𝐿1 =
𝐴 1𝐸

Similarly change in length of section 2 and section 3 are obtained as:

𝑃𝐿 2 𝑃𝐿3
𝑑𝐿2=𝑒2𝐿2 = and 𝑑𝐿3 =𝑒3 𝐿3 =
𝐴 2𝐸 𝐴 3𝐸

Now, the total change in length of the bar,

𝑃 𝐿1
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝐿1 + 𝑑𝐿2 + 𝑑𝐿 3 = 𝐴 𝐸1 + 𝐴 𝐸2 + 𝐴 𝐸3 = + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.11
1 2 3 𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3

35
 Cont…
The above equation is used when the Young’s Modulus of different cross section is same. If the Young’s Modulus
of different cross section is different, then the total change in length of the bar is given by:
𝑃𝐿1 𝑃𝐿2 𝑃𝐿3 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝐿1 + 𝑑𝐿2 + 𝑑𝐿 3 = + + =𝑃 + + … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.12
𝐴1𝐸1 𝐴2𝐸2 𝐴3𝐸3 𝐸1𝐴1 𝐸2𝐴2 𝐸3𝐴3
Example 1.7: an axial pull of 35000N is acting on a bar consisting of three lengths as shown in Fig. 1.12. If the
young’s Modulus=2.1 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2, determine:
i. Stresses in each section,
ii. Total extension of the bar

Given: axial pull 𝑃 = 35000𝑁,

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 = 𝐿1 = 20𝑐𝑚 = 200𝑚𝑚, Fig. 1.12

𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 (𝐷1) = 2𝑐𝑚 = 20𝑚𝑚

𝜋
We can find the 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝐴 1 = 202 = 100𝜋𝑚𝑚 2
4
36
 Cont…
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 = 𝐿2 = 25𝑐𝑚 = 250𝑚𝑚,
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 (𝐷2) = 3𝑐𝑚 = 30𝑚𝑚, We can find the
𝜋
cross sectional area of section 2 𝐴2 = 302 = 225𝜋 𝑚𝑚 2
4
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 = 𝐿3 = 22𝑐𝑚 = 220𝑚𝑚,
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 (𝐷3) = 5𝑐𝑚 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝜋
We can find the 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 𝐴3 = 502 = 625𝜋 𝑚𝑚 2
4
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐸 = 2.1 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
i. Stresses in each section:
𝑃
Stress for section 1, 𝜎1 =
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
= = 35000 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝐴1 100𝜋
𝑃 35000
Stresses for the section 2, 𝜎2 = = = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟓𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐴2 225𝜋
𝑃 35000
Stresses for the section 3, 𝜎3 = = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟐𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝐴 3 625𝜋

35000 200 250 220 35000

ii. Total extension of the bar: + + = 6.366 + 3.536 + 1.12 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝒎𝒎
2.1 ×105 100𝜋 225𝜋 625𝜋 2.1 ×105
37
 Cont…
Example 1.8:
A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminum bar is shown in Fig. 1.13. Assuming that the bars are
prevented from buckling sideways, calculate the magnitude of force P that will cause the total length of the
member to decrease 0.25mm. The values of elastic modulus for steel and aluminum are 2.1 × 105 N/mm2 and
7 × 104 N/mm2 respectively.
Given:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝐿1 = 30𝑐𝑚 = 300𝑚𝑚
Area of steel bar, 𝐴1 = 5 × 5 = 25cm2 = 250mm2
Elastic Modulus for steel bar, 𝐸1 = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝐿2 = 38𝑐𝑚 = 380𝑚𝑚
Area of 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝐴2 = 10 × 10 = 100 cm2 = 10000mm2
Elastic Modulus for 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝐸2 = 7 × 104 N/mm2
Total decrease in length, 𝑑𝐿 = 0.25𝑚𝑚.
Fig. 1.13
Let, 𝑃 = 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
38
 Cont…
As both the bars are made of different materials, hence total change in length of the bar is given by:
𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑑𝐿 = 𝑃 +
𝐸1𝐴1 𝐸2𝐴2
300 380
0.25 = 𝑃 5
+ 4
= 𝑃 5.714 × 10−7 +5.428 × 10−7 = 𝑃 ∗ 11.142 × 10−7
2.1 × 10 ∗ 2500 7 × 10 ∗ 10000
0.25 0.25 × 107 5= 𝟐𝟐𝟒. 𝟑𝟕 𝑲𝑵
𝑃= = = 2.2437 × 10
11.142 × 10−7 11.142
1.7.2 Principle of Superposition
When a number of loads are acting on a body, the resulting strain, according to principle of superposition, will be
the algebraic sum of strains caused by individual loads.
While using this principle for an elastic body which is subjected to a number of direct forces (tensile or
compressive) at different sections along the length of the body:
• first the free body diagram of individual section is drawn.
• Then the deformation of the each section is obtained. The total deformation of the body will be then equal to the
algebraic sum of deformations of the individual sections.

39
 Example 1.9
A brass bar having cross sectional area of 1000mm2 is subjected to axial forces as shown in Fig.1.14. Find the
total elongation of the bar. Take E = 1.05 × 105 N/mm2
Given:
A = 1000mm2
E = 1.05 × 105 N/mm2
Let, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
Fig. 1.14 (a)
Procedure: at equilibrium all forces from left side is equal to right hand side.
50 𝐾𝑁 + 20 𝐾𝑁 + 10𝐾𝑁 = 80𝐾𝑁
Start section from the higher force and take the lower force for each section.
This means the force of 80 KN acting at B is split up into three forces of 50 KN, 20KN, and 10 KN.
Then the part of AB of the bar will be subjected to a tensile load of 50 KN, part BC is subjected to a compressive
load of 20 KN and part BD is subjected to a compressive load of 10 KN as shown in Fig. 1.14.

40
 Cont…
Part AB: this part is subjected to a tensile load of 50KN (for section AB we have 80 KN and 50KN, take the lower
one). To make equilibrium add 50KN to the right hand side. Due to this tensile force there will be increase in
length of this part.
50000∗600
Increase in length of AB=𝑃1𝐿1 = = 0.2857.
𝐴𝐸 1000∗1.05×105

Part BC: this part is subjected to a compressive load of 20KN (for section BC we have 30 KN(80-50=30) and
20KN, take the lower one). To make equilibrium add 20KN to the left hand side. Due to this compressive force
there will be decrease in length of this part.
20000∗100
Decrease in length of BC=𝑃2𝐿2 = = 0.1904.
𝐴𝐸 1000∗1.05×105
Part BD: this part is subjected to a compressive load of 10KN
(for section BD we have 10 KN(20-10=10) and 10KN, take
the lower one). To make equilibrium add 20KN to the left
hand side. Due to this compressive force there will be decrease
in length of this part. Fig. 1.14 (b)
10000∗2200
Decrease in length of BD=𝑃3𝐿3 = = 0.2095
𝐴𝐸 1000∗1.05×105
41
Total elongation=0.2857-0.1904-0.2095=-0.1142 mm.
 Example 1.10
A member ABCD is subjected to a point loads 𝑃1, 𝑃2, 𝑃3, and 𝑃4 as shown in Fig. 1.15. Calculate the force 𝑃2
necessary for equilibrium, if 𝑃1 = 45 𝐾𝑁, 𝑃3 = 450 𝐾𝑁 and 𝑃4 = 130 𝐾𝑁. Determine the total elongation of
the member, assuming the modulus of elasticity to be E = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2.
Given:
Part AB: Area, 𝐴1 = 625mm2 and 𝐿1 = 120𝑐𝑚 = 1200𝑚𝑚
Part BC: Area, 𝐴2 = 2500mm2 and 𝐿2 = 60𝑐𝑚 = 600𝑚𝑚
Part CD: Area, 𝐴3 = 1250mm2 and 𝐿3 = 90𝑐𝑚 = 900𝑚𝑚
E = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2
Value of 𝑃2 necessary for equilibrium, resolving the forces
on the rod along its axis(i.e, equating the forces acting
towards right to those acting towards left), we get
𝑃1 + 𝑃3 = 𝑃2+𝑃4

Fig. 1.15 (a) 42

 Cont…
But 𝑃1 = 45 𝐾𝑁, 𝑃2 =?, 𝑃3 = 450 𝐾𝑁, and 𝑃4 = 130 𝐾𝑁
45 𝐾𝑁 + 450 𝐾𝑁 = 𝑃2+130 𝐾𝑁, 𝑃2 = 495 − 130 = 365 𝐾𝑁
Part AB: in this part we have 45 𝐾𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 365 𝐾𝑁, take the lower one. To make equilibrium subtract 45 𝐾𝑁
from 365 𝐾𝑁, and we left 320 𝐾𝑁. This means part AB is subjected to a tensile load of 45 𝐾𝑁 and hence there
will be increase in length.
Part BC: in this part we have 320 𝐾𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 450 𝐾𝑁, take the lower one. To make equilibrium subtract 320 𝐾𝑁
from 450 𝐾𝑁, and we left 130 𝐾𝑁. Part BC is subjected to a compressive load of 320 𝐾𝑁 and hence there will
be decrease in length.
Part CD:in this part we have 320 𝐾𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 450 𝐾𝑁, take
the lower one. To make equilibrium subtract 320 𝐾𝑁
from 450 𝐾𝑁, and we left 130 𝐾𝑁. Part CD is subjected
to a tensile load of 130 𝐾𝑁 and hence there will be
increase in length.

Fig. 1.15 (b) 43

 Cont…
Increase in length of AB =𝑃𝐿1 = 45,000∗1200
= 0.4114 𝑚𝑚.
𝐴 1𝐸 625∗2.1×105
320,000∗600
Decrease in length of BC =𝑃𝐿2 = = 0.3657 𝑚𝑚.
𝐴 2𝐸 2500∗2.1×105
130,000∗900
Increase in length of CD =𝑃𝐿3 = = 0.4457 𝑚𝑚.
𝐴 3𝐸 1250∗2.1×105
Total length of the member= 0.4114 𝑚𝑚 − 0.3657 𝑚𝑚 + 0.4457 𝑚𝑚 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝒎(𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒏)
Example 1.11
A rigid bar ACDB is hinged at A and supported in a horizontal position by two identical steel wires as shown in
Fig. 1.16 (a). A vertical load of 30 KN is applied at B. Find the tensile force 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 induced in these wires by
the vertical load.

Fig. 1.16
44
 Cont…
Given:
A rigid bar means a bar which will remain straight. Two identical steel wires mean the rea of cross sections,
lengths and value of E for both wires is same.
𝐴1 = 𝐴2, 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 and 𝐿1 = 𝐿2
Load at 𝐵 = 30 𝐾𝑁.
The left side of Fig. 1.16 shows the position of the rigid bar before load is applied at B and the right side of the
Fig. shows the position of the rigid bar after load is applied.
Let, 𝑇1 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝑇2 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝛿1 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝛿2 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
Since the rigid bar remains straight, hence the extensions 𝛿1 and 𝛿2 are given by
𝛿1
= 𝐴𝐶 = 1 = 2𝛿1 = 𝛿2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝑖
𝛿2 𝐴𝐷 2
𝑇1
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐸∗𝐿1 ∗𝐿1
But 𝛿1 is the extension in wire CE 𝛿1 = = 𝐴1
= 𝑇1∗𝐿1
𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐴1𝐸1
45
 Cont…
𝑇2
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝐹∗𝐿2 𝐴2
∗𝐿2 𝑇2 ∗𝐿 2
Similarly 𝛿2 is the extension in wire DF 𝛿2 = = = , Now substitute 𝛿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿2 into the
𝐸2 𝐸2 𝐴2𝐸2
above equation (i)
2 ∗ 𝑇1∗𝐿1 = 𝑇2∗𝐿2, 𝐴 1 = 𝐴2, 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 and 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 which finally gives 2 ∗ 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 … … … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝐴1𝐸1 𝐴2𝐸2
Due to the configuration of the structure, a moment will produce on a rigid bar about A, at equilibrium we get,
𝑇1 × 1 + 𝑇2 × 2 = 30 × 3 or 𝑇1 + 2𝑇2 = 90 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
From equation (ii), 2 ∗ 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 and we can find 𝑇1 + 2(2𝑇1) = 90 or 5𝑇1 = 90, 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖 𝑲𝑵 and 𝑻𝟐 =
𝟑𝟔 𝑲𝑵
Once we get the tension forces we can find stresses in the two wire as
S𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝐶 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑇1
and S𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑇2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴1 𝐴2

46
 1.8 Thermal Stresses
Thermal stresses are the stresses induced in a body due to change in temperature. Thermal stresses are set up in a
body, when the temperature of the body is raised or lowered and the body is not allowed to expand or contract
freely. But if the body is allowed to expand or contract freely, no stresses will be set up in the body.
Consider a body which rests freely on a smooth horizontal surface and heated to a certain temperature.
If the temperature of the rod is raised by ∆𝑇, we observe that the rod elongates by an amount δ𝑇which is
proportional to both the temperature change ∆𝑇 and the length L of the rod (Fig. 1.17b). We have
δ𝑇 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝐿 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.13
Where 𝛼 is a constant characteristic of the material, called the coefficient of thermal expansion.

Fig. 1.17 Fig. 1.18

47
 Cont…
Since δ𝑇 and L are both expressed in units of length, 𝛼 represents a quantity per degree C, or per degree F,
depending whether the temperature change is expressed in degrees Celsius or in degrees Fahrenheit. The strain
associated with deformation of material due to temperature rise is given by:
δ𝑇 𝛼∆𝑇𝐿
𝑒𝑇 = = = 𝛼∆𝑇
𝐿 𝐿
The strain 𝑒𝑇 is referred to as a thermal strain, since it is caused by the change in temperature of the rod. In the
case we are considering here, there is no stress associated with the strain 𝑒𝑇 it is because free expansion.
Let us now assume that the same rod AB of length L is placed between two fixed supports at a distance L from
each other (Fig. 1.18a). Again, there is neither stress nor strain in this initial condition. If we raise the
temperature by ∆𝑇, the rod cannot elongate because of the restraints imposed on its ends; the elongation δ𝑇 of
the rod is thus zero. Since the rod is homogeneous and of uniform cross section, the strain 𝑒𝑇 at any point is
𝑒𝑇 = δ 𝑇 and, thus, also zero. However, the supports will exert equal and opposite forces P and P’ on the rod after
𝐿
the temperature has been raised, to keep it from elongating (Fig. 1.18b). It thus follows that a state of stress (with
no corresponding strain) is created in the rod.
To determine the stress created by the temperature change ∆𝑇, first determine the magnitude of reaction force P,
which resist the material from elongation but still elongation is zero because of constrained nature of the support.

48
 Cont…
If we let it elongate freely as temperature rise, an elongation of the rod will happen as shown in Fig. 1.19.
Applying now to end B the force P representing the redundant reaction, and we obtain the deformation as

𝑃𝐿
δ𝑃 = , However, the total deformation is zero. Now we have
𝐴𝐸

δ = δ 𝑇 + δ𝑃 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝐿 + 𝑃𝐿 = 0 or 𝑃 = −𝐴𝐸𝛼∆𝑇 and that the stress in the rod

𝐴𝐸
due to the temperature change ∆𝑇 is
𝑃
𝜎 = = −𝐸𝛼∆𝑇 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.14
𝐴

Fig. 1.19
49
 Example 1.12
A rod is 2 m long at a temperature of 10℃. Find the expansion of the rod when the temperature is raised to 80℃.
If this expansion is prevented, find the stress induced in the material of the rod. Take E = 1 × 105 MN/m2 and
α = 0.000012/℃.
Given:
Length of the rod, L=2 m
Initial temperature, 𝑇1 = 10℃
Final temperature, 𝑇2 = 80℃
Rise in temperature =∆𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 80℃ − 10℃ = 70℃
E = 1 × 105 MN/m2=1 × 1011N/m2
Co-efficient of thermal expansion, α = 0.000012/℃
i) The expansion of the rod due to temperature rise is δ𝑇 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝐿 = 0.000012 ∗ 70 ∗ 2000 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝒎.
ii) The stress in the material of the rod if expansion is prevented is
Thermal stress (𝜎) = −𝐸𝛼∆𝑇 = 0.000012 ∗ 70 ∗ 1 × 1011 = 84 × 106N/m2=𝟖𝟒 𝐍/𝐦𝒎𝟐

50
 1.9 Shearing Strain
In the previous sections the relationship between stress and strain are derived without considering the shearing
strain. Now a more general stress situation include shearing stresses 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏 𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏 𝑧𝑥, 𝜏 𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏 𝑧𝑦 , and 𝜏𝑥𝑧.
These stresses have no direct effect on the normal strains and, as long as all the deformations involved remain
small, they will not affect the derivation nor the validity of the relations of generalized hooks law. The shearing
stresses, however, will tend to deform a cubic element of material into an oblique parallelepiped.

Fig. 1.20 General state of stresses 51

 Cont…
 Consider first a cubic element of side one shown left side of Fig. 1.21 subjected to no other stresses than the
shearing stresses 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 , and 𝜏 𝑦𝑥 (recall that 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏 𝑦𝑥 ) applied to faces of the element respectively
perpendicular to the x and y axes.
• The element is observed to deform into a rhomboid of sides equal to one as shown on the right hand side of
Fig. 1.21.

Fig. 1.21 Cubic element subjected to shearing stresses.

52
 Cont…
• Two of the angles formed by the four faces under stress are reduced from 𝜋 to 𝜋
− 𝛾𝑥𝑦 , while the other two
2 2
are increased from 𝜋 to 𝜋 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 , the small angle 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (expressed in radians) defines the shearing strain
2 2
corresponding to the x and y directions.
For any homogeneous isotropic material, the shearing strain and shearing stress can be related as
𝜏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.15.
• This relation is known as Hooke’s law for shearing stress and strain, and the constant G is called the modulus
of rigidity or shear modulus of the material. Since the strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 was defined as an angle in radians, it is
dimensionless, and the modulus G is expressed in the same units as 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 , that is, in Pascal's or in psi. The
modulus of rigidity G of any given material is less than one-half, but more than one-third of the modulus of
elasticity E of that material.
 Considering now a small element of material subjected to shearing stresses 𝜏 𝑦𝑧 , and 𝜏 𝑧𝑦 (Fig. 1.22a), we
define the shearing strain 𝛾𝑦𝑧 as the change in the angle formed by the faces under stress. The shearing strain
𝛾𝑧𝑦 is defined in a similar way by considering an element subjected to shearing stresses 𝜏𝑧𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 (Fig.
1.22b). For values of the stress that do not exceed the proportional limit, we can write the two additional
relations:
𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝐺𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 𝑦𝑧 = 𝐺𝛾𝑦𝑧 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.16.
53
 Cont…
For the general stress condition as long as none of the stresses involved exceeds the corresponding proportional
limit, the generalized Hooke’s law for a homogeneous isotropic material under the most general stress condition
can be
σ1 σ2 σ3
𝑒𝑥 = −μ× −μ×
E E E
σ2 σ3 σ1
𝑒𝑦 = −μ× −μ×
E E E

𝑒𝑧 = σ 3 − μ × σ 1 − μ × σ2 …1.17
E E E

𝜏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦, 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝐺𝛾𝑧𝑥,

and 𝜏 𝑦𝑧 = 𝐺𝛾𝑦𝑧

Fig. 1.22 54
 Example 1.13
A rectangular block of a material with a modulus of rigidity 𝐺 = 90 𝑘𝑠𝑖 is bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the upper plate is subjected to a horizontal force P (shown left side of Fig. 1.23).
Knowing that the upper plate moves through 0.04 in. under the action of the force.
Determine (a) the average shearing strain in the material, (b) the force P exerted on the upper plate.
(a) Shearing Strain. We select coordinate axes centered at the midpoint C of edge AB and directed as shown
right side of Fig. 1.23. According to its definition, the shearing strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 is equal to the angle formed by the
vertical and the line CF joining the midpoints of edges AB and DE. Noting that this is a very small angle and
recalling that it should be expressed in radians, we write

Fig. 1.23
55
 Cont…
0.04 𝑖𝑛
𝛾𝑥𝑦 ≈ tan 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = = 0.02 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
2 𝑖𝑛.
(b) Force Exerted on Upper Plate. We first determine the shearing stress 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 in the material. Using Hooke’s
law for shearing stress and strain, we have
𝜏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 90 × 103 𝑝𝑠𝑖 0.02 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1800 𝑝𝑠𝑖
The force exerted on the upper plate is thus
𝑃 = 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝐴 = 1800 𝑝𝑠𝑖 8 𝑖𝑛 2.5 𝑖𝑛 = 36 × 103 𝑙𝑏 = 36 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

56
 1.9.1 Relation Between G and E
When a bar subjected to an axial tensile load P directed along the x axis, it will elongate in the x direction and
contract in both of the transverse y and z directions. If 𝑒𝑥 denotes the axial strain, the lateral strain is expressed as
𝑒𝑦 = 𝑒𝑧 = −𝜇𝑒𝑥. Thus, an element in the shape of a cube of side equal to one and oriented as shown in Fig.
1.24a will deform into a rectangular parallelepiped of sides 1 + 𝑒𝑥, 1 − 𝜇𝑒𝑥 and 1 − 𝜇𝑒𝑥.
On the other hand, if the element is oriented at 45° to the axis of the load (Fig. 1.24b), the face shown in the
figure is observed to deform into a rhombus. We conclude that the axial load P causes in this element a shearing
strain 𝛾 equal to the amount by which each of the angles shown in Fig. 1.24b increases or decreases.

Fig. 1.24
57
 Cont…
An axial load P causes normal and shearing stresses of equal magnitude on four of the faces of an element
oriented at 45° to the axis of the member. To derive a relation between the maximum shearing strain 𝛾associated
with the element of Fig. 1.24b and the normal strain 𝑒𝑥 in the direction of the load. Let us consider for this
purpose the prismatic element obtained by intersecting the cubic element of Fig. 1.24a by a diagonal plane (Fig.
1.25a and b).
Referring to Fig.1.24a, we conclude that this new element will deform into the element shown in Fig. 1.25c,
which has horizontal and vertical sides respectively equal to 1 + 𝑒𝑥 and 1 − 𝜇𝑒𝑥. But the angle formed by the
oblique and horizontal faces of the element of Fig. 1.25b is precisely half of one of the right angles of the cubic
element considered in Fig. 1.24b. The angle 𝛽 into which this angle deforms must therefore be equal to half of
𝜋
− 𝛾.
2

Fig. 1.25 58
 Cont…
𝜋 𝛾
we write 𝛽 = − .
4 2
Applying the formula for the tangent of the difference of two angles, we obtain
𝜋 𝛾 𝛾
tan 4 −tan 2 1 − tan
tan𝛽 = 1+tan 𝜋 𝛾 = 2
𝛾 or since 𝛾 is very small angle.
tan 2 1+tan 2 2
4
1−𝛾
tan𝛽 = 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.18
1+𝛾
2
But, from Fig. 1.25c, we observe that tan𝛽 = 1−𝜇𝑒𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … 1.19
1+𝑒𝑥

Equating the right-hand members of (1.18) and (1.19), and solving for 𝛾, we write
(1+𝜇)𝑒
𝛾 = 1−𝜇 𝑥 , Since 𝑒𝑥 ≪ 1, the denominator in the expression obtained can be assumed equal to one; we have,
1+ 𝑒𝑥
2
therefore,
𝛾 = (1 + 𝜇)𝑒𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.20
which is the desired relation between the maximum shearing strain 𝛾 and the axial strain 𝑒𝑥.
To obtain a relation among the constants E, 𝜇, and G, we recall that, by Hooke’s law, 𝛾 = 𝜏/𝐺, and that, for an
axial loading, 𝑒𝑥 = 𝜎 𝑥. Equation (1.20) can therefore be written as
𝐸
59
 Cont…
𝜏 𝐸
= (1 + 𝜇) 𝜎 𝑥 or = 1+𝜇 𝜎𝑥
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.21
𝐺 𝐸 𝐺 𝜏

𝑃
We now recall 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑃 and 𝜏 = (The maximum shear stress induced in a member which is subjected to an
𝐴 2𝐴
axial load is equal to half of maximum normal stress), where A is the cross-sectional area of the member. It thus
follows that 𝜎 𝑥 = 2. Substituting this value into (1.21) and dividing both members by 2, we obtain the relation
𝜏
𝐸 𝐸
= 1 + 𝜇 or 𝐺 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.22
2𝐺 2 1+𝜇

60
 1.10 Principal stresses and strains
1.10.1 Plane stress
When al the stresses act in the same plane we call it plane stress. When the material is in
plane stress in the xy plane, only the x and y faces of the element are subjected to stresses, and
all stresses act parallel to the x and y axes, as shown in Fig. 1.26a. When the element shown
in Fig. 1.26a is located at the free surface of a body, the z axis is normal to the surface and the
z face is in the plane of the surface.

Fig. 1.26 61
 Cont…
 A normal stress 𝜎 has a subscript that identifies the face on which the stress acts; for
instance, the stress 𝜎𝑥 acts on the x face of the element and the stress 𝜎𝑦 acts on the y face
of the element.
 Since the element is infinitesimal in size, equal normal stresses act on the opposite faces.
The sign convention for normal stresses, tension is positive and compression is negative.
 A shear stress 𝜏 has two subscripts—the first subscript denotes the face on which the stress
acts, and the second gives the direction on that face.
 Thus, the stress 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 acts on the x face in the direction of the y axis (Fig. 1.26a), and the
stress 𝜏 𝑦𝑥 acts on the y face in the direction of the x axis.
 A shear stress is positive when the directions associated with its subscripts are plus-plus or
minus-minus; the stress is negative when the directions are plus-minus or minus-plus.
Therefore, we note that 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥

62
 [Link] Stresses on Inclined Sections
 Consider the stresses acting on inclined sections, assuming that the stresses 𝜎𝑥, 𝜎𝑦, and 𝜏𝑥𝑦
(Figs. 1.26a and b) are known.
 Consider also a new stress element by rotating with an angle (Fig. 1.26c) that is located at
the same point in the material as the original element (Fig. 1.26b).
 However, the new element has faces that are parallel and perpendicular to the inclined
direction. Associated with this new element are axes 𝑥1, 𝑦1, and 𝑧1, such that the 𝑧1 axis
coincides with the z axis and the𝑥1𝑦1axes are rotated counterclockwise through an angle 𝜃
with respect to the xy axes.
 The normal and shear stresses acting on this new element are denoted 𝜎𝑥1, 𝜎𝑦1, and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1,
and 𝜏𝑦1𝑥1, using the same subscript designations and sign conventions described previously
for the stresses acting on the xy element.
 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 𝜏𝑦1𝑥1, From this equation and the equilibrium of the element, we see that the shear
stresses acting on all four side faces of an element in plane stress are known if we determine
the shear stress acting on any one of those faces.
63
Cont…

Fig. 1.27
64
 Cont…
 The stresses acting on the inclined 𝑥1𝑦1 element (Fig. 1.26c) can be expressed in terms of
the stresses on the xy element (Fig. 1.26b) by using equations of equilibrium.
 For this purpose, we choose a wedge shaped stress element (Fig. 1.27a) having an
inclined face that is the same as the x1 face of the inclined element shown in Fig. 1 .26c.
The other two side faces of the wedge are parallel to the x and y axes.
 Let, area of the left-hand side face (that is, the negative x face) as 𝐴0. Then the normal and
shear forces acting on that face are 𝜎𝑥𝐴0and 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝐴 0 , as shown Fig. 1.27b. Area of the
bottom face (or negative y face)=𝐴0𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 and area of the inclined face (or positive x1
face)=𝐴0𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃.
 Thus, the normal and shear forces acting on these faces have the magnitudes and directions
shown in Fig. 1.27b.
 The forces acting on the left-hand and bottom faces can be resolved into orthogonal
components acting in the x1 and y1 directions.
Forces in the x1 direction,
65
 Cont…

Using the relationship 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏 𝑦𝑥 , and also simplifying and rearranging, we obtain the
following two equations:
………………………………………………….1.23a
.……………………………….1.23b

66
 Cont…
 For the special case when 𝜃 = 0, we note that Eqs. (1.23a) and (1.23 b) give 𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑥 and
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 , as expected. Also, when 𝜃 =90°, the equations give 𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑦 and =
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = −𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −𝜏𝑦𝑥.
 In the latter case, since the x1 axis is vertical when 𝜃 =90°, the stress 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1will be positive
when it acts to the left. However, the stress 𝜏 𝑦𝑥 acts to the right, and therefore
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = −𝜏𝑦𝑥.
[Link] Transformation Equations for Plane Stress
Equations (1.23a) and (1.23b) for the stresses on an inclined section can be expressed in a
more convenient form by introducing the following trigonometric identities

67
 Cont…
The equations become
…………………………………………………1.24a

…………………………………………………1.24b
 These equations are usually called the transformation equations for plane stress because
they transform the stress components from one set of axes to another.
 Since the transformation equations were derived solely from equilibrium of an element,
they are applicable to stresses in any kind of material, whether linear or nonlinear, elastic
or inelastic.
 The normal stress 𝜎𝑦1 acting on the y1 face of the inclined element (Fig. 1.26c) can be
obtained from Eq. (1.24a) by substituting 𝜃 +90° for 𝜃.
The result is the following equation for 𝜎𝑦1: ..…………..1.25

Summing the expressions for 𝜎𝑥1 and 𝜎𝑦1 (Eqs. 1.24a and 1.26), we obtain the following
equation for plane stress: 68
 Cont…
This equation shows that the sum of the normal stresses acting on perpendicular faces of
plane-stress elements (at a given point in a stressed body) is constant and independent of the
angle 𝜃.
The graph is plotted for the particular case
of 𝜎𝑦 = 0.2𝜎𝑥and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 0.8𝜎𝑥.
 As shown the stresses vary continuously
as the orientation of the element is
changed.
 At certain angles, the normal stress
reaches a maximum or minimum value;
at other angles, it becomes zero.
 Similarly, the shear stress has maximum,
minimum, and zero values at certain
angles.
 The normal and shear stresses reach
maximum and minimum values at 90° Fig. 1.28
intervals. 69
 1.10.3 Special Cases of Plane Stress
 The general case of plane stress reduces to simpler states of stress under special conditions.
For instance, if all stresses acting on the xy element (Fig. 1.26b) are zero except for the
normal stress 𝜎𝑥, then the element is in uniaxial stress (Fig. 1.29).
 The corresponding transformation equations, obtained by setting 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 equal to zero
in Eqs. (1.24a) and (1.24b), are
………. ………………………1.27(a,b)
 Another special case is pure shear (Fig. 1.29b), for which the transformation equations are
obtained by substituting 𝜎𝑥 = 0 and 𝜎𝑦 = 0 into Eqs. (1.24a) and (1.24b):
……………………………………………………………………………….1.28(a,b)

a
b

Fig. 1.29
70
 Cont…
Finally, we note the special case of biaxial stress, in which the xy element is subjected to
normal stresses in both the x and y directions but without any shear stresses (Fig. 1.30). The
equations for biaxial stress are obtained from Eqs. (1.24a) and (1.24b) simply by dropping the
terms containing 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 , as follows:

…………………………….. …………………………………………..1.29

Fig. 1.30
71
 Example 1.14
An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses 𝜎𝑥 =16,000 psi, 𝜎𝑦 =6,000 psi, and 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 =
𝜏𝑦𝑥=4,000 psi, as shown in Fig. 1.31a. Determine the stresses acting on an element inclined at
an angle 𝜃 =45°.
Solution:
Transformation equations. To determine the stresses acting on an inclined element, we will
use the transformation equations (Eqs. 1.24a and 1.24b).

Fig. 1.31
72
 Cont…
From the given numerical data, we obtain the following values for substitution into those
equations:
𝜎 𝑥 +𝜎 𝑦 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦
= 11,000 𝑝𝑠𝑖, = 5,000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ,𝜏 𝑥𝑦 = 4, 000 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛90° = 1 and
2 2
cos2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0
Substituting these values into Eqs. (1.24a) and (1.24b), we get
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 11,000 + 5000 0 + 4000 1 = 15000𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = −5000 1 + 4000 0 = −5000𝑝𝑠𝑖
2
In addition, the stress 𝜎𝑦1 may be obtained from the formula
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦1 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 11000 − 5000 0 − 4000 1 = 7000𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2
Stress elements. From these results we can readily obtain the stresses acting on all sides
of an element oriented at 𝜃 =45°, as shown in Fig. 1.31b. The arrows show the true directions
in which the stresses act. 73
 1.10.2 Principal Stresses and shear stresses maximum
1 Principal Stresses
 The maximum and minimum normal stresses, called the principal stresses, can be found
from the transformation equation for the normal stress 𝜎𝑥1. By taking the derivative of 𝜎𝑥1
with respect to 𝜃 and setting it equal to zero, we obtain an equation from which we can find
the values of 𝜃 at which 𝜎𝑥1 is a maximum or a minimum. The equation for the derivative is
𝑑𝜎𝑥1
= − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1.30𝑎)
𝑑𝜃
2𝜏 𝑥𝑦
After differentiating we get, 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑃 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.30𝑏
𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦

The subscript p indicates that the angle 𝜃𝑃 defines the orientation of the principal planes, that
is, the planes on which the principal stresses act.
 Two values of the angle 2𝜃𝑃 in the range from 0 to 360° can be obtained from Eq. (1.30b).
These values differ by 180°, with one value between 0 and 180° and the other between 180°
and 360°. Therefore, the angle 𝜃𝑃 has two values that differ by 90°, one value between 0
and 90° and the other between 90° and 180°. The two values of 𝜃𝑃 are known as the
74
principal angles.
 Cont…
 For one of these angles, the normal stress 𝜎𝑥1 is a maximum principal stress; for the other, it
is a minimum principal stress. Because the principal angles differ by 90°, we see that the
principal stresses occur on mutually perpendicular planes.
 The principal stresses can be calculated by substituting each of the two values of 𝜃𝑃 into
the first stress-transformation equation and solving for 𝜎𝑥1.
 We can also obtain general formulas for the principal stresses. To do so, refer to the right
triangle in Fig. 1.32, which is constructed from Eq. (1.30b). Note that the hypotenuse of a
triangle, obtained from the Pythagorean theorem, is
𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏 𝑥𝑦
R= 2 ,
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑃 = and sin2𝜃𝑃 =
2 2𝑅 𝑅

 The quantity R is always a positive number and, like the other two sides of the triangle, has
units of stress.
By substituting the above value from the stress transformation equations, we can obtain the
algebraically larger of the two principal stresses, denoted by 𝜎1.
75
 Cont…

After substituting for R and performing some algebraic manipulations,

𝜎 𝑥 +𝜎 𝑦 𝜎𝑥−𝜎𝑦 2
2
we obtain 𝜎1 = + + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … . . 1.31
2 2

Fig. 1.32
76
 Cont…
The smaller of the principal stresses, denoted by 𝜎2, may be found from the condition that the
sum of the normal stresses on perpendicular planes is constant (see Eq. 1.26):
𝜎1 + 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 , Substituting the expression for 𝜎1 and solving for 𝜎2, we get
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 2
𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎1 = − + 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.32
2 2
This equation has the same form as the equation for 𝜎1 but differs by the presence of the
minus sign before the square root. The preceding formulas for 𝜎1and 𝜎2 can be combined into
a single formula for the principal stresses:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.33
2 2
The plus sign gives the algebraically larger principal stress and the minus sign gives the
algebraically smaller principal stress.

77
 Cont…
2 Principal Angles
Let us now denote the two angles defining the principal planes as 𝜃𝑃1 and 𝜃𝑃2, corresponding
to the principal stresses 𝜎1and 𝜎2, respectively. Both angles can be determined from the
equation for tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑃 (Eq.1.30b). However, we cannot tell from that equation which angle
is 𝜃𝑃1 and which is 𝜃𝑃2.
A simple procedure for making this determination is to take one of the values and substitute it
into the equation for 𝜎𝑥1 (Eq. 1.24a). The resulting value of 𝜎𝑥1 will be recognized as either
𝜎1 or 𝜎2 (assuming we have already found 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 from Eq. 1.33), thus correlating the two
principal angles with the two principal stresses.
Another method for correlating the principal angles and principal stresses is to use
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑃and sin2𝜃𝑃 (found on slide number 73) to find 𝜃𝑃, since the only angle that satisfies
both of those equations is 𝜃𝑃1. Thus, we can rewrite those equations as follows:
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 𝜏 𝑥𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑃1 = and sin2𝜃𝑃1 = … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … 1.34
2𝑅 𝑅

78
 Cont…
Only one angle exists between 0 and 360° that satisfies both of these equations. Thus, the
value of 𝜃𝑃1 can be determined uniquely from Eqs. 1.34. The angle 𝜃𝑃2, corresponding to 𝜎2,
defines a plane that is perpendicular to the plane defined by 𝜃𝑃1. Therefore, 𝜃𝑃2 can be taken
as 90° larger or 90° smaller than 𝜃𝑃1.
3 Shear Stresses on the Principal Planes
An important characteristic of the principal planes can be obtained from the transformation
equation for the shear stresses (Eq. 1.24b). If we set the shear stress 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 equal to zero, we
get an equation that is the same as Eq. (1.30a). Therefore, if we solve that equation for the
angle 2𝜃, we get the same expression for tan 2𝜃 as before (Eq. 1.30b). In other words, the
angles to the planes of zero shear stress are the same as the angles to the principal planes.
Thus, we can make the following important observation: The shear stresses are zero on the
principal planes.
Special Cases
The principal planes for elements in uniaxial stress and biaxial stress are the x and y planes
themselves (Fig. 1.33), because tan2𝜃𝑃 (see Eq. 1.30b) and the two values of 𝜃𝑃 are 0 and
90°. 79
 Cont…
We also know that the x and y planes are the principal planes from the fact that the shear
stresses are zero on those planes.

Fig. 1.33: Elements in uniaxial and Fig. 1.34: (a) Element in pure shear,
biaxial stress and (b) principal stresses

For an element in pure shear (Fig. 1.34a), the principal planes are oriented at 45° to the x
axis (Fig.1.34b), because tan2𝜃𝑃is infinite and the two values of 𝜃𝑃 are 45° and 135°. If 𝜏𝑥𝑦
is positive, the principal stresses are 𝜎1 = 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 and 𝜎2 = −𝜏𝑥𝑦.

80
 Cont…
4. The Third Principal Stress
The preceding discussion of principal stresses refers only to rotation of axes in the xy plane,
that is, rotation about the z axis (Fig. 1.35a). Therefore, the two principal stresses determined
from Eq. (1.33) are called the in-plane principal stresses. However, we must not overlook the
fact that the stress element is actually three-dimensional and has three (not two) principal
stresses acting on three mutually perpendicular planes.

Fig. 1.35 81
 Cont…
 For a three-dimensional analysis, it can be shown that the three principal planes for a plane-
stress element are the two principal planes already described plus the z face of the element.
 These principal planes are shown in Fig. 1.35b, where a stress element has been oriented at
the principal angle 𝜃𝑃1, which corresponds to the principal stress 𝜎1. The principal stresses
𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are given by Eq. (1.33), and the third principal stress (𝜎3) equals zero.
 By definition, 𝜎1 is algebraically larger than 𝜎2, but 𝜎3 may be algebraically larger than,
between, or smaller than 𝜎1 and 𝜎2. Of course, it is also possible for some or all of the
principal stresses to be equal.
 Note again that there are no shear stresses on any of the principal planes. The third
principal stress acts normal to the plane in which shear stress is zero.
5. Maximum Shear Stresses
Having found the principal stresses and their directions for an element in plane stress, we now
consider the determination of the maximum shear stresses and the planes on which they act.

82
 Cont…
The shear stresses 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 acting on inclined planes are given by the second transformation
equation (Eq. 6-4b). Taking the derivative of 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 with respect to 𝜃 and setting it equal to
zero, we obtain
𝑑𝜏 𝑥1𝑦1
= − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ………..1.35
𝑑𝜃 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦
from which 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑠 = − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ……..1.36
2𝜏 𝑥𝑦
The subscript s indicates that the angle 𝜃𝑠 defines the orientation of the planes of maximum
positive and negative shear stresses.
Equation (1.36) yields one value of 𝜃𝑠 between 0 and 90° and another between 90° and 180°.
Furthermore, these two values differ by 90°, and therefore the maximum shear stresses occur
on perpendicular planes. Because shear stresses on perpendicular planes are equal in absolute
value, the maximum positive and negative shear stresses differ only in sign.
Comparing Eq. (1.35) for 𝜃𝑠 with Eq. (1.30b) for 𝜃𝑝 shows that
= − 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑠 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃𝑝 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.37
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑝
83
 Cont…
From this equation we can obtain a relationship between the angles 𝜃𝑠 and 𝜃𝑝 . First, we
rewrite the preceding equation in the form

Multiplying by the terms in the denominator, we get

which is equivalent to the following
expression cos 2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜃𝑝 = 0, Therefore, 2𝜃𝑠 − 2𝜃𝑝 = ±90°. Finally,
𝜃𝑠 − 𝜃𝑝 = ±45° … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.38
This equation shows that the planes of maximum shear stress occur at 45° to the principal
planes.
The plane of the maximum positive shear stress 𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is defined by the angle 𝜃𝑠1 , for which
the following equations apply:
𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 and sin2𝜃𝑠1 = − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.39
𝑅 2𝑅
Then, 𝜃𝑠1 = 𝜃𝑝1 − 45∘ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1.40
84
 Cont…
The corresponding maximum shear stress is obtained by substituting the expressions for
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠1 and sin2𝜃𝑠1 into the second transformation equation (Eq. 1.24b), yielding
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 2
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.41
2
The maximum negative shear stress 𝜏 𝑚𝑖𝑛 has the same magnitude but opposite sign.
Another expression for the maximum shear stress can be obtained from the principal stresses
𝜎1 and 𝜎2, both of which are given by Eq. (1.33). Subtracting the expression for 𝜎2 from that
for 𝜎1, and then comparing with Eq. (1.41), we see that
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … .1.42
2
Thus, the maximum shear stress is equal to one-half the difference of the principal stresses.
The planes of maximum shear stress also contain normal stresses. The normal stress acting on
the planes of maximum positive shear stress can be determined by substituting the
expressions for the angle 𝜃𝑠1 (Eqs. 1.39) into the equation for 𝜎𝑥1 (Eq. 1.24a).
85
 Cont…
The resulting stress is equal to the average of the normal stresses on the x and y planes:
𝜎 𝑥 +𝜎 𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.43
2
This same normal stress acts on the planes of maximum negative shear stress.
In the particular cases of uniaxial stress and biaxial stress (Fig. 1.33), the planes of
maximum shear stress occur at 45° to the x and y axes. In the case of pure shear (Fig. 1.34),
the maximum shear stresses occur on the x and y planes.
6. In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Shear Stresses
The preceding analysis of shear stresses has dealt only with in-plane shear stresses, that is,
stresses acting in the xy plane. To obtain the maximum in-plane shear stresses (Eqs.1.41and
1.42), we considered elements that were obtained by rotating the xyz axes about the z axis,
which is a principal axis (Fig. 1.35a).
We found that the maximum shear stresses occur on planes at 45° to the principal planes. The
principal planes for the element of Fig. 1.35a are shown in Fig. 1.35b, where 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are
the principal stresses.
86
 Cont…
Therefore, the maximum in-plane shear stresses are found on an element obtained by rotating
the 𝑥1𝑦1𝑧1 axes (Fig. 1.35b) about the 𝑧1 axis through an angle of 45°. These stresses are
given by Eq. (1.41) or Eq. (1.42).
We can also obtain maximum shear stresses by 45° rotations about the other two principal
axes (the x1 and y1 axes in Fig. 1.35b). As a result, we obtain three sets of maximum
positive and maximum negative shear stresses (compare with Eq. 1.42):
𝜎2 𝜎1 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥1 = ± , 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑦1 = ± , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑧1 = ± … … … … … … … … … . . 1.44
2 2 2
in which the subscripts indicate the principal axes about which the 45° rotations take place.
The stresses obtained by rotations about the x1 and y1 axes are called out-of-plane shear
stresses.
In-plane shears tress refers to the maximum shear stress that occur within the plane of the
object being analyzed. Out of plane shear stress refers to the maximum shear stress that
occurs perpendicular to the plane of the object being analyzed.
The algebraic values of 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 determine which of the preceding expressions gives the
numerically largest shear stress. 87
 Cont…
If 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 have the same sign, then one of the first two expressions is numerically largest; if
they have opposite signs, the last expression is largest.
Example 1.15
An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses 𝜎𝑥 =12,300 psi, 𝜎𝑦 =24,200 psi, and
𝜏 𝑥𝑦 =4,700 psi, as shown in Fig. 1.36a.
a) Determine the principal stresses and show them on a sketch of a properly oriented
element.
Determine the maximum shear stresses and show them on a sketch of a properly oriented
element. (Consider only the in-plane stresses.)
Solution
(a) Principal stresses. The principal angles 𝜃𝑝 that locate the principal planes :

88
Cont…

Fig. 1.36: (a) Element in plane stress, (b) principal stresses, and (c) maximum shear stresses

89
 Cont…

The principal stresses may be obtained by substituting the two values of 2𝜃𝑝 into the
transformation equation for 𝜎𝑥1. As a preliminary calculation, we determine the following
quantities:
and

Now we substitute the first value of 2𝜃𝑝

In a similar manner, we substitute the second value of 2𝜃𝑝 and obtain 𝜎𝑥1 =13,540 psi.
Thus, the principal stresses and their corresponding principal angles are
90
 Cont…
𝜎1 = 13,540 psi and 𝜃𝑝1 = 165.2° and𝜎2 = −5,440 psi and 𝜃𝑝2 = 75.2°.
Note that 𝜃𝑝1 and 𝜃𝑝2 differ by 90° and that 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦.
The principal stresses are shown on a properly oriented element in Fig. 1.36b. Of course, no
shear stresses act on the principal planes.
Alternative solution for the principal stresses.
𝜎 𝑥 +𝜎 𝑦 𝜎𝑥−𝜎𝑦 2
2
The principal stresses may also be calculated 𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

Therefore, 𝜎1 = 13,540 psi and 𝜎2 = −5,440 psi 𝜃𝑝1 = 165.2°. The angle 𝜃𝑝1 to the plane
on which 𝜎1 acts is obtained from

91
 Cont…
The only angle between 0 and 360° having the specified sine and cosine is 2𝜃𝑝1 =330.3°;
hence, 𝜃𝑝1=165.2°. This angle is associated with the algebraically larger principal stress
𝜎1 =13,540 psi. The other angle is 90° larger or smaller than 𝜃𝑝1; hence, 𝜃𝑝2=75.2°. This
angle corresponds to the smaller principal stress 𝜎2 = −5,440 psi. Note that these results for
the principal stresses and principal angles agree with those found previously.
(b) Maximum shear stresses. The maximum in-plane shear stresses are
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
The angle 𝜃𝑠1 to the plane having the maximum positive shear stress is calculated

It follows that the maximum negative shear stress acts on the plane for which 𝜃𝑠1 =120.2°-
90° =30.2°. The normal stresses acting on the planes of maximum shear stresses are
calculated
92
 1.10.3 Mohr’s Circle for plane stress
 The transformation equations for plane stress can be represented in graphical form by a
plot known as Mohr’s circle.
 This graphical representation is extremely useful because it enables you to visualize the
relationships between the normal and shear stresses acting on various inclined planes at a
point in a stressed body.
 It also provides a means for calculating principal stresses, maximum shear stresses, and
stresses on inclined planes.
 Furthermore, Mohr’s circle is valid not only for stresses but also for other quantities of a
similar mathematical nature, including strains and moments of inertia.
Equations of Mohr’s Circle
The equations of Mohr’s circle can be derived from the transformation equations for plane
stress (Eqs. 1.24a and 1.24b). After a slight rearrangement the equation becomes:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 − = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.45𝑎
2 2
93
 Cont…
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.45𝑏
2
From analytic geometry, the above equations are the equations of a circle with parameter angle
2𝜃 and coordinates the stresses 𝜎𝑥1 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1.
Eliminate the parameter 2𝜃 to form standard algebraic form of equation of a circle by square
both sides of each equation and then add the two equations.
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎𝑥1 − + 𝜏𝑥1𝑦12 = + 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .1.46
2 2
𝜎 𝑥 +𝜎 𝑦 2
𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦
but 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 =
2
and 𝑅2 =
2
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
The above equation now becomes 𝜎𝑥1 − 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 2 + 𝜏𝑥1𝑦12 = 𝑅2 … … … … … … … … … … .1.47
The coordinates are 𝜎𝑥1and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1, the radius is R, and the center of the circle has coordinates
𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 0.

94
 Cont…
Two Forms of Mohr’s Circle
 In the first form of Mohr’s circle, we plot the normal stress 𝜎𝑥1 positive to the right and the
shear stress 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 positive downward, as shown in Fig. 1.37a.
 The advantage of plotting shear stresses positive downward is that the angle 2𝜃 on Mohr’s
circle will be positive when counterclockwise.
 In the second form of Mohr’s circle, 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 is plotted positive upward but the angle 2𝜃 is
now positive clockwise (Fig. 1.37b), which is opposite to its usual positive direction.
 Both forms of Mohr’s circle are mathematically correct, and either one can be used.
However, it is easier to visualize the orientation of the stress element if the positive direction
of the angle 2𝜃 is the same in Mohr’s circle as it is for the element itself.
 Therefore, we will choose the first form of Mohr’s circle (Fig. 1.37a) in which positive
shear stress is plotted downward and a positive angle 2𝜃 is plotted counterclockwise.

95
Cont…

Fig. 1.37: Two forms of Mohr’s circle: (a) 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 is positive downward and the angle 2𝜃
is positive counterclockwise, and (b) 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 is positive upward and the angle 2𝜃 is
positive clockwise.
96
 Cont…
Construction of Mohr’s Circle
If the 𝜎𝑥, 𝜎𝑦, and 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 are known, the procedure for constructing Mohr’s circle is as follows
(see Fig. 1.38c):
1. Draw a set of coordinate axes with 𝜎𝑥1 as abscissa (positive to the right) and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 as
ordinate (positive downward).
2. Locate the center C of the circle with coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 0.
3. Locate point A, representing the stress conditions on the x face of the element by plotting
its coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 . Note that point A on the circle corresponds to
𝜃 = 0. Also, note that the x face of the element is labeled “A” to show its correspondence
with point A on the circle.
4. Locate point B, representing the stress conditions on the y face of the element by plotting
its coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 = 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = −𝜏 𝑥𝑦 . Note that point B on the circle corresponds to
𝜃=90°. In addition, the y face of the element is labeled “B” to show its correspondence
with point B on the circle.
97
 Cont…
5. Draw a line from point A to point B. This line is a diameter of the circle and passes
through the center C. Points A and B, representing the stresses on planes at 90° to each
other are at opposite ends of the diameter (and therefore are 180° apart on the circle).
6. Using point C as the center, draw Mohr’s circle through points A and B. The circle drawn
in this manner has radius R.

98
Cont…

Fig. 1.38: Construction of Mohr’s circle for plane stress 99

 Cont…
We can verify by geometry that lines CA and CB are radii and have lengths equal to R. We
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
note that the abscissas of points C and A are and 𝜎𝑥 , respectively. The difference in
2
𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦
these abscissas is , as dimensioned in the figure. Also, the ordinate to point A is 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 .
2
𝜎 −𝜎
Therefore, line CA is the hypotenuse of a right triangle having one side of length 𝑥 2 𝑦 and
the other side of length 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 . Taking the square root of the sum of the squares of these two
𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦 2
sides gives the radius R: 𝑅 =
2
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
Stresses on an Inclined Element
Now we will consider the stresses 𝜎𝑥1, 𝜎𝑦1, and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 acting on the faces of a plane-stress
element oriented at an angle 𝜃 from the x axis (Fig. 1.38b). If the angle 𝜃 is known, these
stresses can be determined from Mohr’s circle. The procedure is as follows.
 On the circle we measure an angle 2𝜃 counterclockwise from radius CA, because point A
corresponds to 𝜃 = 0 and is the reference point from which we measure angles.
100
 Cont…
 The angle 2𝜃 locates point D on the circle, which has coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1. Therefore,
point D represents the stresses on the x1 face of the element of Fig. 1.38b. Consequently, this
face of the element is labeled “D” in Fig. 1.38b.
 To show that the coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1of point D on the circle are indeed given by the
stress-transformation equations.
 From the geometry of the circle, let 𝛽 be the angle between the radial line CD and the 𝜎𝑥1
axis. Then we obtain the following expressions for the coordinates of point D from the
geometry :
𝜎 𝑥 +𝜎 𝑦
𝜎𝑥1 = + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1.48
2
 Noting that the angle between the radius CA and the horizontal axis is 2𝜃 + 𝛽, we get
𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦 𝜏 𝑥𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 + 𝛽 = and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 + 𝛽 = , expanding the cosine and sine expressions:
2𝑅 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦 𝑅 𝜏 𝑥𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = and sin2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = … … … … … … . . 𝑎, 𝑏
2𝑅 𝑅

101
 Cont…
Multiplying the first of these equations by 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 and the second by 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 and then adding, we
obtain
1 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 𝑐
𝑅 2
Also, multiplying Eq. (a) by 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 and Eq. (b) by 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 and then subtracting, we get
1 𝜎 − 𝜎𝑦
sin𝛽 = − 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 𝑑
𝑅 2
When these expressions for 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 and sin𝛽 are substituted into Eqs. (1.48a,b), we obtain the
stress-transformation equations for 𝜎𝑥1 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1.
Thus, we have shown that point D on Mohr’s circle, defined by the angle 2𝜃, represents the
stress conditions on the x1 face of the stress element defined by the angle 𝜃 (Fig. 1.38b).
 Point D’, which is diametrically opposite point D on the circle, is located by an angle 2𝜃
(measured from line CA) that is 180° greater than the angle 2𝜃 to point D.

102
 Cont…
 Therefore, point D’ on the circle represents the stresses on a face of the stress element (Fig.
1.38b) at 90° from the face represented by point D.
 Thus, point D’ on the circle gives the stresses 𝜎𝑦1 and −𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 on the y1 face of the stress
element (the face labeled “D’” in Fig. 1.38b).
 The stresses on an inclined plane defined by the angle 𝜃 (Fig. 1.38b) are found on the circle
at the point where the angle from the reference point (point A) is 2𝜃.
 Thus, as we rotate the x1y1 axes counterclockwise through an angle 𝜃 (Fig. 1.38b), the point
on Mohr’s circle corresponding to the x1 face moves counterclockwise through an angle 2𝜃.
 Similarly, if we rotate the axes clockwise through an angle, the point on the circle moves
clockwise through an angle twice as large.

103
 Cont…
Principal Stresses
 Note that as we move around Mohr’s circle, we encounter point P1 where the normal stress
reaches its algebraically largest value and the shear stress is zero. Hence, point P1 represents
a principal stress and a principal plane.
 The abscissa 𝜎1of point P1 gives the algebraically larger principal stress and its angle 2𝜃𝑃1
from the reference point A (where 𝜃 = 0) gives the orientation of the principal plane.
 The other principal plane, associated with the algebraically smallest normal stress, is
represented by point P2, diametrically opposite point P1.
 From the geometry of the circle, we see that the algebraically larger principal stress is

 In a similar manner, we can verify the expression for the algebraically smaller principal
stress 𝜎2. The principal angle 𝜃𝑃1 between the x axis and the plane of the algebraically larger
principal stress is one-half the angle 2𝜃𝑃1, which is the angle on Mohr’s circle between radii
CA and CP1. 104
 Cont…
 The cosine and sine of the angle 2𝜃𝑃1 can be obtained by inspection from the circle:

 On the circle, the angle 2𝜃𝑃2 to the other principal point (point P2) is 180° larger than 2𝜃𝑃1;
hence, 𝜃𝑃2 = 𝜃𝑃1 +90°, as expected.
Maximum Shear Stresses
 Points 𝑆1 and 𝑆2, representing the planes of maximum positive and maximum negative shear
stresses, respectively, are located at the bottom and top of Mohr’s circle (Fig. 1.38c).
 These points are at angles 2𝜃 =90° from points P1 and P2, which agrees with the fact that
the planes of maximum shear stress are oriented at 45° to the principal planes.
 The maximum shear stresses are numerically equal to the radius R of the circle. Also, the
normal stresses on the planes of maximum shear stress are equal to the abscissa of point C,
which is the average normal stress saver.
105
 Cont…
Alternative Sign Convention for Shear Stresses
 An alternative sign convention for shear stresses is sometimes used when constructing
Mohr’s circle.
 In this convention, the direction of a shear stress acting on an element of the material is
indicated by the sense of the rotation that it tends to produce (Figs. 1.39a and b).
 If the shear stress tends to rotate the stress element clockwise, it is called a clockwise shear
stress, and if it tends to rotate it counterclockwise, it is called a counterclockwise stress.
 Then, when constructing Mohr’s circle, clockwise shear stresses are plotted upward and
counterclockwise shear stresses are plotted downward (Fig. 1.39c).
 It is important to realize that the alternative sign convention produces a circle that is
identical to the circle already described (Fig. 1.38c).
 The reason is that a positive shear stress 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 is also a counterclockwise shear stress, and
both are plotted downward. Also, a negative shear stress 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 is a clockwise shear stress,
and both are plotted upward. 106
 Cont…
 Thus, the alternative sign convention merely provides a different point of view.
 Instead of thinking of the vertical axis as having negative shear stresses plotted upward and
positive shear stresses plotted downward (which is a bit awkward), we can think of the
vertical axis as having clockwise shear stresses plotted upward and counterclockwise shear
stresses plotted downward (Fig. 61.39c).

Fig. 1.39: Alternative sign convention for shear stresses:

(a) clockwise shear stress, (b) counterclockwise shear
stress, and (c) axes for Mohr’s circle. (Note that clockwise
shear stresses are plotted upward and counterclockwise
shear stresses are plotted downward.) 107
 Example 1.16
At a point on the surface of a pressurized cylinder, the material is subjected to biaxial stresses
𝜎𝑥 =90 MPa and 𝜎𝑦 =20 MPa, as shown on the stress element of Fig. 1.40a. Using Mohr’s
circle, determine the stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle 𝜃 =30°. (Consider only
the in-plane stresses, and show the results on a sketch of a properly oriented element.)
Solution
Construction of Mohr’s circle. We begin by setting up the axes for the normal and shear
stresses, with 𝜎𝑥1 positive to the right and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 positive downward, as shown in Fig. 1.40b.
Then we place the center C of the circle on the 𝜎𝑥1 axis at the point where the stress equals the
average normal stress:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 90 + 20
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 = = = 55 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
2 2
Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element (𝜃 =0), has coordinates 𝜎𝑥1 =
90 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 0
Similarly, the coordinates of point B, representing the stresses on the y face (𝜃 =90°), are
𝜎𝑥1 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 = 0
108
 Cont…
Now we draw the circle through points A and B with center at C and radius R equal to
2
90 − 20
𝑅= + 0 = 35 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2

Fig. 1.40
109
 Cont…
Stresses on an element inclined at 𝜃 =30°. The stresses acting on a plane oriented at an angle
𝜃 = 30° are given by the coordinates of point D, which is at an angle 2𝜃 = 60° from point A
(Fig. 1.40b). By inspection of the circle, we see that the coordinates of point D are

In a similar manner, we can find the stresses represented by point D’, which corresponds to an
angle 𝜃 = 120° (or 2𝜃 = 240°):

110
 Cont…
These results are shown in Fig. 1.41 on a sketch of an element oriented at an angle 𝜃 =30°,
with all stresses shown in their true directions. Note that the sum of the normal stresses on the
inclined element is equal to 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦, or 110 MPa.

Fig. 1.41
111
 Example 1.17
An element in plane stress at the surface of a large machine is subjected to stresses 𝜎𝑥 =
15,000𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝜎𝑦 = 5,000𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 =4,000 psi, as shown in Fig. 1.42a.
Using Mohr’s circle, determine the following quantities:
a) the stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle 𝜃 =40°,
b) the principal stresses,
c) the maximum shear stresses. (Consider only the in-plane stresses, and show all results on
sketches of properly oriented elements.)
Solution
Construction of Mohr’s circle.
The first step in the solution is to set up the axes for Mohr’s circle, with 𝜎𝑥1 positive to the
right and 𝜏𝑥1𝑦1 positive downward as shown Fig.1.42b . The center C of the circle is located
on the 𝜎𝑥1 axis at the point where 𝜎𝑥1 equals the average normal stress:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 15000 + 5000
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 = = = 10,000𝑝𝑠𝑖
2 2
112
 Cont…

Fig. 1.42: (a) Element in

plane stress, and (b) the
corresponding Mohr’s
circle.
113
 Cont…
Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element (𝜃 =0), has coordinates

The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center at C. The radius of the circle,

(a) Stresses on an element inclined at 𝜽 = 40°. The stresses acting on a plane oriented at an
angle 𝜃 = 40° are given by the coordinates of point D, which is at an angle 2𝜃 = 80° from
point A (Fig. 1.42b).
114
 Cont…
To evaluate these coordinates, we need to know the angle between line CD and the 𝜎𝑥1
axis (that is, angle DCP1), which in turn requires that we know the angle between line
CA and the 𝜎𝑥1 axis (angle ACP1). These angles are found from the geometry of the
circle, as follows:

Knowing these angles, we can determine the coordinates of point D directly from the Figure
1.43a:

In an analogous manner, we can find the stresses represented by point D`, which corresponds
to a plane inclined at an angle 𝜃 =130° (or 2𝜃 = 260°):

115
 Cont…

Fig. 1.43: a) Stresses acting on an element oriented at 𝜃 =40°, (b) principal

stresses, and (c) maximum shear stresses

116
 Cont…
These stresses are shown in Fig. 1.43a on a sketch of an element oriented at an angle 𝜃 =40°
(all stresses are shown in their true directions). Also, note that the sum of the normal stresses
is equal to 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦, or 20,000 psi.
(b) Principal stresses. The principal stresses are represented by points P1 and P2 on Mohr’s
circle (Fig. 1.42b). The algebraically larger principal stress (point P1) is

as seen by inspection of the circle. The angle 2𝜃𝑝1to point P1 from point A is the angle ACP1
on the circle, that is,

Thus, the plane of the algebraically larger principal stress is oriented at an angle 𝜃𝑝1 =19.3°,
as shown in Fig. 1.43b. The algebraically smaller principal stress (represented by point P2) is
obtained from the circle in a similar manner:

117
 Cont…
The angle 2𝜃𝑝2to point P2 on the circle is 38.66°+180°=218.66°; thus, the second principal
plane is defined by the angle 𝜃𝑝2 =109.3°. The principal stresses and principal planes are
shown in Fig. 1.43b, and again we note that the sum of the normal stresses is equal to 20,000
psi.
(c) Maximum shear stresses. The maximum shear stresses are represented by points S1 and
S2 on Mohr’s circle; therefore, the maximum in-plane shear stress (equal to the radius of the
circle) is

The angle ACS1 from point A to point S1 is 90°-38.66°=51.34°, and therefore the angle 2𝜃𝑠1
for point S1 is

This angle is negative because it is measured clockwise on the circle. The corresponding
angle 𝜃𝑠1 to the plane of the maximum positive shear stress is one-half that value, or 𝜃𝑠1 =
−25.7°, as shown in Figs. 1.42b and 1.43c.

118
 Cont…
The maximum negative shear stress (point S2 on the circle) has the same numerical value as
the maximum positive stress (6,400 psi).
The normal stresses acting on the planes of maximum shear stress are equal to 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟, which is
the abscissa of the center C of the circle (10,000 psi). These stresses are also shown in Fig.
1.43c. Note that the planes of maximum shear stress are oriented at 45° to the principal
planes.
Reference:
1. From the first of stresses and strain to the shearing: R.K. Bansal Strength of materials, 4th Edition
2. from the section of shearing strain to Mohr’s circle: James M. Gere, Mechanics of Materials, 6th Edition

End of Chapter One

119