eLECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
INTRODUCTION
Faraday during the study of clectromagnetic induction
cA changing with time at a point produces an clectric fieldconcluded that magnetic
at that pont. In 1865.
Marwell proved that electric field changing with time at a point produces ma field
that point. Thus time vary1ng magnetic field produces electric field and gnetic
This led Maxwell to conclude that variation of electric and vice-versa.
magnetic field
nerpendicular to each other produces electromagnetic disturbance in space. vectors These
disturbance have properties of wave and can travel through space. These waves are
callcd electromagnetic waves.
According to Maxwell, in electromagnetic waves there is sinusoidal variation
of electric field and magnetic field vectors
perpendicular to each
perpendicular to direction of propagation of wave. The frequency of other as well as
electric field and magnetic field vector is same. Th velocity of variation of bot
free space is given as electromagnetic waves in
1
E0
where Ho = 4zx10-7 Wb A-'m!
and 1
4nx9x1o
V= 4rx9xL0
47x10-7
V=3×10° m/sec
Hence, electromagnetic waves travels with speed light in free space.
(209)
Sic
210 ELECTROMAGNETISM
ThelawLAWs
BASKC whichgovems
OF electricityand magnitismandIarethe basis, of Maxwelt
7.2
below integral of electric field
equationare as given electrostatic: Thesurface
1. Gaus's
Lawin
equal to 1/e, times the total charge enclosed intenswitihtyin thvear
a closed surfaceis
surface Mathematically.
dS=
where is wolume charge density and Sis surface integral over the surface
enclosing olume V.
2 Gauss's lawin magnetostatie: The surface integral of magnetic field induction
Mathematically,
overaclosed surface is zero.
B-dS = 0
induced in aclosed naôh/
3. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction: The emf with the path or the line
loop is equal to rate of change of magnetic flux linked
integral of electric field over closed path is equal torate of changeof magnetic flur
liked with that path. Mathematically,
ôt
The negative sign is in accordance with Lenz's law.
4. Ampere's Circuital law: Line integral of magnetic field intensity around aclosRt
path is equal to current linking that loop. Mathematically,
7.3 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
Consider aconductor across which are movingwit
eachcurrent
charges,then
drift velocity v. Ifn be the density of charge carriers, of chargedensity
q, inadirectin
perpendicular to direction of drift velocity will be
J=nqv the
through
Consider small area
elerment will be, dl =J. dS andelement dS in the
total current passingt
through flowingSwillbe
the surface
current
material,
If current density J does not change with time, then current is saidtobestesl
or stationary.
211
tnctrvmegaete Waves
volume V. Let
Suppose current is afunction of time r' and surface Sencloses
total
volume charge density of small volume element dV at any instant than
be
sithin the volue Vat that instant will bepdV. According to law of
V
onservationof charge "the rate of charge flowing out from the enclosed volume must
oqualtorate of decrease
of charge inside it". ie.
N
J.
dt
S
or
S
[3.48--1 dp V
dt
dV
theorem on LH.S.
Applying Gauss divergence
dt
VJ= dp
dt
0r
VJ4"P=0
dt
mathematical relation showing
This is known as equation of continuity and is
law of conservation of charge for current which vary with time.
any pont within the region
Pote: In steady state, charge density remains constant at
|e. dpl dt =0, therefore equation of continuity reduces to
V-J= 0
Further, in steady state,
J«E
or
J=oE
ere o isconstant of proportionalityand known as conductivity of matenal.
Dlyplacement Current
The Ampere's circuital law in differential fom can be written as
..(1)
VxH=J
s, ake This equation shows innconsistency when applied to time varying. To verify
div of both sides of fequation (!)
As V-(VxH)= V-J
div ergence of
curl ofa vector
Ii means current isVJ=0
is always zero, so
..2)
either steady or closed andthere is no source and sink. But
in case of time varying currents this is not true. Thus Ampere's circuital \aw is na,
212
consistent with timevarying equation of continuity i.e. with the equation given below.
Physic
VJ+ 0 .3)
illustration consider the case of
For circuit (Fig. 7.1),
RC
discharging of a capacitor in flows frompositive
time and
where current varies with charge plate. As current
charge plate to negative positive plate and
flows, charge diminishes at
Hence plates of a Fig. 7.1
accumulates at negative plate. sink. This is
and
capacitor act as source
(2).
contradiction of conclusion drawn from equation
there m
Maxwell modificd Ampere's circuital law by stating that, besides J,Further. th.
divergence.
be another term added to J such that sum of two terms has no ().
added term may be calculated from equation of continuity i.e. from equation
From equation (3), we get
V-J4P=0
dt
d
or
VJ+(-D)=
dt 0 [:D=p, Gauss law
dD)
is always zero.
Thus divergence of Jis not zero but divergence of J+
Hence in ampere circuital law J must be replaced by J+.dD Thus
dt
VxH=J4D
dt
This is known as modified Ampere's law or Ampere's Maxwellla.
The term
dD because Dis
dt is known as displacement current density
displacement current.
7.4
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS known
The equations of
Maxwell's equations. These electricity and magnetism derived so far are
are:
VD=p [Gauss law of electrostatic]
VB=0 (Gauss law of magnetostatic]
OB
VxE=
[Faraday's law of EMI)
213
sectromegnetic Waves
OD
VxH=J+
[Ampere's Maxwell law]
where D= Electric displacement density in C/m?
B Magnetic induction in weber/m
E- Electric field intensity in volt /m
H= Magnetic field intensity in Ampere /m²
J=Conduction current density in Ampere /m?
p= Free charge density in C /m
equations
Derivation of Maxwell's
VD=p
[Link] integral of electric field
According toGauss's law in electrostatic, the surface
overa closed surface is equal to 1/E, times total charge enclosed within that
intensity
surface. Mathematically,
E-dS=9
S
surface
enclosed within the
If pbe the volume charge density, then charge
willie [Link]
[Eds-2v
S
By applying Gauss divergence theorem on [Link]., we have
or V-E or' V-D=p
2. To 0
derive V.B=0
freld According to Gauss's law in magnetostatic the surface integral of magnetic
induction over a closed surfaceis zero. Mathematically
JBdS=0
By S
applying Gauss's divergence theorem on L.H.S., we have
J(-B) <v=0
Or
VB=0
SIC
214
OB
3. To derive VxE =
AccordingtoFaraday'slawofelectromagnetic induction, whenever flux linked
is induced andlasts so long as the change in
withthe circuit
changes, an emf flux is
there. Mathematically
e=
given as the induced electric field around the
Further emf induced can be
circuit i.e.
From above, we get
By applying Stokes theorem on [Link].
S S
or
VxEOB
4. To derive VxH=J+.ÔD
closa
Accordingto Ampere's circuital law, line integral
path is equal to total current linking that ofmagnetic field overra
[Link]
H-dd =1
By applying
JHd-34s where J is current density.
Stokes theorem on L.H.S.
S
VxH=J
Bemgnetic Waves
215
Thisequation is valid only for steady state currents. For time
hsaquationwas modified by Maxwell. The modified
varying currents
formofAmpere's circuital lawis
Ha-}0+Jo)4s
S
OD
where J=
By applying Stokes theorem on [Link]., we have
(») dS=(+)4s
S S
or
VxH=J+Jp
or VxH=J+
Ot
7.5 POYNTING THEOREM
destinati.
During propagation of electromagnetic waves from source to Povnbe
destination. John H.
through medium, there is transfer of energyfrom source to
in a medium knowm as
gave an expression which represent the propagation of energy intensity F
Povnting Theorem. According towhich "the cross product of electric field
and magmetic field intensity H atany point gives rate of energyflow per unit area at that
point, provided direction of power flow is perpendicular to E and H and is along ExH.
Mathematically,
P=ExH VAm² or Watt/m, where P is poynting vector.
or
V.P+E.J=-. uH? ...(7)
4
2 2
1.6 ELECTROMAGNETICWAVES IN FREE SPACE
Maxwell's equations provides all information related to electric field
maenetic field which can be drawn from classical theory. Here we will and
motion of electromagnetic field through free space in the form of discuss the
moving charge. waves produced by a
General form of maxwell's equations for time varying field are
given as
V-D=p
V-B=0
OB
VxE=
OD
VxH=J+ ôt
where J=GE, B=uH and D=eE
In free space
VD=p ...)
VB=0 .(2)
VxE OB
....3)
at
VxH = ÔD *..(4)
ot
and
D=¬, E "...(5)
B=HH
Taking curl of both sides of ..(6)
equation (3)
VxVxE --(*B)--x,H)
[using cquation (4)
=-Moa(Vx H) =-H
220
' a ,)
hyvi,
..(7)
or
ANBNC= (A:C)B-(A- B)C
By vector identity, (V-E)V-(V-V)E =(V-E)p-y'E ..8)
SO
VxVE-
(8), we get
From equations (7)and
(v-E)V-'E=-H Eo
or
..9)
or
a.
field intensity vector Epropazats
This is the wave equation with which electric
in free space. vector H
The similar wave equation can be derived
for magnetic field intensity
Taking curl of both sides of equation (4)
VxV*H=(xD) =¬,(VxE)
or VxVxH =
aH
or VxVxH=-H% o
or
or
a'H ..(10)
propagata
vector H eguatin
This is wave equation with which magnetic fieldintensity 'Have
in free space. It may be noted that although Eand Hfollows the same
but stillthey (i.e. E and H) are not equal.
The general form of wave equation is
veloity
with
where y is a wave function which propagates in free space
propagates
Thus, from equations (9) and (10), it is clear that vector Eand H
tlectromagnetic Waves
ce with velocity given as
where 4, An xl0 newton -Amp
and (coulomb)' mnewton
47 x9x10
Thus (coulomb)
|4rx107hewton
amp' 4n x9x 10 m' newton
Amperem
v=3x10
Coulomb
v=3x10®m sec-!
Hence vector E and H travels in free spacewith
which is equal to spced of light.
sed oflight.
Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space
61 Plane Wave Solution of
propagating in x-direction. The wave
Consider an electromagnetic wave is
cquation for such a wave is
=0
This cquation has general solution of theform
v(x,t) = Aeilkr-or)+Be-ilkr+or)
..(11)
w(z)= f(r-c)+glr+ca)
is wave number. Also k 0lc, where @is
where Aand Bare constants and k
eqular frequency of wave and cis phase velocity of the wave.
7.6.2 TOVERIFY TRANSVERSE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
In general for propagation of electromagnetic waves in arbitrary direction,
clectric field and magnetic field intensity vectors can be given as
E(r,)= E, ilkr-ar) ...(20)
H(r,)=H,krae) ..21)
The vector E and H must satisfy Maxwell's equations
V-D=0 or VE=0 ..22)
V-B=0 or V-H=0 ..23)
OB OH ..24)
VxE=
OD OE ...25)
VxH=-E0 at
From nequations (20) and(22) we have
V-E, (kr-ar) =0
Or
vi lkr-a)E, =0
ik(kr-a.E,
e =0
224
ik E 0
or
or
and(23), wehave
fromequation(2)
Similarly
Thus both electricfieldand magneticfield| vectors are perpendiculárrto directg
clectromagnetic waves are
are transverse in character.
propagation vector &. The
of and H
direction ofE have
To show (21)and (24), we
From cquations(20).
=-H, e kr-an)
TE, r-a
=-AH (-io)·d kr-on)
or
vr-xE,
ikelkr-r) xE=oH, (kr-a)
ik xE = Ho H Y. Variation of electric field
intensity vector E
Thus H is perpendi-cular to
Thus E
plane containing k and E. E H
E
and H vectors are perpendicular to
cach other as wellas perpendicular
to direction of propagation. The
similar results can be obtained
using equations (20), (21) and (25). H
The electromagnetic wave Z H
E
propagating along x-axis with E Variation of magnetic field
vector along y-axis and H vector intensity vector H
along z-axis is as shown in Fig. 7.2. Fig. 7.2
(PoyntingVectod
