Trad Climbing Basics

The Comprehensive Guide

Third Edition August 2018

Warning: Climbing is Dangerous
Simply browsing this e-book will not cause Do not rely on this manual as your primary
you to suddenly become an experienced source of rock climbing information.
trad climber.
The author and publisher assume no
While this e-book explains everything you liability for readers who participate in the
need to know to get started trad climbing, it activities described in this manual.
cannot assess the quality of your
equipment or check your anchor before Do not use any information contained
you abseil. Mistakes are easy to make and within this e-book, or on the VDiff website,
accidents can be fatal. to plan, attempt or climb a particular route
unless you are willing to assume personal
This e-book is intended to supplement responsibility for all risks associated.
information given by trained professionals.
If you are unsure about any of the VDiff is also not responsible should you
information given in this guide, we strongly succeed at climbing something totally
recommend that you seek qualified awesome or achieve your wildest ambition:
instruction. Failure to do this may result in you did that all by yourself!
serious injury or death.

Climb: Shark Attack, Charleston, New Zealand. Photographer: Derek Billings 2

Who is This Guide For?
Trad Climbing Basics is intended to help This guide is intended for those who
recreational climbers build upon their trad already have a solid understanding of the
climbing skills. The techniques described following basic climbing skills:
throughout this manual focus on safe, - Wearing a harness
efficient climbing that give you the best - Tying in to the rope
chances of avoiding an accident. - Lead and top rope belaying
- Using the correct climbing calls
Beginners will build up an understanding of
trad climbing; intermediate climbers will If you are unfamiliar with these techniques,
expand upon their existing knowledge; and or need a refresher, consider downloading
experienced trad climbers will reinforce our beginner’s guide; Rock Climbing
their knowledge and hopefully alter some Basics:
bad habits. www.vdiffclimbing.com/ebook-basics

Climb: Jess Young on The Cobra (before it collapsed), Fisher Towers, Utah. Photographer: Kelsey Gray
Copyright
© VDiff 2018. All rights reserved. This Front Cover Photography:
publication is the property of VDiff. T-Crack, Santa Barbara, California.
Climber: Fanny Deplace. Photo: Tom Slater.

You can do this: Photography Credits:

- Print this e-book in its original form for VDiff would like to thank the following
personal use. photographers for their help in producing
- Share the link to the original download this manual:
source: www.vdiffclimbing.com/ebook-trad
- Keiko Tanaka - Joe Shultz
You cannot do this: - Jamie Moss - Cheyne Lempe
- Edit or sell this e-book - Will Nicholls - Jethro Kiernan
- Claim this e-book, or any part of it, to be - James Rosselet - Craig Hiller
your own work - Fraser Harle - Derek Billings
- Use any part of this e-book to sell a - Peter O'Donovan - Kelsey Gray
product or service - Tim Hassnoot - Melanie Nicoll
- Offer this e-book for download on any - Tom Slater - Sam Simpson
other website - James Rushforth - Chris Fox
- Radek Chalupa

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics 4

Contents

6 Introduction

18 Equipment

36 Protecting the Climb

100 Trad Anchors

140 Ropework

153 Descending

174 Multi-Pitch

190 Technique: Face Climbing

209 Technique: Crack Climbing

227 Essential Knots

253 Next Steps

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 5

 Trad Climbing Basics
Introduction

Climb: Kilt Rock, Scotland. Photographer: Jamie Moss. 6

What is Trad Climbing?
When climbing indoors, or at a ‘sport’ crag,
the leader clips their rope, via quickdraws,
into pre-existing bolts.

On a bolted route, it is generally safe to fall

at any time. Having this high level of safety
allows the leader to focus on the physical
aspect of climbing up the rock.

When trad climbing, the leader must place

their own gear in the rock.

To be safe when trad climbing, the leader With a good understanding of trad skills,
must focus on finding gear placements and you can branch out from the indoor walls
then select the right piece of gear to fit. and sport crags to reach unique places
This adds a technical and mental aspect to that would otherwise be inaccessible.
the route.

The Peak District, England. Photographer: Jamie Moss 7

Can I Trad Climb?
Yes! different rope techniques. This is so you
understand why each technique is used,
Learning to trad climb is similar to learning and therefore you'll be able to adapt them
to drive a car. It takes time, effort and for any situation.
commitment. It can be dangerous if you
don't know what you're doing, or very safe Learn the skills and practise them safely.
once you become competent. Start with small adventures to build up your
problem solving ability before you move on
This guide focuses on the physics behind to anything bigger. And remember to have
trad gear and the reasons for using fun!
………..

Climb: Laura Nicoll (age 13) on Teacher's Pet, Torridon, Scotland. Photographer: Melanie Nicoll 8
Learning
Learning to be a safe rock climber takes things to move slower, etc…
time and effort.
Once you understand the basic physics
Although there is a lot to learn, most of the behind climbing, it becomes easier to learn
skills are very simple and are based on the more techniques and to adapt them to fit
same rules; a rope has two ends, gravity every situation.
causes things to fall down, friction causes
……..

Learning Styles
There are five main ways of learning: If you struggle to understand any of the
Visual - You prefer using pictures, images, techniques described in this manual, you
and spatial understanding. probably have a dominant aural or physical
Verbal - You prefer using words, both in learning style.
speech and writing.
Logical - You prefer using logic, reasoning In this case, consider hiring a guide or
and systems. joining a course to enhance your
Aural - You prefer using sound and music. knowledge.
Physical - You prefer using your body,
hands and sense of touch. Regardless of your preferred learning
styles, rock climbing is a physical activity.
We all have our own preferred learning To fully master the concepts of rock
styles. This manual is more useful to those climbing, you must physically practise the
with visual, verbal and logical learning techniques – theory alone is of limited
styles. use. And to practise, you’ll need a climbing
partner.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 9

Finding a Climbing Partner

There are a few different ways to find a staff member test you both on belaying
climbing partner, including: and lead skills before you climb together.
- At the indoor climbing gym
- On a climbing course Progress to a single pitch crag after the
- At a climbing club gym. Inspect the quality of their equipment
- Through friends and their anchor building techniques
- On internet forums carefully before you move on to more
committing multi-pitch routes.
However you find a partner, it’s important
to assess how safe they are. Don’t blindly trust someone with your life
until they have proven themselves
A good ‘first date’ is to climb at the gym. Be trustworthy.
upfront and honest about your skills but be
aware that some people will exaggerate Stop climbing with someone who does
their abilities in order to impress. strange or dangerous things. Instead,
recommend that they take a course, or
If you are unsure of their abilities, have a read this manual, or both.
…...

Climb: Stately Pleasure Dome, Tuolumne Meadows, California. Photographer: VDiff Collection 10
Where Should I Place Trad Gear?
Trad gear is normally placed in cracks, main part of the rock, then look for
behind flakes and around blocks. something else. Gear placed behind loose
features is likely to be pulled out in a fall,
The important thing to remember is that along with the feature itself. This could
these features are weaknesses in the rock. potentially hit your belayer or cut your rope.
Some of these features are solid, and
some are incredibly unstable and Because most trad gear relies on friction to
dangerous. To a beginner, these may stay in position, you must make sure the
appear the same. rock is clean and dry. Gear placed in a crack
coated with dust, mud, ice or water is much
You must pay close attention to how solid less reliable.
the rock is. You can test flakes and blocks
by hitting them with your fist; loose rock There are no definite guidelines of exactly
sounds hollow. Look for fracture lines which type of protection should be used for
(super thin cracks) around features and each particular situation. The important part
visualize how they are attached. of learning to use trad gear is understanding
the physics behind it; how and why each
If a block isn't securely attached to the piece generates force on the rock.
……..

Climb: Callum Coldwell-Storry on The Isle of Pabbay, Scotland. Photographer: Will Nicholls. 11
How Often Should I Place Trad Gear?
Here are some things to consider:

Trad Gear is Less Reliable than Sport

Climbing Bolts

It's generally safe to fall at any time on a

bolted sport route, whether indoors or at
the crag. However, if the same attitude is
applied to trad climbing, you'll soon get
injured.

Nuts can wiggle out, slings can lift off and

cams can walk out of position. This is
caused by movements in the rope as you
climb past. As a general rule of thumb, you
should place two good pieces of trad gear
for every bolt you would clip on a sport
route.

Where is Your Next Gear?

If gear placements are far apart, poor

quality and/or difficult to find, you should
place gear at every opportunity. As a
beginner, however, 'runout' climbs like
these are best avoided.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Introduction 12

Bigger Falls Generate More Force on
Gear Placements

Most pieces of trad gear are strong enough

to hold an enormous 'whipper'. The gear Fall Factor = 0.4
Force = 2 kN
itself probably won't break. However, the
force of a huge fall is more likely to break
the rock which holds it in place.
Fall Factor = 0.7
Force = 5 kN
The higher you climb above a piece of
gear, the less reliable that piece becomes.
See page 96 for more information about
fall factors.

Consequences of a Fall

When you climb above a ledge, spiky flake,

or any other nasty rock feature, make sure
to place gear to stop you from hitting it.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 13

The Likelihood of Falling How Good is Your Last Protection?

If the chance of falling is near zero, If the pieces below you are sub-optimal,
because the rock is solid and the moves place solid gear as soon as you can.
are incredibly easy, you can justify placing
less gear.

If the chance of falling is high, because the Pulling Crux Moves

moves are insecure or the rock is brittle,
you should place lots of gear close A crux move will be much harder if you
together. stop in the middle to place gear. If possible,
place a few pieces as high as you can just
Be careful of getting into the bad habit of before the crux, and then commit to the
placing minimal gear, even on super easy moves. Place gear again once past the
terrain. If you’re carrying the gear anyway, crux.
you may as well use it.
Obviously this is only safe if the gear is
Holds can break or you might find a weird good and the consequences are minimal.
move with no protection. If you placed gear
on the easy terrain below, it could save you If the crux section is long, you will need to
from a long fall. Easier ground tends to be seek out the best points to place gear
blocky and slabby – a long fall down this during it. Utilize large hand holds or good
could be fatal. stances and look for spots where the gear
is quick to place.

Climbing Gear is Only as Strong as the

Rock it is Placed in.

It is rare for trad protection to break. More

commonly, it is the rock around the
placement which breaks during a fall.

See page 94 for more information on rock

quality.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Introduction 14

Safeguarding the Follower Easy Section Crux

When climbing traverses, make sure to

place enough gear to keep your partner
safe as they follow.

If there is a traversing crux, you’ll need to

place good gear immediately after it to
prevent them from taking a dangerous
swing if they fall.

Easy Section Crux

Saving Gear for the Anchor The Golden Rule

Make sure to ration out your gear so you Always keep at least two good pieces
arrive at the anchor with a sufficient between you and the hospital!
amount of protection to build a solid
anchor.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 15

Route Finding
Some trad routes follow straightforward (micro route finding) may not be so clear.
crack systems, and others weave an
intricate path through a labyrinth of small On popular routes, the clues are:
features. - Chalked handholds
- Polished footholds
It is wise to scope complex routes during - Lichen and dirt free rock
the approach and match the features you - Difficulty which matches the grade given
see with the guidebook description. Plan
the descent too. Be careful about continuing if you are off-
route. It is usually better to downclimb to
Even if the main route is obvious, the the last point when you were definitely on-
handholds, footholds and gear placements route and reassess from there.

Climb: A Dream of White Horses, Gogarth, Wales. Photographer: Jethro Kiernan 16

Climbing Etiquette
There are different rules when you venture - Stick to recognized trails to avoid
outside of the climbing gym. When you go trampling vegetation
to a new climbing venue, ask the locals - Keep pets on a leash or leave them at
what the special considerations are. home
- Don’t alter the natural environment (never
Generally, it all comes down to being polite, chip holds)
respecting other climbers and having - If other climbers arrive at a route before
common sense. Here are some basic you, they get to climb first
etiquette guidelines: - If you’re moving slow on a multi-pitch, it is
polite to allow faster teams to pass if you
- Avoid making excessive noise have plenty of time and there is no
- Keep your stuff in a small, tidy pile danger of rockfall – but you have every
- Take your litter and human waste home right to say no

Photographer: Fraser Harle 17

 Trad Climbing Basics
Equipment

Climb: Sean Villanueva on We're All Learning, Mountains of Mourne, Northern Ireland. Photographer: Craig Hiller
Trad Protection
The leader places trad gear (protection) in Check which types are most commonly
cracks and fissures as they climb up. used at your chosen climbing area before
you commit to buying a full set.
It is then removed by their partner when
they follow, so all that is left on the rock are Tailor your rack to suit each climb. Carrying
a few chalk prints. too much gear will make the climbing
harder. Carrying too little will force you into
Cams, nuts and slings are used at most dangerous runouts or constructing poor
climbing areas. anchors.

Hexes, tricams, ball nuts and big bros Consult the guide book to determine what
could be either essential or useless sizes of gear may be needed for your
depending on the area. chosen route.

Cams
Available in sizes from the thickness of
your little finger to the width of your head,
cams are reliable and versatile pieces of
trad protection. They're also quite
expensive.

You don't need to buy a full set to start with

though, just choose the three or four sizes
which you use most commonly at your
local crag. When you advance to harder
climbs, or climb at different places, you'll
probably need to buy more.

Learn how to use cams on page 37.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 19

Nuts and Hexes
Ranging in size from the thickness of a
matchstick to the size of your clenched fist,
nuts (also called chocks, wires or stoppers)
and hexes are inexpensive pieces of trad
protection.

A typical trad rack will contain 10-12 nuts

and maybe one or two mid-size hexes.

Learn how to use nuts and hexes on

page 47.

Slings
Slings are strongly-sewn loops of nylon or
dyneema tape which are available in a
range of lengths. A typical trad rack will
have a few 60cm and 120cm slings on it
and maybe a 240cm, but bigger and
smaller ones are also available.

The length is given as the end to end

distance, so the actual length of fabric will
be double this. They are incredibly useful
for extending gear and equalizing belays.

When buying slings, try to get a different

colour for each size. This makes it much
quicker to grab the right size when you
need it.

Learn all about slings on page 75.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 20

Big Bros
Big Bros are expandable tubes which
protect wide cracks.

They are lighter and more compact than

large cams but are harder to place, cannot
be shuffled up the crack and do not work
as well in flares.

They are only worth buying if you plan to

climb a lot of off-width cracks and squeeze
chimneys.

Learn how to use big bros on page 68.

Ball Nuts
Ball nuts are specialist pieces of gear
which you are unlikely to need when
starting out.

They offer protection in thin cracks, filling

the void where even the smallest cams are
too big to fit.

Learn how to use ball nuts on page70.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 21

Tricams
Tricams are designed to work the same as
a nut, but can also be placed to 'cam' into
cracks.

They are most useful at crags which have

many horizontal cracks for placing
protection. A typical trad rack will contain
one or two mid-size tricams.

Learn how to use tricams on page 62.

Nut Tool
Nut tools are used to remove gear while
following or cleaning dirt from gear
placements when leading obscure routes.

They are also useful for leading when you

get the wrong sized nut stuck and need to
remove it in order to get the right one in.

They are easily dropped, so it’s worth

attaching a short loop of thin cord to it. This
can be clipped to the rope or gear while
you use the tool.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 22

Helmets
A climbing helmet is the first thing you
should buy when you start trad climbing.
They protect your head from things falling
on you (rocks, equipment, etc..) and also
from your head hitting the rock if you fall.

Climbing helmets are generally not worn in

the gym or on overhanging sport routes.
The main reason is that sport crags tend to
be overhanging, making both the leader
and belayer safely sheltered from rockfall.
Although it’s possible to injure your head in
a leader fall, this rarely happens on
overhanging rock because the leader will
fall into ‘space'.

In any other situation, it is worth wearing a

helmet when climbing or belaying. Rocks
can fall and gear can be dropped. If you
knock your belayer unconscious, they
won't be able to belay you!

There are two main types of helmet – rigid

shell and foam. Rigid shell helmets are
made of hard plastic, with an inner 'cradle'
of foam or webbing so the plastic sits away
from your head. They are more durable
than the foam type but generally do not The most important factor when buying a
protect from side impact (you falling off) as helmet is getting one that fits your head
well. They also tend to be cheaper than snugly – it shouldn't move when you tip
foam helmets your head. A sloppy fit reduces the
helmet’s ability to protect your head.
The foam shell type closely resemble a
bike helmet (don't use your bike helmet – Your helmet should adjust to accommodate
they're designed for different impacts). a hat, and a ponytail if you have long hair.
They tend to be lighter than the rigid shell, Also, make sure the headlamp attachments
but are less durable. are compatible with your headlamp.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 23

Climbing Ropes

Single Ropes
Most beginners start with a single rope. They are
thick, durable and easy to belay with. Single
ropes are marked with a '1' symbol at the end of
the rope.

A 60m length with a diameter of between 9.8 –

10.2mm will suit most beginners and last well into
your climbing career.

Uses:
- Gym climbing - Sport climbing
- Top roping - Uncomplicated trad

Half Ropes
Many trad climbers use half ropes (also known as
double ropes) instead of a single rope to help
reduce rope drag on wandering routes.

They also double the length of the abseil you can

make – essential for epic retreats! Safety is
increased on complicated terrain where there are
sharp edges that risk cutting the rope. If one rope
is cut, you still have the other to catch you.

Half ropes need to be used as a pair – climbing

with just one isn't safe. Half ropes are marked by
a ½ symbol. 60m ropes will be great for most trad
routes.

When buying half-ropes, make sure the colours

are very different. Ideally, you will be able to tell
them apart in the dark.

Uses:
- Trad climbing - Alpine climbing

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 24

Twin Ropes
Twin ropes are designed to be clipped
together into the same carabiners as you
climb.

It's important not to get these confused

with half ropes. Twin ropes cannot be
clipped to gear individually.

Uses:
- Ice and mixed climbing

Static Ropes
Static ropes have very little stretch, so they
cannot absorb the force of a fall like other
ropes.

They are mainly used as a 'fixed' rope to

ascend or descend. They are usually
marked with a EN1891 code. Never lead
climb on a static rope!

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 25

Things to Consider when Buying a Climbing Rope
Maximum Impact Force Number of Falls
Ropes stretch to absorb energy. The more Every climbing rope is rated for a certain
energy a rope can absorb, the lower the number of falls. This is the number of falls
force on your protection. using a specific test which indicates how
many falls a rope can take before it breaks.
This isn’t much of a concern for sport
climbing, where protection is always Every UIAA certified rope is tested far more
bomber bolts. severely than you are likely to experience
when climbing, so you don’t need to retire
However, for trad climbing, a rope with a your rope just because it’s rated to six falls
low impact force will generate less force on and you’ve taken seven.
your gear, making it more likely to hold the
fall. Lower impact forces are better. In real climbing situations, a rope will
withstand hundreds of falls. They don’t fail
After a fall, let your rope “rest” for five unless they run over a sharp edge of rock,
minutes to recover its elasticity. If you get which cuts it, or if they have been stored
straight back on the rock and then fall amongst sharp objects or acidic chemicals
immediately, the impact forces will be much such as bleach or leaking batteries.
higher.
They do, however, wear out over time,
especially if you take a lot of falls.

Dry Treatment
Some climbing ropes are made with a
special treatment which helps to prevent Middle Markers
water being absorbed into them. Untreated Most ropes have some kind of mark on
ropes can soak up more than their own their sheath to identify the middle.
weight in water during a storm, which
dramatically increases the impact force in a This is useful in many situations such as
fall. gauging how much rope a leader has left,
or when setting up an abseil where you
The treatment also helps to stop dirt and need the rope to be perfectly centred at the
sand getting into the rope's fibres, which anchor. Some ropes even have a different
means the rope will run across the rock colour or pattern on each half to identify
and through carabiners with less friction. the middle.

It's worth the extra cost for a dry treated Remember that if you shorten your rope
rope if you plan on climbing in wet or (such as to remove a frayed end), the
snowy environments. middle marker will no longer be correct.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 26

Diameter
Climbing ropes come in many different Skinny ropes are safe – they pass the
diameters. Basically, thinner ropes are UIAA lab tests. But at the crag, they are
lighter and thicker ropes are more durable. more susceptible to abrasion on rough
rock or being cut over a sharp edge.
Be aware that the diameter of your rope
may affect which belay devices you can For high-use situations (e.g: big walling,
use it with. Some devices are not top-roping or working a sport route) a
compatible with very thin or very thick thicker, more durable rope is much better.
ropes.
Your rope is your most critical piece of gear
Single rated ropes can be as thin as – it’s better to carry a bit more weight than
8.5mm, making them great for alpine to skimp on safety.
routes.

Climb: Care Bear Traverse, Fitz Roy Massif, Patagonia. Photographer: Cheyne Lempe 27
Quickdraws
Having two or three different lengths of
quickdraw is useful for extending gear
efficiently.

Most trad climbers carry extendable

quickdraws in addition to regular draws.
These can be used either as a short draw
or fully extended, meaning it's quick and
easy to extend your gear without carrying
extra slings.

See page 86 for more information about

extendable quickdraws.

Belay Device

The best belay device for trad climbing is

an ATC with a guide mode function.

Getting one without guide mode limits your

options for belaying and rescue situations.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 28

Harness
You can use any climbing harness to trad
climb, but you'll benefit from having a
comfortable harness with at least 5 gear
loops.

Cordelette
A common way to equalize gear at the
belay is to use either a cordelette or a long
(240cm) sling.

This is explained in detail on page 105.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 29

Prusik Cord
A prusik cord is used to make abseiling
safer and more controlled. Keep it on the
back of your harness with your belay gear
as you climb.

Learn all about prusik cords on page 241.

Gear Slings and Bandoliers

Trad gear is commonly racked on your

harness, but can also be racked on a gear
sling or bandolier.

This has the advantage of distributing

weight to your shoulders (rather than
having it all on your hips) and means that
gear is more spread out so it’s easier to
find. It is also quicker to pass gear between
climbers on a multi-pitch.

The disadvantages are that all your gear

swings forward on slabs, making it difficult
to see footholds, and you could potentially
lose your whole rack if you fall upside
down.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 30

Rope Tarps
Rope tarps provide a clean space for your
rope if there is dust or mud at the base of a
climb. They are very convenient for single
pitch trad climbing if you are frequently
moving between routes.

You never need to coil your rope – simply

stack it into the tarp and roll it up. Then
unroll it at the base of the next route and
you’re ready to go.

You can buy a specifically designed rope

bag or tarp, but a heavy-duty IKEA bag
works just fine too.

Chalk
An excessively chalked route can be an
eyesore. It also reveals all the key holds,
making the route much less exploratory for
the next climbers.

Rain usually cleans away chalk marks from

exposed rock. But overhanging routes tend
to stay sheltered and so the chalk remains
through all but the windiest storms. In some
areas, you must use specific rock-coloured
chalk. Consider your impact on the
environment before you ‘chalk up’.

Using 5mm cord to tie your chalk bag

around your waist means you will always
have a spare prusik cord.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 31

Shoes
For beginners, the right climbing shoe is
one that fits your foot and your wallet the
best. Look for discounts, and get a general
use shoe. A beginner with sloppy foot
technique will wear out this first pair of
shoes fast.

For your second pair of shoes, it largely

depends on what type of climbing you will
be doing.

For slabs, a shoe with a soft sole and a

low-cut upper works well. For steep routes,
you’ll be better with a tight-fitting shoe that
has a pointy toe, good lateral support and
a very low-cut upper for ankle flexibility.

Different brands favour a wider or narrower

foot, so make sure to try them on before
you buy. Only shop online if you’re certain
which type and size you need.

Whichever shoes you get, your foot should

not rotate, nor should your toes be painfully
crushed up in the toe-box. A good fitting
shoe is more important than one designed
for the style of climbing you want to do.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 32

Used Climbing Gear
You'll probably begin climbing using other harness, carabiners), you should buy it
people's gear but at some point you’ll have new. If it doesn’t (e.g: shoes, chalk bags)
to invest in your own. Be prepared though you can save money by getting used gear.
– climbing gear is expensive.
With your own gear, you will know
If your life depends on it (e.g: ropes, the history of it and therefore know it's
nnnnnn reliability.

Climb: Jordi Masià off Cosa de Nenes, Os de Balaguer, Catalunya. Photographer: Peter O’Donovan
Looking After Your Gear
Inspect your climbing gear frequently and Exposure to battery acid or acid fumes will
replace anything which shows significant significantly reduce the strength of nylon.
signs of wear. Frayed or faded slings, or
any metal gear which has been dropped off Keep your rope out of the dirt. Grains of
a cliff should be replaced. rock and sand can cut tiny fibres inside it.
Wash your rope occasionally in lukewarm
Nylon gear (ropes, slings and harnesses) water and allow it to dry in the shade.
degrades over time and should be replaced
every five years, even if you’ve barely used Store your climbing gear in a cool, dry
it. UV radiation from direct sunlight will place out of direct sunlight. If any gear gets
speed this time up. wet, let it dry completely before you store it
away.

Cleaning Cams
Keep your cams clean and free of dirt. A parts, making sure not to get any on the
cam which is clogged up with dirt, sand or nylon sling. Wipe away the excess
grit or which springs back slowly is less lubricant.
likely to hold in a fall.
Retire a cam if its axle or lobes are
Clean your cams with lukewarm water and deformed. This tends to happen sooner
an old toothbrush. Once dry, add some with smaller cams.
cam-lubricant and work it into the moving
pppppp

Photo: VDiff Collection 34

 How to Inspect Your Climbing Rope
You should check your rope for damage A slightly fuzzy sheath isn’t a problem.
frequently. Starting at one end, feed the However, severe fuzzing may make a rope
rope through your hands, looking and unsafe.
feeling for non-uniform sections.
As a general rule, if you can see a rope’s
Things to look out for: inner core, the sheath has worn too thin
- Cuts and the rope is unsafe.
- Burns
- Flat or soft spots If your rope is damaged, it should be
- Sheath bunching up over the core retired. Make a nice rug out of it, or use it
as a washing line.

Climb: Sea of Dreams, El Capitan, Yosemite, California Photographer: VDiff Collection 35

 Trad Climbing Basics
Protecting the Climb

Climb: Lee Roberts on Assassin, Gogarth, Wales. Photographer: Jethro Kiernan. 36

Trad Gear: Cams
Cams are reliable and versatile pieces of
trad protection that are designed to be
placed in parallel sided cracks, where nuts
won't work.

A cam has three or four lobes mounted on

an axle. Each lobe is shaped according to
a mathematical logarithmic spiral, so the
angle between the lobes and the rock is
always the same, no matter how retracted
the cam lobes are. This means that the
cam will work at any point of it's size range
(more on this later).

When a cam is weighted, the lobes are

forced apart, converting the downwards
force into a huge amount of outwards
pressure on the sides of the crack. It is this
outwards pressure which holds the cam in
position.

When you place a cam, the springs cause

the lobes to press out on the sides of the
crack, creating just enough friction to keep
it in position. Because cams rely on this
friction, make sure to only place them in
clean, dry cracks. Mud, dust, water or ice
reduces the friction and can cause the cam
to slide out during a fall.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 37

A Good Cam Placement
All lobes retracted evenly

Cam is in the middle section

of its range of movement

Fits completely inside the

crack without being too far
back

Each lobe makes contact

with a smooth, straight-sided
part of the crack

Stem points in the direction of

loading, usually down and
slightly out from the rock

Rock is clean, dry and solid

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 38

Placing Cams: The Basics
Step 1
Pull the trigger to retract the cam lobes and
slot it into the crack.

Step 2
Release the trigger to allow the lobes to
open up and make contact with the sides
of the crack.

If the lobes open up all the way, try a

bigger size.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 39

Placing Cams: Size
Correct Size
This is the ideal cam size for the crack it is
in.

The strongest and optimal placement is

within the middle section of the cam’s
range of movement. You should aim to
place every cam like this.

Too Big
This is 'over-cammed' and will be very
difficult to remove. Use a smaller cam if
possible.

Too Small
This is 'tipped out' and will be very unlikely
to hold a fall. During a fall, cam lobes often
slip down the crack very slightly before
being pressed outwards.

In this case, at least one of the lobes is

likely to open to it's maximum range,
causing the cam to slip out of the crack.
Use a bigger cam.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 40

Placing Cams: Depth
You'll need to position cams far enough
into the crack to accommodate for the
slight slippage that can occur when the
cam is loaded.

In very slippery rock, a cam may slide out

completely when weighted due to the lack
of friction.

Try a cam in both orientations to see which

way fits better. It’s usually better if the outer
lobes are on the main wall, so they are
further from the edge.

In shallow placements, it’s vital that the

outer lobes go on the widest area of the
rock.

Placing Cams: Constrictions

If possible, set a cam above and below a
constriction. This traps the cam in place
and prevents it from walking. Placements
like this are very stable.

Avoid placing cam lobes on tiny bumps or

crystals which may disintegrate under load.
This could cause the unit to pull out.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 41

Placing Cams: Flared Cracks
A flared crack is one which becomes Cracks can be flared in any direction.
narrower or wider at one side.

Upward Flares
The placement in this slightly upward-
flaring crack is very good.

If the cam slips down slightly during a fall, it

will remain securely in the crack.

Warning
When a cam is placed in an extremely This means that it will either wiggle out of
upward-flaring crack, as shown below, it position or be impossible to retrieve. This
could easily 'walk' upwards. is caused by movements in the rope as
you climb above.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 42

You can reduce the
chance of this by
extending the cam with a
sling or quickdraw.

An alternative would be to
use a nut or a hex instead.

Downward Flares
The downwards flare of this crack is too Cams can hold in very slightly downward-
great for the cam to hold. In the event of a flaring cracks, but it is best to look for
fall, the lobes will continue opening until parallel-sided or slightly upward-flaring
they reach their maximum, at which point cracks.
the cam will fall out of the crack.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 43

Offset Cams in Flared Cracks
Offset cams have two lobes which are a
size smaller than the other two. They are
excellent for protecting flared cracks and
piton scars which are commonly found at
granite crags.

In a flared crack, place an offset with the

smaller lobes further in and the bigger
lobes further out.

With regular cams, it is usually possible to

orientate the cam so the outer lobe is
against the main wall, and not near the
edge of the crack. Unfortunately, due to the
asymmetry of the design, this is not always
possible with offsets.

You don’t need offset cams. But if you

frequently climb at venues with flared
cracks, a set of offsets will provide
protection where nothing else will.

Placing Cams: Passive Protection

Certain types of cams can

be used passively (like a
nut). However, in this
situation nuts wedge into
place better.

So unless you've just

dropped them all, you'll
probably be better placing
a nut instead.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 44

Placing Cams: Horizontal Cracks
Cams can be placed in
horizontal or diagonal
cracks.

In these types of cracks,

placing your cam with the
outer lobes on the bottom
makes the placement
more stable.

Flexible stemmed cams

will bend around the edge
of the rock and maintain
their strength.

Rigid stemmed cams will

lever over the edge,
causing damage to the
stem.

Types of Cams
There are too many designs of cam to list When you go to buy cams, ask the shop
here. assistant which style is best for the rock
type in your local area.
Different brands tend to be better suited to
different rock types (e.g: Metolius Fat Cams If you plan to climb on many rock types
are great for soft sandstone, whereas and in many different locations, any new,
Black Diamond C4’s are more suited to flexible-stem design will be good enough to
granite). get you started.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 45

Removing Cams
To remove a cam, simply pull the trigger If a cam is stuck, focus on freeing up the
and slide it out. Sometimes you may need lobes which won’t move.
to wiggle it around constrictions in the rock.
Prize them loose with your nut tool. Once
If your cam trigger is unreachable, use the all the lobes will move, it’ll be easier to
hook on the end of your nut tool to pull it. wiggle it out.

Racking Cams
An efficient way of racking cams is to put
them in size order on your harness with
their own separate colour-coded
carabiners.

If you have small cams on a front gear loop

and bigger cams further back, they'll be
less annoying as you climb.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 46

Trad Gear: Nuts
Nuts are an essential for every trad climber.

They are made of a flexible wire which is

threaded through a hard 'nut' of metal.
They are cheap, light and durable.

Nuts exert very little outwards force on the

rock, unlike cams. Most of the force is
transferred in the direction it is being pulled
(in most cases, down and slightly outwards
from the rock).

It's for this reason that they should be

placed in tapered cracks and constrictions,
where the crack becomes smaller further
down.

When weighted (if you fall), the nut

becomes wedged further into the crack.

Nuts Vs Cams
Nuts are much lighter and cheaper so it’s There are usually more options for placing
easy to carry a lot of them. Cams are cams than nuts, so it’s better to place nuts
quicker to place – great if you’re getting when you can and save the cams for later.
pumped and need to place gear quickly.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 47

A Good Nut Placement

Fits completely
inside crack
without being too
High surface
far back
contact with rock

Too big to pull

through bottom
Tapered
of placement
constriction

Good rock
quality; clean, Cable orientated
dry and solid in direction of
loading

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 48

Placing Nuts: The Basics
Step 1
When you spot a suitable constriction, grab
your rack of nuts and try a few that are
most likely to fit.

Assess the taper and curve of the crack

and the quality of the rock.

Step 2
Once you've found the best fit, give it a
gentle downwards tug to seat it in place.

This will stop the rope lifting it out when

you climb past.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 49

Step 3
Remove the nut from the carabiner, extend
it with a quickdraw or sling and then clip it
to your rope.

Placing Nuts: Orientation

Nuts are generally non-symmetrical, being
wider at one side and also curved. This
means they can be placed in four possible
orientations.

If your nut isn’t quite perfect, try placing it in

a different orientation.

Placing Nuts: Constrictions

Nuts are most reliable in
tapered constrictions that
they fit neatly into.

Nuts in very flared

constrictions could fall out
due to insufficient surface
contact. Nuts in parallel-sided
cracks will not work.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 50

Placing Nuts: Surface Contact
You should select the size and orientation
of nut which has as much surface contact
with the rock as possible.

More surface contact means more 'grip'. A

nut with more grip is more likely to stay
exactly where you placed it as you climb
above.

Placing Nuts: Depth

Place nuts fully inside the crack, but not so
far that you can't see them.

Remember that your partner must be able

to reach with their nut tool to remove them.

Top View

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 51

Placing Nuts: Horizontal Slots
Nuts can also be placed in
horizontal constrictions as
Side View Front View
shown.

Slot nut in here and

slide across

Placing Nuts: Diagonal Cracks

Nuts work best in vertical
constrictions, but they can
also be placed in diagonal
cracks.

Nuts are generally less

reliable in diagonal cracks
because they are not pulled
directly into the constriction
when weighted.

Pay attention to which way

the nut would be pulled in the
event of a fall. If it could be
pulled out, try a better
placement.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 52

Placing Nuts: Threads
Nuts can also be used as a
thread. This works best with
large nuts. Poke the wire loop
through the hole, then clip a
quickdraw to it.

However, holes like this

usually suggest poor rock
quality. Slings are softer on
the rock than nuts so try
using a sling as a thread in
this situation, or look for
something else more solid.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 53

Placing Nuts: Opposition
Nuts can oppose each other to create a something else better and quicker to place,
multidirectional piece. especially if you have some offset cams.

This old-school technique is rarely used However, it could help you out if no other
nowadays because there is usually gear exists.
ssssssssss

Step 1
Place two opposing nuts so the carabiners
are close together but not overlapping.

Step 2
Clip a sling into one of the carabiners and
pass both strands of the sling through the
other carabiner.

Step 3
Pass the end of the sling through the two
strands and also through the carabiner as
shown.

Step 4
Cinch the knot tight to create tension
between the nuts. Then clip the sling to the
rope.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 54

Removing Nuts
To be removed from a crack, a nut will
need to reverse the way it went in.

Often, a little wiggle will unseat the nut,

enabling it to be pushed up and out.

If this doesn't work, tap it from below with

your nut tool.

If that doesn't work either, hold your nut

tool under the nut and hit it with a big hex.

As a last resort, yank upwards on the

attached quickdraw or sling to dislodge it.

Be careful though, this damages the cable

over time.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 55

Racking Nuts
Oval carabiners are good for racking nuts
– the large bottom radius helps to stop the
wires tangling together.

Nuts prefer to be organized by size and

racked in groups of 4-7 per carabiner.

It's common to have 10-15 nuts split onto

2-3 carabiners for a typical climb.

Cramming all your nuts onto one carabiner

makes it hard to find the one you want, and
if you drop this carabiner, you'll have no
nuts.

Top Tip
It's better to rack your nuts on
a carabiner with a strong
gate-spring.

A weak gate-spring can be

pressed open easily, meaning
that you will 'rain nuts' on
your belayer.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 56

Trad Gear: Hexes
Hexes are an old type of climbing
protection that are seldom seen on
climber's racks since the introduction of
cams. However, they do have advantages
over cams in certain situations.

The main advantage of hexes is they will

work in dirty, wet or icy cracks where cams
are likely to slide out. They are also lighter
than the equivalent sized cam. This is
especially noticeable in the bigger sizes.
They cost a lot less too.

Hexes can be used 'passively' in exactly

the same way as nuts; by being wedged
into constrictions and tapered cracks.

However, they can also be placed in 'active

mode', so that they 'cam' into the crack.
When a hex is placed as shown, and pulled
downwards, it tries to rotate (green arrows).
This rotation applies increasing pressure
outwards onto the side walls of the crack
(white arrows), which locks it in position.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 57

A Good Hex Placement

Fits completely
High surface inside crack
contact with rock without being too
far back

Locks into
position when
weighted

Too big to pull

through bottom
Crack is smaller of placement
further down

Sling orientated
in direction of
loading

Good rock
quality; clean,
dry and solid

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 58

Placing Hexes: Passive Mode

Look for constrictions and treat them just

like a large nut. They can be placed
sideways or straight in.

As with nuts, give hexes a gentle tug to

seat them in position, then extend them
with a quickdraw.

Placing Hexes: Active Mode

When using hexes in active mode, it's still 5 cm 5 cm

good to place them in constrictions; they
are fairly unreliable in perfectly parallel-
sided cracks. (Cams are much better than
hexes in parallel cracks).

However, because of the hexes' camming

4.5 cm 5 cm
action, the constriction doesn't need to be
as sharp as it would be for a nut
placement.

What you’re looking for is a crack that you

can just fit the hex into. Place the hex so
that it has opposite sides making contact
Top View
with either side of the crack, with the sling
coming out diagonally from the bottom.

The important factor to take into

consideration is what orientation to use.
Try placing it with different sides touching
the crack.

Place it in the way that fits the tightest, and

which 'cams' into position the most when
the sling is weighted.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 59

Placing Hexes: Horizontal Cracks

Hexes can be used in horizontal cracks in

the same way as vertical cracks.

It's often better to have the sling coming

out of the top, so it doesn't rub over the
edge of the crack.

Removing Hexes
Hexes can be removed the same way as a
nut in most cases. However, if a hex has
rotated into place tightly, you'll have to
reverse the way it rotated in order to
retrieve it.

Don't be afraid to hit them hard with your

nut tool; they're very durable.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 60

Racking Hexes
Most of the time, you'll only be carrying
one or two hexes. In which case, you can
either put them on the same carabiner with
your big nuts (for small hexes), or clip them
further back on your harness on their own
separate carabiner (for bigger hexes).

If you must carry a full rack of hexes, they

can be racked in groups of 2-4 per
carabiner.

Top Tip
If your big hexes are jangling around, slide
the hex to the middle of its sling and clip
both ends together. This way, the nut only
hangs down half the distance.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 61

Trad Gear: Tricams
Tricams work in a similar way to hexes;
they can be placed in 'passive' mode like a
nut, and also in 'active' mode.

When a tricam is weighted in active mode,

the downwards force is transferred
outwards to the sides of the crack (white
arrows), just the same as a cam. The head
rotates (green arrows) and pushes the
fulcrum into the rock while the rails do the
same against the other side of the crack.

Tricams are not as reliable as cams in

parallel-sided, vertical cracks, since the
fulcrum needs a small dimple or
constriction to 'rest' on.

Because the fulcrum of a tricam is a sharp

point, it bites into soft, wet or icy rock when
weighted, making it much better than a
cam in these conditions.

Fulcrum Point

Stingers

Cam Shoulders

Sling Retaining Pin

Cam Rails

Clip-in Point

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 62

A Good Tricam Placement

Fits completely
inside crack
Fulcrum rests on without being too
a constriction far back
inside crack

Locks into
position when
weighted
Sling orientated
in direction of
loading
Good rock
quality; clean,
dry and solid

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 63

Placing Tricams: Passive Mode
Tricams can be placed in constrictions just
the same as a nut. Because they are
generally more tapered than a nut, they will
fit better in sharper angled slots.

Place them in exactly the same way as you

would place nuts. Look for a sharp
constriction which gives as much tricam-to-
rock surface contact as possible.

Tricams tend not to wedge in place as well

as nuts when used in passive mode. This
can cause them to wobble out of position
as you climb above.

To help prevent this, set them in place with

a hard tug just like you would with a nut.
Then extend the placement with a
quickdraw or sling instead of using just a
single carabiner.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 64

Placing Tricams: Active Mode
Tricams work beautifully in horizontal opposite wall of the crack. Give it a sharp
cracks or small pockets where cams are tug to seat it in position.
too wide to fit properly and nuts would
simply slide out when weighted. They can When you pull on the sling, the tricam will
also be used in diagonal or vertical cracks rotate and push the fulcrum into the rock
that have dimples or constrictions inside. while the rails do the same against the
other side of the crack. This is the
To place a tricam in active mode, flip the camming, or 'active', action of a tricam.
head over so that the sling is running
through the cam rails. Set the fulcrum in a Be careful though, if there's nothing for the
slight dimple or constriction on one side of fulcrum to rest on or bite into, it'll probably
the crack. Then set the rails against the fall out when you climb past.
…….

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 65

Placing Tricams: Horizontal Cracks
In horizontal cracks, you can place the
tricam so the sling comes out from either
the top or bottom.

However, you will reduce abrasion on the

sling by setting it with the sling on top.

Removing Tricams
Think about how the tricam went in. If it’s in
an obvious constriction, shuffle it towards
the wider spot to pull it out, just like you
would with a nut.

You may need to disengage the camming

action so it will fit through. Do this by
rotating the tricam in the opposite way that
you would to seat it.

You can use a nut tool for this. Hook the

fulcrum with your nut tool, then use the
sling to wiggle the tricam out of the crack.

Try not to tug on the sling; that can seat

the tricam further into the rock, making it
even harder to remove.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 66

Racking Tricams
As with hexes, you'll normally only take
one or two tricams on a climb. Just clip
them on with your large nuts.

If you take more, you can rack them in

groups of 2-4.

Climb: Omerta, Dumbarton Rock, Scotland. Photographer: Fraser Harle. 67

Trad Gear: Big Bros
Big Bros are expandable tubes which
protect wide cracks. They are lighter and
more compact than large cams but are
harder to place, cannot be shuffled up the
crack and do not work as well in flares.

Once expanded into the crack, one side of

the big bro will be higher up than the other.
When the higher side is weighted (e.g: if
the climber falls), the unit becomes wedged
into position.

Placing Big Bros

Step 1
Find a flat spot in a parallel sided crack.
Place the inner tube against the wall.

Step 2
Press the trigger button and let the tube
expand slowly to fill the crack (it can
damage the big bro if you push the button
and let the tube slam into the rock).

The inner tube should contact the rock at a

lower point than the outer tube. Wiggle the
tube around a little to get the best fit.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 68

Step 3
Spin the locking collar to the end of its
range and tighten it. This sets the big bro
in position.

To get the best fit, wiggle the tube slightly

as you fasten it.

Removing Big Bros

Spin the collar to the end of the tube and
compress the big bro until the trigger pops
back into to place.

Racking Big Bros

Big bros should be compressed and
racked on their own separate carabiner.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 69

Trad Gear: Ball Nuts
Ball nuts are a seldom used type of
climbing gear which offer protection in thin
cracks, filling the void where even the
smallest cams are too big to fit.

Armed with a set of ball nuts, you can

protect or aid tiny cracks that you’d
otherwise have to leave unprotected or
hammer in a piton.

If you often climb in venues that feature

very small cracks or pin scars, you will
benefit by adding a set of ball nuts and the
skills to place them to your arsenal.

Ball nuts are comprised of two halves: one

half is a paddle and the other is a flat ball
which tracks up and down a central groove
on the paddle when the trigger is pulled or
released. The key to using ball nuts is understanding
the physics which cause them to lock into
When weighted, the paddle is pulled down the crack:
while the ball remains stuck in position. As - Ball travel
the paddle moves down, it slides over the - Surface texture
ball, therefore expanding the whole unit - Topology
and causing it to lock into the crack. - Rock hardness

Ball Nut Physics: Ball Travel

When you pull the trigger, the ball travels
along the paddle’s central groove.

On most units, the ball can travel beyond

the paddle at either end.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 70

During a fall, the ball stays still and the
6mm
paddle is pulled down a tiny amount.
Essentially, the ball ‘travels’ relative to the
paddle. This cinches the whole unit tight 12mm
into the crack.

There will be some amount of ball travel in

every fall, but the exact amount depends
on the rock type and the placement (see
below).

The key to using ball nuts is anticipating

and accommodating for the distance the
ball will travel.

In a typical placement, the ball nut should

be placed so the ball starts about 25% of 0% 25% 60% 100%
the way up the paddle. When it cinches up
in a fall, the ball moves to around 50-70%
up the paddle.

If the ball starts at the very bottom of the

paddle (so the ball nut is at its narrowest
setting), it may be difficult to remove.

If the ball starts close to the top of the

paddle, there is a good chance that the ball
will ride over the top end of the paddle,
therefore causing the piece to fail.

Ball Nut Physics: Surface Texture

In completely slick or icy rock, the ball will Be aware of tiny crystals or grains of rock
struggle to grip the side of the crack as the which may crunch into dust under the force
paddle is pulled down. This means the ball of a fall. This could cause the unit to
nut will slip right out. A slightly rougher expand beyond its limit and fail.
surface is much better.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 71

Ball Nut Physics: Topology
Ball nuts are best placed in a slight - Micro cams (if they will fit)
constriction as opposed to an absolutely - Pitons (if you are aiding with a hammer)
parallel sided crack. Gear which is better - Cam hooks (if you are aiding without a
suited to parallel sided cracks are: hammer)

In very tapering constrictions, a micro nut

will be a better choice. This is because ball
nuts are more sensitive to rotating
upward/outward with movements in your
rope as you climb above.

In addition to getting the ball in an

appropriate spot on the paddle, you’ll need
to find the best spot for the ball to ‘stick’ in
the crack.

Remember that the paddle moves under

load, not the ball. If the ball moves too, the
whole piece will probably pull out.

Look for more texture, a tiny protrusion or

constriction for the ball to rest on.

Ball Nut Physics: Rock Hardness

Harder rock (such as granite) is much ball is likely to travel the full length of the
better suited for ball nuts. When weighted paddle and slip off the end. This is
in very soft, loose or expanding rock, the especially true in the smaller sizes.
bbbbbbb

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 72

Placing Ball Nuts
Step 1
When you find a suitable placement, grab
your rack of ball nuts and try a few that are
most likely to fit. Assess the texture and
taper of the crack and the quality of the
rock. 25%

Step 2
Retract the trigger so the ball slides down
to the bottom of the paddle slot. Place it in
the crack and release the trigger.

Closely inspect the placement to take

advantage of every subtle feature.

Step 3
Tug downwards (in the direction of loading)
on the ball nut to seat it into position. The
ball should now be around 25% of the way
up the paddle.

Make a final assessment to check there is

no possibility of it cinching up so much that
the ball rides over the end of the paddle.

Step 4
Extend the ball nut with a quickdraw or
sling.

Think carefully about where your rope will

pull on the piece as you climb above. Ball
nuts should stay exactly where you placed
them. Rotation can make them blow.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 73

Removing Ball Nuts
To remove a ball nut, you have to reverse ball (if there’s space for it) while you pull
the cinching action. For many placements, the trigger and push the whole unit in.
this can be done by retracting the trigger,
just the same as a cam. The ball is made of a softer metal than the
paddle. Under high forces (such as in a
If this doesn’t work, the strategy is to get fall), the ball deforms slightly. This helps it
the paddle to slide into the crack further to stay in position and stick in the crack. To
while the ball stays where it is. You can remove stubborn ball nuts like this, you can
assist this by hooking a nut tool over the free up the ball by rotating or tapping the
bbbbbbbb paddle in with your nut tool.

Racking Ball Nuts

Ball nuts can be racked in the same way
as nuts: Just put them in small groups on a
carabiner.

If you are only carrying one or two, they

can be added to your small nut rack.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 74

Trad Gear: Slings
Slings are strongly-sewn loops of nylon or
dyneema tape. They're available in a range
of lengths – your typical trad rack will have
60cm, 120cm and maybe a 240cm length
sling on it, but bigger and smaller ones are
also available. The length is given as the
end to end distance, so the actual length of
fabric will be double this.

Slings are incredibly versatile, light, strong

and cheap. You'll find them useful on
almost every trad route.

The most common uses of slings are to

extend or equalize gear, either on lead or
at the belay (more on this later), but they
can also be used as protection by
themselves.

A Good Sling Placement

- Sling is very unlikely to lift off when you
climb above

- Fits completely around the feature

- Sling touches smooth rock; no sharp

edges

- The tree is well rooted, or the rock feature

is solid and firmly attached to the main
wall

- V-angle is less than 60 degrees

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 75

Placing Slings: The Basics
The most common features
to 'sling' are blocks and
flakes. Simply put the sling
over the feature and clip it to
the rope with a carabiner. If
your sling is big enough, you
can tie it as a clovehitch
around the feature. This
reduces the chance of it
being lifted off as you climb.

After placing the sling, give it

a gentle pull in the direction
of loading and wiggle it
around to simulate how it
may be pulled in a fall or by
movements in your rope as
you climb above.

Placing Slings: Trees

You can use slings as protection around
trees. This is more commonly done at the
belay, though many 'classic' British routes
have mid-pitch trees.

Simply pass one end of the sling around

the tree and clip both ends together with a
carabiner.

There will be less force on the tree if you

attach your sling around the base of the
trunk. This is especially important with
weak or small trees.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 76

Although not ideal, you can girth hitch trees
as shown.

Make sure to adjust the girth hitch so it

doesn’t bend across the sling, as this puts
more force on it.

If you have a longer sling, it is much better

to tie it off with an overhand knot.

This is stronger and more redundant than

a girth hitch.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 77

Placing Slings: Boulders
It is common to sling boulders as part of a The most stable boulders are large, wide,
belay. When choosing a boulder, consider flat-bottomed and are wedged in place by
the: the ground they sit on.
- Size
- Shape of its base If a boulder rests on debris, is on a sloping
- Shape of the socket it rests in or the ledge, or has a rounded base, it may not
angle of slope it is on be stable.
- Ratio of its height to width

Placing Slings: Blocks and Flakes

A sling around a large block or flake can be
a great piece of gear – if it’s solid. Inspect
the rock and ask yourself how the feature
is attached.

Sling flakes as low down as you can to

reduce leverage and be careful of fracture
lines which indicate the feature is
detached.

Slings can lift off once you climb above,

especially if it's windy or if your rope is
pulling on it. To help prevent this, you can
wedge them in place with another piece of
gear as shown.

Alternatively, weight the sling down by

hanging something heavy from it, such as
a large hex.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 78

Placing Slings: Chockstones
A chockstone is a rock which has become
wedged in a crack. They are more
commonly found in wider cracks and
chimneys and can provide great protection
when nothing else exists.

Assess how the chockstone is wedged in

place and be careful of large ones which
could roll out onto you.

Sling chockstones with a girth hitch on one

side. If you sling the middle, the force of a
fall could lever it out of the crack.

Placing Slings: Threads

Slings can be threaded through a hole or
behind a feature.

Simply poke the sling through the hole, pull

it until both ends are even, then clip a
quickdraw to it.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 79

Placing Slings: The V-Angle
When placing a sling around a tree or rock
feature, it's important to keep the V-angle
less than 60 degrees.

A greater V-angle could cause your

carabiner to cross-load in a fall.

Joining Slings Together

If you don't have one sling long enough to
fit around a tree, you can join two together.
Do this by using a strop bend – this is
similar to a girth hitch.

Remember that tying any knot in a sling,

including a strop bend or a clove hitch,
reduces the strength of the sling by up to
50%.

Racking Slings
Short Slings
60cm slings are best racked either as
extendable quickdraws (see page 86) or fit
neatly over one shoulder.

You can pull one off whenever you need it,

but don't wear too many or they'll tangle
together.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 80

Long Slings
120cm slings can also be worn over the
shoulder, with a carabiner clipping the two
ends together.

Instead of pulling them off over your head,

simply unclip the carabiner and pull.

Twist
Either length can also be twisted to be
racked onto your harness with a carabiner.

For a 60cm sling, hold it on one finger of

each hand, and twist one end round a few
times.

Fold the sling in half and clip a carabiner

through the two ends to rack it.

The same can be done with a longer sling,

just double it up first for a 120cm, or double
it twice for a 240cm.

Top Tip
The velcro on rock shoes quickly kills
dyneema slings, so try not to bundle them
all into your bag in one big messy heap!

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 81

Nylon or Dyneema Slings?

Nylon Slings
Usually around 16-20mm wide, nylon
climbing slings are much bulkier (and more
durable) than lightweight 6-14mm
Dyneema slings.

This makes them the best choice for

situations such as extending a belay
device, replacing anchor webbing or
attaching yourself to an anchor before
abseiling.

Nylon webbing is cheap and easy to buy in Nylon will also stretch up to 30% to help
bulk. It holds knots better and doesn’t melt absorb forces, thereby dynamically
as quickly as Dyneema. absorbing the energy of a falling climber.

Dyneema Slings
Dyneema (also known as Spectra or
Dynex) is incredibly strong for its weight
and is more abrasion and cut-resistant
than nylon. Dyneema can't be dyed, so
slings are always white, often with a
coloured thread running through them too
– this is a nylon ‘filler’ that is used to help
hold the sling together.

Dyneema folds up very small so racking

them is easy, especially 60cm slings
racked as extendable quickdraws.

Due to their thin diameter, they can be Dyneema doesn't absorb much water,
threaded through small gaps where nylon making them a smarter choice for winter
slings are too fat to fit, and are great for climbing where your nylon slings will freeze
tying-off pitons. stiff.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 82

Drawbacks of Dyneema
If Dyneema is the same strength as nylon, consider the drawbacks of Dyneema:
but much lighter, smaller and more - Dynamic absorption
abrasion and water resistant, why would - Melting point
you ever get nylon slings? - Durability
- Slickness
Before you throw out your nylon slings, - Cost
vvvvvvvvvv

Dynamic Absorption Melting Point

Dyneema only stretches three to five The lack of stretch means that energy is
percent, so there will be minimal dynamic dissipated as heat rather than movement.
absorption of falls through the sling – it's As Dyneema has quite a low melting point
all reliant on your rope. compared to nylon, the heat generated can
damage the material, causing it to fail.
If you fall without a rope in the system (e.g:
when attached directly to an anchor with a This effect is more apparent when knots
sling), the resulting fall will be as abrupt as are tied in the sling as the strands of
if you were attached by a length of steel Dyneema rub over themselves. Knots in
cable. thin slings are also incredibly hard to
unfasten if heavily loaded.

Durability
The repeated flexing of Dyneema Slickness
degrades the fibers much quicker than Dyneema is much slicker than nylon. You
nylon, especially when knots are tied in it. can buy nylon cord and webbing off the
spool in most climbing shops, and tie it
Dyneema quickdraws, slings and cam together to create your own cordelette,
slings need to be replaced more frequently prusik or sling of the desired length.
than the nylon equivalent.
Dyneema webbing, however, is only
available in finished, sewn products. One
Cost reason for this is because a knot tied in
Dyneema is almost always more Dyneema tends to pull through itself under
expensive than good old-fashioned nylon. load.
Buying nylon helps you save money for
more important things like climbing road The exception is Dyneema cord, which you
trips. can buy in raw lengths.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 83

Be careful though – the weakness in this
super strong material is the knot that you
use to tie it together. We recommend using
a triple fisherman’s bend with long tails.

The most important part of this knot is how

well you fasten it – make it neat, tie it very
tight and check it before each use.

The same knot can be used if you must cut

and retie your sewn Dyneema slings, such
as threading a sling around a feature to
back up an abseil anchor.

While a water knot is the preferred choice

for tying nylon webbing together, the triple
fisherman’s knot is better for thin
Dyneema. Because Dyneema is so slick,
water knots pull through themselves at a
lower force than the triple fisherman’s.

Nylon or Dyneema Slings: Static Falls

Because of the poor dynamic absorption of alone must hold the full force of a fall, or
Dyneema, it is not suitable for use in when there’s very little rope in the system.
situations where the sling or daisy chain Examples include:
ffffffffff

Falling on the First Piece of Gear

When there is little rope in the system to
soften a fall (such as falling on your first
piece of gear), you can reduce the force on
that piece (slightly) by using a nylon
extender rather than Dyneema.

As you climb higher and reduce the fall

factor, it doesn’t really matter which
material you use.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 84

Falling Directly on the Anchor
If you fall when attached directly to an
anchor with a Dyneema sling or cordelette,
the resulting fall will put higher forces on
the anchor than if you were attached with a
nylon sling.

Depending on the severity of the fall, this

could cause internal injuries, break the
sling or break your anchor.

A much better alternative is to attach to the

anchor with the rope. If this is not possible
(such as when abseiling), make sure not to
put yourself in a position where you could
fall and shock-load the anchor, even if you
are attached with a nylon sling.

Daisy Chain Fall

When aid climbing, it’s possible to take a
static fall on a daisy chain if your next piece
of gear fails.

A nylon daisy chain will stretch more than

Dyneema to absorb forces in this situation,
but a much better solution is to improve
your aid technique so that you are never in
a situation where you will shock-load your
daisy chain. Learn more about aid climbing:
www.vdiffclimbing.com/bigwall

Nylon or Dyneema Slings: Summary

For most situations, you should focus on in the right way, but neither are perfect.
using the sling correctly, rather than Having a mixture of both on your rack
worrying about what material you should keeps your options open.
use.
The key is understanding the advantages
There are no definite rules for when to use and limitations of each and using your
either material. Both are good when used knowledge to select the best type for the
iiiiiiiiii situation.
Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 85
Trad Gear: Extendable Quickdraws
Extendable quickdraws (or alpine draws)
are usually made from a 60cm sling and
two snap gate carabiners. They can be
used either as a short draw or fully
extended.

It's great to carry at least a few of these on

trad routes instead of fixed length, shorter
draws. You could also opt to only carry
extendable draws, particularly for alpine
routes.

How to Make Extendable Quickdraws

Simply attach both carabiners to the sling,
then pass one carabiner through the centre
of the other one. Clip the extra two loops of
the sling through it at the other end.

This can now be racked on your harness

like any other quickdraw.

Top Tips
You should have a gear carabiner and a
rope carabiner, just like you would with
normal quickdraws.

The sharp edges of bolts or other fixed

hardware can notch the gear carabiner.
This can damage your rope if you swap
them over. Using different coloured
carabiners makes it easy to distinguish
between them.

Thinner dyneema slings (6 or 8mm) fold up

more neatly than thicker dyneema or nylon,
which reduces bulk on your harness.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 86

How to Use Extendable Quickdraws
Clip the draw to your gear,
then slip two loops of the
sling out of the rope-end
carabiner. Pull it out to full
extension, then clip the rope
in.

Twisted Sling
Sometimes, the sling can become twisted
which can result in it being looped around
the gear carabiner. It's OK to use it like this
if you're really pumped and need to make
the clip quickly, but much better to sort it
out if you can.

If you fall while the sling is tangled like this,

the strands of it will slide over each other,
causing it to weaken, just the same as if it
was knotted.

Warning: Elastics
Many short draws have a loop of elastic at
the gear end to hold the carabiner firmly in
place. It's important NOT to use one of
these elastics on an extendable quickdraw.

If the draw is twisted in the wrong way it

can end up with the sling attached only
with the elastic. This is easily missed and
would be disastrous if you fell on it!

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 87

Racking Extendable Quickdraws
When following a pitch where the leader
has used extendable draws, you can either
re-make the draw as you go and rack it
onto your harness, or simply sling the
whole thing over your shoulder – much
easier in a tricky position.

Some people prefer to carry them on lead

like this too, rather than racking them on
their harness.

Climb: Surface Tension, Auchinstarry, Scotland. Photographer: Fraser Harle. 88

Extending Gear
Attaching a sling, quickdraw or extendable take a little extra time and it increases your
quickdraw to a piece of climbing gear has fall potential slightly.
advantages in certain situations.
Planning ahead is important. Visualize
The disadvantages are fairly minor: you’ll where you want your rope to run, and
have to carry extra slings/quickdraws, it'll extend gear as necessary.
…...

Wandering Routes
When gear placements are not in a
straight line, you'll have to extend them to
avoid 'rope drag'.

You should aim to extend gear so that your

rope runs as straight as possible without
creating unnecessary fall potential.

For this type of route, it can be worth using

half ropes too (see page 148).

Gear Position
Using extenders helps to keep your gear in
the position that you placed it.

If you don't extend gear appropriately,

slings can lift off, nuts can be pulled out
and cams can 'walk' out of position. This
happens because of movements in your
rope as you climb above.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 89

Cross-Loading
In some situations, carabiners could be
‘cross-loaded’ over an edge. This is most
common in deep horizontal placements.

A cross-loaded carabiner could be

damaged or break during a fall.

The best solution is to loop a sling through This is better than having a cross loaded
the piece, then clip both ends of the sling carabiner, but it reduces the strength of the
to a carabiner. sling by 50% or more.

Warning: Girth-Hitching
If you girth-hitch a sling on the wire loop of
a nut it is likely to damage or break the
sling in a fall.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 90

Deep Placements
Sometimes, gear must be
placed far inside a crack, or
around a corner. You'll need
to extend the piece to avoid
rope drag.

This is especially important if

the edge of the rock is sharp.

Sharp Edges
Extend gear to keep your
rope away from sharp edges
or loose rock.

Rope-Eating Cracks
Cracks at the lip of a roof or overlap are Sometimes, a nut or hex placed at the lip
notorious for eating ropes and halting the of the crack can help your rope feed more
leader. smoothly, or a piece of gear to one side
can guide the rope away from the crack.
Even with gear correctly extended beneath
the roof, your rope may get stuck if the Another option is to belay immediately
route continues up low-angled terrain. after the roof if sufficient gear exists.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 91

Fixed Gear
You may encounter fixed gear on some
trad routes. Fixed gear ranges in quality
from new bolts to ancient pitons.

You may also find gear which has been left

or forgotten by a previous party. Remove it
if you can and return the gear to the owner
if possible.

If you’re not certain about the quality of

fixed protection, back it up with something
much better.

If you clip an old nut or cam, let your

partner know the piece is fixed so they
don’t waste their efforts trying to remove it.

A piton in a horizontal crack is more likely

to be better than one in a vertical crack,
because it will cam into place rather than If a piton isn’t fully driven (hammered in up
rotate out. This however depends on the to the eye), you can increase its strength
type of piton, how old it is and how well it by tying it off with a slip knot. This reduces
was placed to start with. In general, fixed leverage much more than clipping the eye
pitons are poor quality. directly.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 92

Multidirectional Gear
The first couple of pieces of gear in a pitch
should be orientated to hold a downwards
and an outwards pull.

Because of the angle of the rope from the

belayer to the leader, a fall could pluck gear
out which only holds a downwards pull.

Similarly, any lead protection placed where

the rope changes direction should be able
to hold a downwards and a sideways pull,
otherwise it might be pulled out when the
rope comes tight in a fall.

Think about the direction you will be

climbing and place multidirectional gear
when appropriate.

Cleaning Gear
When following, try to organize gear as you Remove quickdraws from cams, twist
remove it. This will speed up the belay slings away neatly and rack nuts on one
changeover on a multi-pitch. carabiner if possible.

Don’t let gear build up on the rope in front If you remove a nut with a quickdraw, clip
of you – it’ll get jammed on rock features the nut-end to your harness so it doesn’t
as you climb. Rack gear on your harness hang low and get stuck as you climb.
as soon as you remove it.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 93

Rock Quality
Trad protection is only as strong as the Not only is the gear unlikely to hold a fall,
rock it is placed in. Placing gear behind but it could dislodge loose and sharp rocks
loose flakes or blocks is very dangerous. which could hit your belayer or cut your
rope in a fall.

Rock Type
Granite, limestone and sandstone are the Even though granite is solid, you will often
most prevalent types of rock in climbing find loose blocks or bands of poor quality
areas, though many other types exist. choss in random areas.

Each rock type has a different strength and Some types of sandstone are coated with
probability to have loose features. a hard patina of mineral-hardened rock.
Generally, ‘soft’ rocks (such as some types This makes the surface strong but masks
of sandstone and slate) are likely to have an underlying soft layer. When a cam is
brittle edges and loose features. heavily loaded, the lobes can punch
through the patina into the softer layer,
Harder rocks (such as granite) lend causing the unit to skate out of the crack.
themselves to more reliable protection. For this reason, it’s wise to place protection
more frequently in soft rock.

Cams in Poor Rock

Because of the large forces applied and force the flake away from the main
outwards on the sides of the crack, cams wall, meaning that your cam will be pulled
should always be placed in extremely solid out.
rock.
If the rock seems a little suspect, try finding
If you fall on a cam which is behind a loose a constriction to place a nut instead, since
flake, the cam lobes will press outwards nuts apply far less outwards force when
aaaaaaa weighted.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 94

Rock Quality: Testing
Visual Test Tap Test
Look at the feature and figure out how it is If you are still uncertain about the quality of
attached to the main part of the wall. If it a rock feature, give it a gentle tap and
looks detached, don’t touch it. listen to the noise it makes. Loose rock
‘echoes’ and sounds hollow.
Some features have very thin fracture lines
around them, which suggest poor rock If you must climb through a small band of
quality. These fracture lines are sometimes brittle flakes, determine which are the best
covered in lichen or otherwise hard to see, holds and selectively distribute your weight
so look carefully. between them. Pull down on holds, rather
than out.

Climb: Physical Graffiti, Dumbarton Rock, Scotland. Photographer: Fraser Harle. 95

kN Ratings
This is the kN rating. It's on all your gear:
nuts, cams, slings and carabiners.

kN stands for kilo Newtons. 1kN is about

100kg (220lbs for the Americans). So this
nut will hold around 900kg.

This is Nelly. She weighs 850kg, so the

9kN nut would hold her weight – just.

But if Nelly climbed above the nut and then

fell, she would put more force on the gear.
This force would certainly exceed 900kg,
causing the nut to break.

Every fall exerts a force greater than body

weight – often many times more than your
actual weight.

Your goal as a leader is to reduce the

potential force on gear, therefore keeping
the climb safe.

The exact force generated depends on:

- The distance fallen
- The climber’s weight
- The length of rope in the system
- Friction through gear in the system
- How dynamic the belay is
- How dynamic the rope is

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 96

kN Ratings: Fall Factors
The fall factor is the distance fallen divided
by the length of rope in the system.

The higher the fall factor, the more force is

applied to protection. This is why a bigger Fall Factor = 0.2
fall puts more force on gear.

If a climber falls 2 meters, when 10 meters Fall Factor = 0.5

up a pitch, the fall factor is 0.2.

If a climber falls 5 meters, when 10 meters

up a pitch, the fall factor is 0.5.

Similarly, a fall taken close to the belay

puts a much larger force on protection than
the same length of fall taken higher up the Fall Factor = 0.1
pitch.

If a climber falls 2 meters, when 20 meters

up a pitch, the fall factor is 0.1.

If a climber falls 2 meters, when 3 meters

up a pitch, the fall factor is 0.66.
Fall Factor = 0.66

Warning
If a climber falls 2 meters, when 1 meter up
the pitch (falling directly onto the anchor),
the fall factor is 2. This puts a large force
directly on the belay device which makes it
hard to hold the fall.

It is important to eliminate the chance of a

factor 2 fall by placing gear immediately off
the belay.
Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 97
kN Ratings: Top Rope Vs Leader Fall Forces
Most lead falls have a fall factor of 0.2-0.7
and generate 2-5kN of force on the top
piece of gear.

When top-roping, the distance fallen is

minimal, therefore the fall factor is near
zero. The force on the anchor will be the
weight of the climber plus part of the
weight of the belayer (around 1kN of force).

If there is slack in the system, the force will

be a little higher, but still significantly less
than the typical forces on gear during a
leader fall.

kN Ratings: Forces on Climbing Gear

Most medium/large sized trad gear is rated The weakest link in the system is usually
to about 10-14kN. This is strong enough to the quality of the placement or the rock it is
hold the most enormous fall you'll ever in (e.g: a 14kN nut in a suboptimal
take. In most cases, the gear itself won’t placement may be plucked out with a 2kN
break. force).

Micro Gear
Tiny 'micro' cams and nuts have low
strength ratings and will only hold small
falls. If you take a massive whipper onto a
3kN nut, it'll probably break.

If your route is protected by small gear,

make sure to place plenty of pieces and
consider equalizing them to make a
stronger point of protection.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting the Climb 98

Heavy Climbers
The heavier you are, the more force you
apply to gear when you fall.

Heavier climbers should consider thicker

ropes with low impact-force ratings, which
can take more abuse than thinner ropes.

Heavyweights should beef up all anchors,

place protection more often and make sure
the belayer is able to take the load.

kN Ratings: Summary
It’s important for a leader to understand Never rely on a single piece of gear,
when potential forces may be high, and to especially if it has a low strength rating. If
place gear appropriately to reduce this. you're 'cruxing out' above unreliable gear,
it's usually safer to down-climb to a place
High forces can break micro gear, break where you can rest and re-think your
the rock that holds bigger gear in place or options.
pluck out poorly placed gear.
The belayer’s role is to assist the leader in
Extend gear when necessary to avoid rope making these decisions. Often the belayer
drag. Rope drag reduces the effective has a better perspective of the potential
amount of rope available to absorb the forces on gear. Let your partner know if
impact, which increases the fall factor. they are creating a dangerous fall potential.
You can also help by being ready to give
an appropriate dynamic belay (see
page 141).

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 99

 Trad Climbing Basics
Trad Anchors

Climb: Dalriada, The Cobbler, Scotland. Photographer: Fraser Harle. 100

Trad Anchors
The climb isn't over when you reach the
top; you still need to make an anchor to
attach yourself and belay your partner
from.

You are aiming to produce an anchor with

at least two (preferably three) good pieces
of gear, that are equalized together to a
central point. This central point is where
you attach yourself and belay from.

How you create the central point will

depend on what gear is available, how
spaced it is, if you have one rope or two,
and whether the climb is a single or a
multi-pitch.

It's essential to know each technique and

be able to adapt your anchor building skills
for each unique situation.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 101

Anchors: First Steps
When you arrive at the top of the crag, or Never accept that an anchor is poor
the top of the pitch, have a look around for quality. There are always other options.
good gear. This may be obvious (a
cleaned-out nut placement or a sturdy tree) When you've found enough good gear
or not so obvious. placements for the anchor, you'll need to
make a belay plan. Your plan will include:
You'll need to find at least 2 or 3 good
placements in a relatively small area. 1) How you will equalize the gear together.
2) Exactly where you will sit or stand to
If you can't find enough gear to make a belay.
secure anchor, you'll have to go 3) How you will attach yourself to the
somewhere else! Try a little further back or anchor.
along the crag top. 4) Which belay technique you will use.
5) Where you will put the extra rope.
On a multi-pitch, you may have to climb up
a bit higher, or down-climb if you've just When your plan is complete, you can start
passed a suitable place. It is essential that making the anchor. Each part of this plan is
you find a place to make a solid anchor. fully explained in this chapter.

Top Tip
Once you've got one piece of
gear in, clip the rope through
it as if you're still climbing.
This will protect you if you
slip while building the rest of
your anchor.

You can unclip this later

when you are safely attached
to the anchor.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 102

Anchors: The 6 Point Rule
You should create an anchor which is
worth at least 6 points. Points are awarded
as follows:

3 Points: A new bolt or a sling around a

large tree.

2 Points: A well placed piece of trad gear.

1 Point: A well placed micro nut or micro

cam.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 103

0 Points: Any suspect gear which is either
placed incorrectly or in bad rock.

Only experience can teach you how many

points a piece of gear is worth.

Warning: Loose features

Don't place all of the anchor
pieces behind the same
feature (especially with flakes
or blocks). If that feature is
loose, your entire anchor will
fall out when weighted!

For this reason, it’s better to

place gear in different cracks
and features.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 104

Anchors: Equalizing - The Basics
Let's assume you've got two incredibly using a long (120cm or 240cm) sling, or a
good pieces of gear or two bolts. The cordelette (a loop of 7 or 8mm cord).
easiest way to equalize them together is by

Step 1
Clip the sling or cordelette to both pieces
of gear. Pull it down in the middle so both
strands of sling are equal.

Step 2
Tie an overhand knot in it. This creates a
central point.

Step 3
Clip a screwgate carabiner into the central
point.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 105

Anchors: Equalizing - Advanced
An overhand knot in your sling will equalize 2) The anchor is set up for the direction
the anchor pieces in a basic sense. that the 'pull' will come from.
However, it must be tied in a way which
meets the following three criteria: 3) If one piece of gear was to fail, the other
would not be shock loaded.
1) Each piece of gear only takes around
50% of the total weight of the belay. These are explained in detail on the
following pages.

Criteria 1 – The V-Angle

In theory, if you have two pieces of gear
58kg
with 100kg hanging from them, each will
take 50kg, right?

58kg
Unfortunately not. This depends on the
angle the sling makes just above the
overhand knot (the V-angle). The smaller
the V-angle, the smaller the force on each <60 °
piece of gear.

You don't need to know how to calculate

these numbers, but an angle of anything
up to 60 degrees is acceptable. At this
point, 58% of the total weight of the belay
(the weight of both climbers) will go onto
each piece. This is good.
100kg

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 106

At 90 degrees, 71% of the force will go
71kg
onto each piece. This isn't too good.

71kg
90 °

100kg

At 120 degrees, each piece of gear takes

100% of the force! Never equalize gear 100kg 120 ° 100kg
with such a large angle.

100kg

You can decrease the V-angle by using a

longer sling or cordelette. If you don't have
one, you can extend a piece with a short
sling.

60 °

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 107

Criteria 2 - Direction of Pull
Your gear needs to be equalized together
in the 'direction of pull'. This is the direction
that it would be weighted if your partner
falls.

If you've climbed straight up to an anchor

and will be standing or sitting directly below
it, this will be straight down.

But if you've traversed in to a ledge and

the rope is running off to the side, the pull
will be in a different direction. You'll need to
place and equalize the gear to suit that.

When you're setting the anchor up, think

about the direction that the pull will be in.

Tie your overhand knot accordingly, then

test it by pulling hard in that direction.

Are both strands of the sling taking the

weight? If one is slack, then adjust your
knot accordingly.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 108

Criteria 3 - Shock Loading
Imagine hanging a heavy shopping bag
from the coat rack in your hallway. If you
place it there gently, the coat rack might
strain a bit, but it'll hold.

Now imagine extending that shopping bag

with a piece of string. Hold it up high, then
drop it. What happens? The increased
force will likely break either the coat rack or
the bag, dumping your shopping in an
untidy pile of broken eggs and
plasterboard.

This principle is exactly the same at a

belay. If one piece fails and the anchor isn't
equalized correctly, all the weight of you When you tie an overhand knot in your
and your partner will 'fall' onto the other sling/cordelette at the anchor, each piece
piece, ‘shock loading’ it. The extra force becomes independent. This means that if
caused by shock-loading could pull out or any piece failed, there would be no
break the remaining piece. movement or shock loading.

The Sliding-X
Another method of equalizing gear is to
use the 'Sliding-X' knot. This is incredibly
dangerous in most trad belay situations,
but can sometimes be the best choice at
bolted anchors.

Learn more about the sliding-X here:

www.vdiffclimbing.com/equalizing-gear

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 109

Anchors: Equalizing Three Pieces
The previous example explained how to If you're not sure how many pieces of gear
equalize an anchor with only two pieces of to use, see 'The 6 Point Rule' on page 103.
gear. This is fine if both pieces of gear are
absolutely bomber (such as a new bolt or a To equalize three pieces of gear, simply
sling around a big, sturdy tree). use a longer sling or cordelette. Pull two
loops down and tie one big overhand knot
However, in most cases you'll be building in it. Then clip a screwgate through all
trad anchors out of regular trad gear – three loops. You may need to fiddle with
nuts, hexes and cams. These are not as the knot slightly to get all strands to pull
strong as bolts or massive trees, so you'll equally tight – often the longest one can
need to use more of them. go a little slack as you tie it.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 110

Top Tip
If you have two pieces of gear close
together but the other one far away, it can
help to use two slings.

First, use one sling to equalize the two

pieces which are close together. Next,
equalize the central point of that with the
third piece of gear using another sling.

You may need more than three pieces of

gear to make a secure anchor. Use the
same method to equalize as many pieces
together as you need.

If you don't have enough slings, you can

use the rope as part of the anchor (this is
explained later).

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 111

Attaching to the Anchor: Belay Position
You'll need to attach yourself to the anchor Central Optimal Belay
in a way that you can see your partner as Point Position
they follow the pitch and brace yourself if
they fall.

Once you are tight to the anchor, make

sure you are positioned in a straight line
between the anchor and the climber. You
shouldn’t be pulled sideways if the climber
falls.

You'll often need to extend your anchor to Some of the most common methods are
get into the optimal belay position. There described on the following pages. With
are many ways to do this, each with their practise, you should develop the ability to
own advantages and limitations. adapt and combine these methods to suit
every belay situation.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 112

Method 1 – Clip Directly
Clip your belay loop into the central point
directly with a screwgate carabiner.

Advantages Best Situation to Use This Method

- Simple If extending the anchor with the rope would
put you in a bad position to belay.
Disadvantages
- No dynamic aspect to the anchor (using
the rope is much better. See methods 2-5)
- Very difficult to adjust belay position

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 113

Method 2 – Tie to the Central Point
Tie your rope to the central point using a shuffle rope through and pull it tight. The
clovehitch. Then fine-tune your belay rope between you and the central point will
position by adjusting the clovehitch; just need to be fairly tight.
…..

Advantages Best Situation to Use This Method

- Only uses a small amount of rope If the central point is within reasonable
reach of your belay position (up to 2 meters
Disadvantages or so).
- Belay position must be close to the
central point

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 114

Method 3 – Loop Through the Central Point
Clip the rope through the screwgate on the position. Attach a screwgate to your rope
central point, then walk to your belay loop and then clovehitch the rope to it.
……….

Advantages Best Situation to Use This Method

- You can fine-tune your belay position If the central point is out of reach from your
without moving back to the anchor belay position.

Disadvantages
- Uses more rope and one extra screwgate
than method 2

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 115

Method 4 – Attaching to Two Points
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Attach the rope to the Clovehitch the rope to the Clovehitch the rope to your
nearest anchor point with a other anchor point, leaving rope loop with another
clovehitch. a little slack between the screwgate.
two.

Advantages Best Situation to Use This Method

- Equalizes two points If you have two anchor points which are
- Uses less rope than method 5 too far apart to equalize with a
sling/cordelette.
Disadvantages
- Must be close to the first anchor point in
order to fine-tune your belay position
- The central point is created at your belay
loop. This means that you must belay
directly from your harness (you can't use
guide mode)

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 116

Method 5 – Attaching to Three or More Points
Step 1 Step 2
Clip the rope through the furthest away Attach a screwgate to your rope loop and
point, then walk to your belay position. then clovehitch the rope to it.

Step 3 Step 4
Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the second Clovehitch the rope to the third point. You
point. can fine-tune the clovehitches to equalize
the three points.

Advantages Best Situation to Use This Method

- You can use this method to equalize as If you arrive at a belay with no slings or
many points as you need. Just keep cordelette.
repeating steps 1 and 2 until you've
equalized all your pieces

Disadvantages
- Uses up a lot of rope
- You must belay directly from your harness

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 117

Tree Anchors
Walking around a large tree and clipping The clovehitch or figure-8 on a bight are
the rope back to your rope loop is a quick good knots to use. It is only suitable to do
way to make an anchor with only one this with very large trees. Watch out for
screwgate carabiner. tree sap.

Attaching to the Anchor with Half Ropes

When climbing with half ropes, you can
use any of the previously described
methods with either one or both ropes.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 118

Attaching to the Anchor: Cordelette Craft
If equalizing the anchor with a cordelette, it and belay your partner from. The following
is typically better to create the central point methods describe a few ways to adjust the
at head to chest level. This provides a height of the central point.
convenient workstation to attach yourself
aaaaaaa

Cordelette Craft: Keeping the Central Point High

Double Up
One or more strands can be doubled up.
The double loops don’t stretch as much, so
they may give the higher piece more than
it’s share of the load.

Consider this when equalizing the pieces

together.

Tie a Knot
Tie an overhand in the cordelette to
shorten it.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 119

Figure 8
Tie a figure 8 instead of an overhand at the
central point. Or wrap the cord around
itself one more time to create a figure 9.

When using any of these methods to adjust

the height of the central point, make sure
your V-angle does not exceed 90 degrees.

Cordelette Craft: Extending the Central Point

If you would prefer to use a cordelette to
equalize the anchor (rather than the rope),
but it isn’t long enough, try extending the
furthest away piece with a sling.

Alternatively, unfasten the double-

fisherman’s bend and tie a figure-8 loop in
each end of the cordelette. Clip the ends
into the furthest away pieces and equalize
with an overhand knot.

The disadvantages of this setup are a

reduced strength on the outer pieces (one
strand of cordelette is weaker than two)
and there is no ‘top shelf’ (see next page).

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 120

Cordelette Craft: The Top Shelf
To free up space at the central point, you This is useful when:
can clip in to the ‘top shelf’ of the - Belaying in guide mode
cordelette. - Using a redirected belay
- There will be more than one other climber
attaching to the central point

Step 1
Cinch the cordelette tight and attach a
screwgate to the central point. This
ensures the knot cannot roll.

Step 2
Clip each individual loop of the cordelette
with another screwgate.

Step 3
Attach yourself to the screwgate.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 121

Warning
Make sure you have clipped through each
cordelette strand individually.

It is dangerous to clip around the strands

as shown.

If one part of the anchor fails, you will

become completely detached.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 122

Attaching to the Anchor: Slings, PAS and Daisy Chains
Slings
Slings are designed to be used with a
dynamic rope in the system to lessen the
impact on them. Much higher forces can be
generated when they are used alone.

Personal Anchor Systems

A Personal Anchor System (PAS) is a
series of very short sewn slings connected
in a chain-link-style. They are designed as
an idiot-proof anchor attachment.

Once girth hitched to your harness, any

part of the PAS can be clipped to an
anchor to provide a full strength
attachment.

Attaching to the Anchor

It's only safe to attach yourself to an
anchor with a sling or a PAS if you won't be
moving above it.

If you fall when above an anchor (even if

you are only a foot above), unusually large
forces will be generated. This is because
slings do not absorb much energy – think
of it as similar to falling when attached to a
length of steel cable. You can damage
internal organs with just a 10kN force –
falling onto a sling directly is likely to be
much higher than this.

It could also break the sling, or the anchor.

If there is any chance that you will move
sideways or above the anchor, make sure
to attach to it with the rope.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 123

Daisy Chains
Daisy chains look and function in a similar
way to the PAS, but they are only full
strength when clipped end-to-end.

The stitching between loops is very low

strength. If you connect to an anchor by
clipping a carabiner through two
consecutive loops, the stitching could
break, causing you to become completely
detached from the anchor.

Adjustable daisy chains are not full

strength (usually rated to around 5kN) and
should never be used as your primary
anchor attachment.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 124

Attaching to the Anchor: Common Mistakes
Tying Clovehitches on Snapgates
Part of the clovehitch could easily snap
through the gate, making the knot useless.

Never tie clovehitches on snapgate

carabiners. Use a screwgate, or two
opposite and opposed snapgates (see
page 127) instead.

Too Many Knots on one Carabiner

This is bad because:
- If the blue rope is weighted, it will be
impossible to remove the green rope.
- If the green rope is a climber’s
attachment point and you open the gate
to remove the blue rope, the climber will
only be attached by an open carabiner –
this is very dangerous.

If you need to attach more than one knot to

an anchor, use a separate screwgate for
each.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 125

Non-Equalized Anchor Attachment
If one bolt fails, everything will swing onto
the other bolt. This presents a real danger
of losing control of the belay.

Equalize the anchor as shown on

page 105.

Clipping Snapgates Together

A slight twist can cause the carabiner’s
gate to open.

Instead, use a quickdraw, sling or

screwgate carabiner depending on the
situation.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 126

No Screwgates?
If you need a screwgate but don’t have
one, you can use two ‘opposite and
opposed’ snapgates instead. This is useful
in situations such as attaching to an
anchor.

This is a common incorrect carabiner

alignment. If one carabiner flips around,
both gates could be pushed open at the
same time.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 127

Anchors: Check List
You can use any of the previously 6) The anchor is perfectly aligned with the
described methods in any combination with direction that the pull will come from.
either a single rope or half ropes. 7) Each piece is independent from the
Whichever you choose, make sure: others to prevent shock loading.
8) You are attached to the anchor with a
1) There are enough pieces of gear to tight rope.
satisfy 'the 6 point rule'. 9) All knots are tied neatly.
2) Each piece is placed as well as it can 10) All the screwgates are fastened up.
be.
3) The rock around the gear is solid. Once you can answer 'yes' to all of these,
4) The pieces of gear are equalized you can tell your partner that you are 'safe'
correctly. or 'off belay' (Make sure you are speaking
5) The V-angle is less than 60 degrees at the same climbing language – see
each point of equalization. page 146).

Climb: John McCune on Owey Island, Ireland. Photographer: Craig Hiller 128
Anchors: Belaying Your Partner
When you're attached to the anchor, you'll Three of the most common belaying
need to pull up all the slack rope in the methods are described below. It's
system until it's tight on your partner, then important to understand the advantages
choose a method to belay them. and limitations of each, and be able to
adapt these methods to suit any situation.

Method 1 - Redirected Belay

Clip another screwgate carabiner to the
central point and run your partners rope
through this, then down to your belay
device. You'll be able to belay as you
normally would on a top rope.

Your belay device will need to be at least

1.5 meters away from the central point.
This reduces the chance of you being
sucked into it if your partner falls. 1.5
Me
ter
Also, make sure that the rope isn't rubbing s
against your attachment knot at the central
point. Consider attaching to the 'top shelf'
to avoid this if possible.

Advantages
- Most of the weight of a falling climber is
transferred to the anchor, not your
harness.

Disadvantages
- It's possible to get pulled into the central
point if your partner falls, particularly if
they are heavier than you. In this case,
there is a real danger of losing control of Best Situation to Use This Method
the brake rope. When you have a nice ledge to stand on
- This method is more difficult to set up and the central point is just above your
when using half ropes (you'll need a head.
separate point for each rope)

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 129

Method 2 – Directly from Harness
Attach your belay device to either your In most situations, the weight of a falling
belay loop or rope loop. This can be set up climber will pull down from you, not up.
so the brake rope comes out of either the Because of this, you will need to lock off
top or bottom of the belay device – upwards not downwards.
choose whichever way is easier to lock off
the brake rope.

Rope to
Climber

Spare
Rope

Advantages Best Situation to Use This Method

- You can use this method for almost every If you have used your rope to equalize the
belay situation. anchor.

Disadvantages
- If your partner falls, it's possible that their
weight will pull uncomfortably on your
harness or over your legs.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 130

Method 3 - Belaying in Guide Mode
Some belay devices have a 'guide mode'
function - they can be set up in a way
Main
which locks automatically if a climber falls. Anchor
They can be used as a normal belay Point
device too.

You can set up guide mode as shown, with

one rope or two.

Simply pull the brake strands through as

the climber moves up. If they fall, the
device will lock by itself almost instantly.

Even though guide mode belay devices are Ropes

auto-locking, you should always keep hold to
of the brake rope. Climber

Advantages
- The weight of a falling climber isn't on
your harness, which is much more
comfortable.
- You can bring up two climbers at the Belayer’s
same time (on two different ropes) - great Tie-in
if climbing as a team of three. Point
- Because you are not directly attached to
your belay device, it is easier to detach
yourself from the system in an emergency.

Disadvantages Best Situation to Use this Method

- Time-consuming to lower a climber, even - When it is unlikely that you will need to
a short distance. lower the climber (e.g: climbing an easy
slab route).
- When climbing as a team of three.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 131

Lowering a Climber in Guide Mode
Before you use guide mode, you must Note: The belayer's anchor attachment
understand how to lower a climber. There has been omitted from the following
are a few different ways to do this, some diagrams for clarity.
are faster and some are safer. The
following description is a safe way to do it.

Step 1
Redirect the brake strand(s) through a high
point of the anchor with a screwgate
carabiner. Then tie a prusik knot around
the rope and clip it to your belay loop.

Harness
Belay
Loop

Step 2
Girth hitch a sling through the small hole on
your belay device.

Newer devices have a big enough hole to

clip a carabiner. If yours does, you can clip
a sling to it with a carabiner.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 132

Step 3
Redirect the sling through a high point of
the anchor with a carabiner, then fasten the
sling to your belay loop with another
carabiner. This will allow you to use your
weight to release the belay device.

You could also stand in the sling to release

the belay device, though it's often easier to
control when clipped to your harness.

You are now able to lower the climber in a

controlled manner. Remember to slide the
prusik knot as you continue lowering.

Warning
Never weight the belay carabiner as
shown.

This will disengage the device and cause

the climber to fall.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 133

Tying-Off a Climber in Guide Mode
If you need to go completely hands-free
while belaying in guide mode, you can tie-
off the device.

Simply form a loop in the brake strand and

clip it to the rope.

Be aware that if the knot jams up into the

belay device, it will be difficult to lower a
climber without belaying them up a few
inches first. Consider this before you tie
them off.

Forgot Your Belay Device?

If you forget to bring (or drop) your belay
device, you can still belay your partner.

Learn more:
www.vdiffclimbing.com/munter-hitch

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 134

Where to Put the Spare Rope
There are basically two options. Either
stack it into a neat pile somewhere or stack
it through a sling.

For the sling method, start by pushing a

long loop of rope through the sling.
Continue doing this, making smaller loops
each time (bigger loops are more likely to
get tangled into each other when you are
belaying the leader on the next pitch).

However you choose to stack the rope,

make sure it is within reach and that you
can do it one-handed; you'll need to belay
at the same time.

Self-Equalizing Anchors: The Quad

‘The Quad’ is an anchor system which self-
adjusts to keep an equal force on each
anchor point. It can be better than other
methods of equalizing in certain situations.

Learn how to use the quad:

www.vdiffclimbing.com/quad-anchor

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 135

Rope Loop or Belay Loop?
You can belay either from your belay loop Remember that if you used two ropes in
or from your rope loop. the anchor, you'll need to belay from both
rope loops. If you are unsure, just use your
In some situations, using the rope loop can belay loop.
be more comfortable - it allows you to
transfer the weight of a fallen climber onto If you have a carabiner attached to your
the anchor, rather than having their weight rope loop, remember to take it off before
pulling on your harness. you untie – many carabiners have been
lost this way.

Using the Belay Loop Using the Rope Loop

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 136

Top-Rope Climbing
With the security of an anchored rope must adhere to safety procedures to avoid
above, top-roping is the safest way to accidents. Anchors must be bomber, the
climb. rope must be attached correctly, and the
belayer must be competent.
A top-roped climber can rest on the rope
whenever they are too tired to continue, There are three main ways to top-rope:
safe in the knowledge that they will only fall - Belaying from the top
a few inches. - Belaying from the bottom
- Following (when a climber follows a
Top-roping is great for beginners, large leader up a pitch)
groups or for experienced climbers who
want to push their physical limits. Despite This section discusses the first two types of
the relative safety of top-roping, climbers top-roping. These can be set up on crags
cccccccc which are less than a rope length high.

Top-Roping: Setting Up the Anchor

Forces on gear when top-roping are much Belaying from the top can be better if:
less than forces on gear during a leader - The bottom of the crag is difficult or
fall. However, with a little slack in the impossible to access (e.g: the last pitch of
system, the force at the anchor could easily a tall cliff)
exceed several times the combined weight - There is a chance of a climber knocking
of the climber and belayer. The anchor rocks on the belayer
needs to be bomber. - The crag is higher than half a rope length

Be careful when walking around the top of When belaying from the top, the climber is
a crag un-roped. You may need to make an often lowered down and then climbs out. If
anchor further back from the cliff edge and possible, it can be much better to belay
then be put on belay while you set up the directly from the anchor. This keeps the
top-rope anchor. climber’s weight off the belayer’s harness.

Depending on the crag and the anchor If lowering is impractical (e.g: it could
arrangement, you may choose to belay damage the rope or it’s difficult to
from the top or the bottom. communicate when to stop being lowered),
the climber could abseil down instead. This
Belaying from the bottom: could be on the same rope, or a separate
- Makes it easier to switch between one.
climbing and belaying
- Makes communication clearer Plan logistics well before descending to
- Generally creates a more social setting avoid problems.
Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 137
Top-Roping: The Setup

Step 1
Find enough good gear
placements directly above
the route to make an
anchor.

Step 2
<60 °
Equalize them together
with slings, cordelettes or
a section of static rope to
Rope Protector
create a central point
which fulfils the criteria in
the anchor check list (see
page 128).

Remember that the anchor

will be out of sight and not
consistently weighted while
you are climbing. This
means you will have to
build it with gear that
cannot wiggle out of
position with movements in
the rope.

Step 3 Step 4 Step 5

Extend the central point Place a rope protector Clip the middle of the rope
over the edge of the crag, over any rough edges. to the central point with
if it isn't already. Static two screwgates. Make
rope is the best for this, An old piece of carpet, sure the screwgates are
but you can also use nylon foam pads or garden hose 'opposite and opposed'
slings or a thick cordelette. pipes (without metal lining) (they are facing opposite
make good rope ways and the screws twist
Make sure to double up protectors. downwards to fasten
the slings or static rope them).
which extend the anchor
over the edge.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Trad Anchors 138

Even if your anchor is bomber, extended If the anchor pieces are far back from the
and well padded, it is wise to check it edge of the crag, it may be better to use a
periodically if it is being used repeatedly. length of static rope to equalize and extend
the anchor over the edge of the crag.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 139

 Trad Climbing Basics
Ropework

Climb: Ricky Bell on Graffiti Limbo, Mountains of Mourne, Northern Ireland. Photographer: Craig Hiller
Belaying Techniques

Soft Catches
On steep routes, a ‘soft catch’ is a
common technique which makes the fall
much more comfortable for the leader and
stops them from slamming into the rock
when the rope gets tight.

The leader will fall further during a soft

catch, so make sure to only use this
technique on steep, overhanging routes
where you are certain the leader cannot hit
anything.

To soften a fall, belay with your knees bent.

Straighten them during a catch, allowing
the weight of the falling climber to pull you
upwards slightly. You could even take a However, there are many situations where
small hop just as the rope begins to pull a dynamic belay is unsafe; A lightweight
tight. belayer might be pulled upward into a roof
or a piece of gear which could disengage a
Considering that many micro cams and belay device, or the extra rope could cause
small nuts have breaking strengths of 6kN, the leader to hit a ledge or the ground.
a dynamic belay could make the difference
between your gear breaking or holding. Watch your partner carefully and learn to
recognize how much of a dynamic belay (if
any) is appropriate.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 141

Before the First Piece of Gear
Before the leader reaches the first piece of
gear you'll need to 'spot' them, just the
same as if they were bouldering.

Make sure to have enough slack rope for

them to clip their first piece.

Obviously this technique only works when

climbing off the ground (i.e: not from a
hanging belay on a multi-pitch)

Weight Differences
If the climber weighs more than the
belayer, a fall usually lifts the belayer into
the air, naturally softening the fall for the
climber.

However, if the climber weighs significantly

more, a fall could cause the belayer to
slam into the rock or be ‘sucked in’ to the
first piece of gear. There is a real danger of
losing control of the belay if this happens.

To combat this, the lightweight belayer can

anchor to the ground. This technique,
however, reduces the belayer’s ability to
move around the base of the route and
give a soft catch.
around and give a soft catch if needed, but
A good compromise is to attach to a not so much slack that you would be
ground anchor with enough slack to move sucked into the first piece of gear.
aaaaaa

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Ropework 142

Runout Routes
On sparsely protected ‘runout’ routes
where a fall onto a ledge or the ground is
possible, the belayer can run backwards
away from the route if the leader falls.

This takes rope out of the system far

quicker than pulling slack through a belay
device, which means the leader will fall less
distance.

Remember to keep both hands on the rope

in the locked-off position as you run back,
and look out for trip hazards.

It results in an uncomfortable, abrupt fall Routes like these, however, are best
and puts much more force on the gear. So avoided.
consider this before you move backwards.

Assisted-Braking Belay Devices

Assisted-braking belay devices (such as
the Petzl GriGri) are most commonly used
on bolted routes. However, they may also
be useful for some trad climbs.

Learn how to belay with a GriGri:

www.vdiffclimbing.com/grigri-belay

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 143

How to be a Better Belayer
Just as people pick up ‘bad habits’ after learnt the basics. Here are some tips to
they pass their driving test, climbers often keep your climbing partners alive.
get lazy with belaying once they have
eeeeeeeeeee

Don't Let Go of the Rope

Sounds obvious, but it's amazing how
many experienced climbers let go of the
brake rope for a brief moment while
belaying.

Letting go of the brake rope is like letting

go of the steering wheel while driving on a
fast country road. Avoid the temptation to
loosen or release your grip, even just for a
second.

Use your other hand to wave to friends, get

something out of your pocket or scratch
your butt. Or better yet, just wait until
you’ve finished belaying.

This is a common problem with assisted- The Bottom Line

braking belay devices, where people get Your partner's life is literally in your hands.
comfortable using them and forget that If they fall while your hand is loose or off
they do not always auto-lock. the rope, you probably won’t catch the fall.

Be Ready and Inform

Let the climber know about any dangers or You should stand in a 'ready' position, so
mistakes they are making. Look out for that if your climber falls or needs some
back-clips, if their leg is around the rope or help, you can react quickly to the situation.
if they should extend a quickdraw.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Ropework 144

Watch and Listen
Keep an eye on the climber so you can
brace yourself if they fall, or give slack at
the exact same time as they are clipping a
high piece of gear. If you can’t see the
climber, listen for commands from them
and watch for movements in the rope.

Pay special attention when the leader is

clipping the rope into a quickdraw. The
extra bit of slack you have out makes the
leader vulnerable to a longer fall if they slip
just before making the clip.

You cannot give complete attention to the

climber if you are talking to someone else.
Likewise, avoid starting a conversation with
someone who is belaying, and walk well
around them so you don’t compromise
their belay.

Keep an Appropriate Amount of Slack

When lead belaying, the rope should
always travel outwards and upwards from
your belay device to the first piece of gear.

Lazy belayers often give too much slack so

they can wait longer before having to deal
with the rope again.

This can be incredibly dangerous for the

leader. Take and give slack as your climber
moves to maintain the correct arc in your
rope.

When top rope belaying, keep the rope

fairly tight on the first few moves so the
climber doesn’t hit the ground if they fall.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 145

Close the System
If you are not certain how long a pitch is, or
how long your rope is, the belayer should
tie into the bottom end of the rope. This
‘closes’ the system.

When the climber is tied to one end, and

the belayer is tied to the other, it is
impossible to lower the climber off the end
of the rope.

Alternately, tie a knot in the free end of the

rope.

Communicate
Climbers in different countries often use give three sharp tugs on the rope to signal
slightly different climbing calls. Before you they are off belay. The belayer then gives
climb, make sure that you and your partner three sharp tugs back to let them know
are familiar with the same 'climbing they are about to be taken off belay.
language'.
The problem with this method is that it is
At a busy crag, the climber and belayer possible to mistake a leader’s jerky
should call each other by name. This movements or tugs for slack as the off-
confirms that any shouted commands are belay signal. If there’s rope drag it can be
actually meant for them. even more difficult to decipher these
movements in the rope.
You won’t always be able to see or hear
your partner very well. Shout the climbing Keep the climber on belay until you’re
commands loudly to be clear. certain they are safe. When you feel the
same signal repeated many times, you’ll
You and your partner should have a pre- know what the leader is trying to say.
arranged signalling system for situations
where you can’t hear each other. The Bottom Line
Never take someone off belay until you’re
One common method is for the leader to sure they are off.
tttttttt

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Ropework 146

Stay in Position
You should stand in a position fairly close
to the wall where you can take a few steps
forward or backward to give slack or take
in while still locked off. Don't sit down, lie
down, or face in the wrong direction.

If the climber is to the left of the first piece

of gear, you should stand to the right to
avoid being hit by rocks, dropped gear or
their feet.

Check
Make it a habit to check yourself and your
partner before each climb.

Rope runs through the

correct two points of harness

Waist belt and leg loop Correctly tied knot

buckles fastened

Stopper knot

Rope to
climber
(live rope)

Waist belt and leg loop

Screwgate
buckles fastened
fastened

Rope to ground Correctly set up

(brake rope) belay device

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 147

Half Ropes
Half ropes (also known as double ropes)
are thinner than normal 'single' ropes, and
are designed to be used as a pair.

Best Situations to Use Half Ropes

- When climbing a wandering route
- When climbing a long alpine route with an
involved descent

Advantages
- Rope drag is reduced on wandering
routes where the protection is not in a
straight line
- You have more options for protecting your Disadvantages
partner when they follow traversing - Involves more forward planning
pitches - More difficult to belay
- They double the length of abseil you can - It's possible to get into a situation where
make only one half rope would stop you from
- If one rope is cut on a sharp edge, you hitting the ground. They are not designed
still have the other to catch you to be used like this (This is explained on
page 152)

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Ropework 148

Half Ropes: Leading

Designate Your Ropes

Tie in to half ropes just as you would a
single, but with one rope on either side of
your belay loop.

The left rope will be used to clip gear on

the left side of the route, and the right rope
is for gear on the right.

Traversing
On a traversing route, it's best to have an When there are sections of down-climbing,
'upper' and a 'lower' rope. the second will often have worse fall
potential than the leader.
The upper rope can help protect the
second from taking an enormous sideways Plan ahead and place gear high on the
swing. upper rope to protect the second.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 149

Crossing Ropes
Beware of crossing the ropes as you clip It’s possible to trap one rope around a
gear. piece of gear, creating very bad rope drag.

Straight-Up Pitches
On a straight-up pitch, clip your half ropes never pull extra slack into the system when
alternately to each piece. This way, you clipping a high piece.
never rely too much on one rope and you
nnnnnnn

Belay Position
If there is a traverse to the belay, you can
protect the second better by building the
anchor above the middle of the traverse.

Building the anchor to one side could

create unnecessary fall potential for the
second.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Ropework 150

Half Ropes: Belaying

Belaying the Second

To belay with half ropes, you'll need an
'ATC style' belay device which has two
slots in it. You cannot use a GriGri.

You'll often need to take in or give slack on

one rope more than the other to keep the
ropes equally tight on your partner.

Simply go through the normal belaying

motion, but hold one rope tight while letting
the other slide through your hand.
Obviously, never let go of either rope.

Lead Belaying
Sometimes you'll need to feed out more
slack on one rope than the other, as the
climber pulls it up to clip.

Once they've clipped one rope higher than

the other, you'll need to take in that rope,
while giving out slack on the other.

This can be pretty tricky to do well and

takes some practise. It helps to keep the
two ropes separated in your hand above
the belay device. Remember to keep hold
of both of them together in your lower
hand.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 151

Half Ropes: Fall Ratings
Can You Fall on Just One Half Rope?
There's no simple answer to this. Half
ropes are designed to be used together
and are fall-tested by the UIAA with a
smaller falling mass than for a single rope.
The theory is that one rope will take most,
but not all, of the force in a fall.

In reality, all of the force goes on one rope

if you fall.

You should be very cautious of creating

situations where only one rope would hold
a large fall. This situation would also
reduce the redundancy that is inherent in
half ropes on complicated terrain, where
there is any risk of a rope being cut by a
sharp edge. The Statistics
For a single rope to pass UIAA testing, it
If you need to use half ropes 'separately' must hold five falls of 80kg at a fall factor of
(e.g. if you have to clip gear to one rope for 1.77. A half rope must hold the same five
the first half of a route and then use the falls at the same fall factor, but only with a
other rope for the last half) you should mass of 55kg.
consider using two single rated ropes
instead of a pair of halves. If half ropes are tested as single ropes
(with the full 80kg), most hold between one
It is also recommended to use two single and three falls before failing.
rated ropes (instead of two half ropes) if
you are climbing as a team of three. This means that half ropes are safe to fall
on individually. However, they shouldn't be
Some ropes are available that are rated as relied upon to hold massive whippers. If
both a single and a half rope; a perfect you were to take a large fall on one half
compromise! rope, you should retire that rope
afterwards.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Ropework 152

 Trad Climbing Basics
Descending

Climb: John Borland on Ancient Art, Fisher Towers, Utah. Photographer: Kelsey Gray. 153
Descending
After absorbing the view at the top of a Depending on the situation, you may
climb, it’s time to get down – safely. choose to walk off, downclimb an easy
Sometimes you must descend when tired, route or abseil (rappel). The least technical
in the dark or in a storm. descent is usually the best option.

Even when everything is fine, you still need However, if there are good fixed anchors, a
to concentrate. The climb isn’t over until quick abseil could be more convenient than
you’re down on the ground. a long walk around. Plan your descent
before climbing up.

Walking Off

When walking off is a common descent

method, there will usually be an
established trail back to the base.

If you have belayed from the edge of the

crag, make sure to stay safe while cleaning
the anchor. You may have to do a ‘mini
pitch’ in order to reach safe walking terrain.

If you want to carry regular shoes for the

descent, clip them to the back of your
harness. Many shoes have clip-in loops for
this. If you don’t have a loop, or it isn’t
strong enough, tie your laces together and
clip them on. Tie them as short as possible
to stop them dangling around as you climb.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 154

Downclimbing
Many descents involve some sections of to rope up or not.
downclimbing. This could be a simple two-
move step down onto a big ledge or a long, Never climb unroped on anything you’re
exposed traverse on loose rock. not absolutely certain about – remember
that it’s easy to get the rope out and belay
Depending on the terrain, you may choose or abseil a section.
ttttttt

Unroped Downclimbing
When scrambling down unroped, keep more experienced climber to go first to find
close together so all climbers are ready to the easiest line. They can also act as a
give assistance if needed. It’s better for the spotter for short, tricky sections.

Belayed Downclimbing
If there are no abseil anchors, or the The last climber must be careful as they
downclimbing follows a traverse, you can will downclimb above gear which they
belay each other down. didn’t place.

It’s better if the weaker climber descends If the downclimbing section is too difficult,
first. They place gear to protect the last consider leaving behind some gear and
climber while being belayed/lowered down. abseiling instead.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 155

Abseiling (Rappelling)
Abseiling (or rappelling) is a simple method You can walk down from the top of many
of descending ropes that gets you back to climbs, but if that isn't an option, you'll have
the ground quickly. to abseil.

Abseiling: Check the Anchor

In most situations, there will be a fixed
abseil point (such as two equalized bolts or
some slings around a tree). This anchor
must be bomber.

Check the bolts, webbing or cord carefully.

If the anchor fails, you will most likely die,
so be prepared to replace it.

A bolted abseil anchor should have two

bolts of 3/8” diameter or thicker, which are
well placed in solid rock. Inspect the rings
or maillions too. If they are rusty or have a
groove worn in them, consider backing
them up with carabiners.

Closely inspect anchors made with

webbing or cord, especially around the
back of the feature. Slings which have
been in place for years may be stiff or
faded – signs that they have been
severely weakened by ultraviolet radiation.

Animals sometimes chew webbing too, so

check thoroughly. If in doubt, add or
replace it with webbing, cord or slings of
your own.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 156

Some anchors in seldom-climbed areas
may be missing a ring or carabiner at the
central point. In this case, you’ll need to
add one of your own.

The rope should not run directly over nylon

slings or cord. Nylon on nylon generates
tremendous friction. When you pull your
ropes, they will cut into the abseil slings,
leaving them dangerously weak for the
next team.

For the same reason, you should never be

lowered from an anchor this way. Your rope
will probably cut through the slings before
you reach the ground.

Always make sure your ropes are attached

to the anchor with metal. Two carabiners
with gates opposite and opposed works
well.

Abseiling: Attaching to the Anchor

The entire climbing team should attach to
the anchor while rigging abseils. A
common way of doing this is to girth-hitch a
short sling through your belay loop and clip
it to the anchor with a screwgate.

To be extra safe, use two slings with

separate screwgates. This is especially
useful on bolted abseil anchors where the
two bolts aren't joined together – you can
attach one sling to each bolt.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 157

Abseiling: Tying Ropes Together
You can abseil with either one rope or two. through until the mid-point of the rope is at
Whichever you use, you'll need to get the the abseil point. Some ropes have a
middle of your total length of rope onto the 'middle marker' to make this easier.
anchor.
If you are using two ropes, you'll need to
If you're using one rope to abseil, feed one tie them together. A simple and safe way to
end through the abseil point. Then holding do this is to use the overhand knot
both rope ends together, pull the ropes described below.
……..

Step 1
Thread the end of one rope through the
anchor.

Then hold one end of each rope together

and make a loop at least 60cm from the
end.
60cm

Step 2
Put the ends through the loop to make an
overhand knot.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 158

Step 3
Pull each strand of rope very tight on either
side of the knot, making sure the knot is
neat.

Step 4
Back it up with another overhand knot
immediately next to it. Pull that tight too.

You should have at least 30cm of rope left

after the knots.

30c
m

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 159

Abseiling: Throwing Ropes
You should throw your ropes down in a way The following is a simple method of
that they are unlikely to get tangled reducing your chances of a stuck rope.
together or stuck on something.

Step 1
Tie knots (such as the triple barrel or
overhand) in the bottom end of both
strands of rope. This stops you from
accidentally abseiling off the end.

Step 2
Prepare to throw the ropes down. It's better
to do this one rope at a time.

Starting from the end, stack one rope in

coils over your arm.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 160

Step 3 Step 4
Shout ‘rope’ to anyone who may be in the Stack the other rope and throw it down in
area below. When you are certain that no- the same way.
one could get hit by your ropes, you can
throw them. If there are climbers below, either wait for
them to finish climbing, or ask them if you
Take the first half of the coils in one hand can slowly lower the ends of your ropes
and the second half in your other hand. down. This may cause your ropes to snag
Throw the second half of the coils down, on features, but will be much less
closely followed by the first. dangerous for the person leading up.

Did You Know?

It’s possible to abseil safely even if you
lose your abseil device.

Learn how:
www.vdiffclimbing.com/carabiner-brake

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 161

Abseiling: Attaching Belay Device
Step 1
Clip your belay device to your
belay loop with a screwgate
(don’t lock it yet).

Step 2
Pull up about a meter of both
strands of rope.

It will be heavy, so have your

partner hold the rope up, or
step on it to create slack so
it’s easier to clip in.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 162

Step 3
Push the ropes through your belay device,
making sure it is orientated the correct way
up.

Step 4
Clip both of the ropes and your belay
device through the screwgate carabiner
and fasten it.

You don't need to remove the screwgate

from your belay loop when doing this; you
are more likely to drop it if you do.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 163

Step 5
Lean into the anchor and pull any slack
rope through your belay device.

Then holding the ropes in the lock-off

position, sit back and apply your weight to
the belay device. This allows you to easily
check the setup.

Step 6
For most abseils, it's wise to backup with a
prusik knot. A correctly tied prusik will auto-
lock if you let go of the ropes.

Tie your prusik as shown on page 241.

Harness
Leg Loop

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 164

Abseiling: Check the System
Before you unclip your attachment point
from the anchor, check:

Solid Rope threaded through Correctly tied

anchor main point of anchor abseil knot

30
cm

Both ropes through Knots added

Prusik knot belay device to rope ends

Holding
both ropes
beneath
belay device

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 165

Abseiling: The Descent
Step 1
With one hand holding both ropes in the
lock-off position, unclip your sling from the
anchor and clip it out of the way on the
back of your harness.

Step 2
Put your second hand over the prusik. Your
hands should be in the same position as
they would to lower a climber while
belaying.

Belay Loop

Leg Loop

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 166

Step 3
While keeping a firm grip, lean your weight
back and allow some rope to go through
your belay device, remembering to slide
the prusik down as you go.

Continue feeding rope through as you

lower yourself down. You'll soon be able to
figure out how fast to feed the rope while
staying in control.

Step 4
Sit back in your harness and keep your
body in an L shape with your feet wide
apart. Walk backwards down the rock,
making sure to look behind to see where
you're going.

Move smoothly down the ropes. Don’t

bounce, jump or swing around – this puts
much more force on the anchor and is
likely to damage your ropes if they pass
over rough edges.

To abseil past a roof, plant your feet on the

lip and lower your body down. Once your
body is below the roof, cut your feet loose
to avoid hitting your head.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 167

Step 5
If you are the first in your group to abseil,
you may have to deal with tangles of rope
hung up on ledges, flakes or in bushes.

Always deal with tangles when still above

them. Lock off the rope with your prusik
and pull the rope up to unfasten the tangle
or flip the rope free of the snag.

When you're safely attached to the next

anchor (remember to inspect it first) or on
the ground, remove your belay device and
prusik and shout up to your partner that
you're 'off rope', so they can begin
abseiling.

Step 6
When everyone is down, you can retrieve
the ropes. Unfasten the knots from the
ends of the ropes and pull down on the
rope that you didn't thread through the
anchor.

Keep an eye on the other rope as you do

this to make sure it doesn't go up with a
mysterious auto-knot fastened in it.

When the ropes are about to fall down,

shout ‘rope’ to warn your partner(s). Be
aware that the falling rope may bring down
loose rock with it.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 168

Abseiling: The Fireman's Belay
If a less experienced climber is worried
they may not be able to control the abseil,
they can be given a fireman’s belay.

The more experienced climber descends

first, then holds the ropes while the other
climber descends. A simple pull on the
ropes will lock their device.

This is also useful if one climber has

forgotten their prusik – they can abseil last
with a fireman’s backup.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 169

Abseiling: The Extended Belay Device
Sometimes it can be useful to extend your
belay device with a sling before you abseil.

Advantages Disadvantages
- You can use a prusik with less chance of - Takes longer to set up.
it getting sucked into your belay device.
- Your prusik will be centred, making it
easier to use than if you attach it to a leg Best Situation to Use This Method
loop. If you don't know where the next abseil
- You can transition from abseiling to anchor is on a tricky multi-pitch descent.
ascending easily – useful if you abseil
too far on a multi-pitch descent. Learn
how:
www.vdiffclimbing.com/extend-atc

Extending with a 60cm Sling

Simply girth-hitch a 60cm sling through the
hard points of your harness (the same
points that your belay loop goes through)
and clip your belay device to this sling.

It's better to use thicker nylon slings rather

than thin Dyneema for extending your
belay device.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 170

Extending with a 120cm Sling
Alternatively, you can use a 120cm sling in
a similar way.

Feed the sling through the hard points of

your harness, tie an overhand knot in it and
then clip both ends of the sling to your
belay device.

Abseiling: Top Tips

- Look out for ledges, trees, chimneys or - Be aware of where your rope is (above
anything you might abseil into on your and below you). Make sure it isn't
descent. rubbing over loose rock or sharp edges.

- If your rope is stuck, stop just above it - You can only abseil half of the total
and allow your prusik knot to tighten. length of rope that you have, so keep
Make sure to keep hold of the ropes with this in mind before climbing up.
one hand while you untangle them.
- Be aware of rocks which may get
dislodged when you pull your ropes
down.

Abseiling Too Fast?

It’s easy to slow down your descent by
setting up an abseiling method with more
friction.

Learn more:
www.vdiffclimbing.com/increase-friction-abseil

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 171

Retreating
Sometimes, a climb may prove to be too When deciding on which pieces or how
difficult, forcing you to retreat. This is fairly many to leave behind, remember that the
straightforward if you are less than half a cost of climbing gear is far less than the
rope length up a pitch or if you can cost of being seriously injured.
downclimb.
Make sure your lower-off gear is bomber
If you have bomber protection, simply and worry about replacing it later.
lower back down to the belay. If the pitch
traversed a long way, you may have to Your partner may want to take over the
downclimb all the way back to the belay. lead and finish the pitch, or it may be
possible to abseil in from the top to retrieve
Another alternative is to build a belay and your gear.
abseil down, leaving the belay gear behind.

Climb: Torre Norte, Torres Del Paine, Patagonia. Photographer: VDiff Collection 172
Retreating: Troubleshooting
Epic retreats often involve ropes which are
stuck, damaged or both. But don't worry –
you can still get down safely.

Learn how to prevent stuck ropes:

www.vdiffclimbing.com/stuck-ropes

Learn how to abseil with a damaged rope:

www.vdiffclimbing.com/damaged-rope-abseil

Learn how to abseil past a knot:

www.vdiffclimbing.com/abseil-past-knot

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 173

 Trad Climbing Basics
Multi-Pitch Climbing

Climb: Maria Parkes in Turkey Rocks, Colorado. Photographer: Keiko Tanaka. 174
Multi-Pitch Climbing
A multi-pitch route is one that is split into route-finding, rope management and (often)
two or more pitches. abseiling down after you reach the top.

This may be because it is longer than your Due to the length and complexity of multi-
rope. Or it could be a wandering route that pitch routes, you should develop your
would involve a lot of rope drag if climbed problem solving and self-rescue skills
as a single pitch. before embarking on this kind of adventure.

Multi-pitch climbing combines many skills: Learn more about problem solving:
placing gear on lead, building belays, www.vdiffclimbing.com/trad
ooooooo

Multi-Pitch: What to Bring

On long multi-pitches, it's wise to bring the
following gear in addition to everything you
would normally take on a single pitch.

Extra Climbing Gear

You’ll need two anchor kits for a multi-pitch
route. Make sure you bring:
- Two cordelettes/ long slings
- At least six screwgates
- Two belay devices

If the descent from your route involves

abseiling, make sure to bring ATC style
belay devices and prusik cords.

Food and Water

If your multi-pitch is likely to take more than
a few hours, consider bringing food and
water to snack on at the belays.

Many routes have luxury belay ledges, so if

you're not in a rush, why not have a
vertical picnic?

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 175

Clothes Route Description
Any comfortable all-cotton clothes will On a single pitch, it's easy to remember
suffice for single pitch cragging, especially where to climb. However, on a multi-pitch
venues with a short approach. For multi- you may have forgotten the details by pitch
pitch routes, or for any climbs with a long six.
approach, wearing synthetic clothing is a
better choice. Synthetics insulate much Bringing the whole guidebook is a bit
better than cotton in wet or cold excessive. But a route description (or topo),
environments. neatly folded in your pocket, will help show
you the way.
If you expect cold temperatures, bring a
pair of gloves so you can belay with warm Another option is to take photos of the topo
hands and then take them off to climb. A on your phone. Make sure you don’t run
thin hat that fits under your helmet is a very out of battery though.
lightweight way of keeping you warm too. If
the descent is long, it's nice to bring a Take descriptions from adjoining routes
comfy pair of shoes. too, as this can help you figure out where
you are.
A warm/waterproof jacket, or even a thin
wind-proof layer, can make multi-pitches
more comfortable when it gets windy and
the sun disappears, especially for the
belayer.

Down jackets are a poor choice unless

you’re climbing in dry climates below
freezing. Most down jackets will repel a
small amount of moisture, but the feathers
will clump together in a storm and you’ll
freeze. They also tend to rip very easily on
rock.

First Aid Kit

A small first aid kit can be useful, along with
a pocket knife for cutting anchor webbing
or stuck ropes. Make sure the knife has a
folding blade which is impossible to
accidentally open when attached to your
harness.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch Climbing 176

Headlamp Backpack
Headlamps are essential on long multi- All this stuff can be put into a small
pitches. Finishing a climb, or trying to backpack and carried by the second.
descend in the dark can be incredibly
difficult and dangerous. Alternatively, the load can be split between
climbers so neither climber has a
If you take spare batteries, tape them particularly heavy bag.
together in the correct orientation, so you
can just plug the whole block in at once. Depending on the route and your tolerance
of suffering, you may not need any of it.
This also means you won’t have random
batteries floating around your bag and no For routes that are difficult to return to the
idea if they are full or empty. base, you'll need to bring everything. Plan
before you go.

We All Make Mistakes...

The VDiff team once got stuck 200 meters
up a multi-pitch in the dark with no food,
water, jackets or headlamps. It was a long,
cold night.

Read the full story here:

www.vdiffclimbing.com/headlamp

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 177

Multi-Pitch Anchors
If the leader falls on a single pitch route,
the belayer is often pulled up off the ground
when they hold the fall.

On a multi-pitch, the belayer would instead

be pulled out of position.

This could potentially pull out part, or all, of

the anchor if it was built to only hold a
downwards force.

For this reason, you should build multi-pitch

anchors with both an upwards and a
downwards pulling aspect.

If the last pitch traverses into the belay or

the next pitch traverses away from it, the
anchors could get loaded with a sideways
pull. Build the anchor to be strong in any
conceivable direction of pull.

If the best upward-pulling gear is just below

the downward-pulling anchor pieces, you
can incorporate it into the anchor with
some cordelette craft to make it multi-
directional.

There are many variations to this. One is to

tie clovehitches on the lower two pieces as
shown.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch Climbing 178

Multi-Pitch Belay Changeovers
Efficient belay changeovers will speed up Swinging leads is the most efficient. The
your ascent, making you less likely to get rope is already stacked with the new
benighted or stranded in a storm. leader’s end on top and the gear from the
previous pitch will be racked on their
Sometimes the more experienced climber harness.
will lead every pitch. Other times, each
climber will choose which pitches they It’s much more efficient if both climbers
prefer. can go hands-free during the changeover.

A common tactic is to swing leads (lead How you do this depends on who will lead
alternate pitches). Be aware that easier the next pitch. Two methods are described
pitches may be runout. below.

Method 1 – Tie-Off Your Belay Device

If alternating leads, the easiest method is
to tie-off your belay device (see page 107).

When the leader is ready to climb, simply

unfasten the knot and they will be on belay
immediately. This works well if there is a
small ledge to stand on. If not, you may
prefer to choose method two.

Method 2 – Attach to the Central Point

If the same person is leading every pitch,
the second will have to attach to the central
point, in the same way as the leader.

Use separate screwgates to attach the Leader Second

second's rope to the central point(s). When
they are attached, they can be taken off
belay.

The leader will need to be put on belay

before they detach from the anchor.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 179

Leaving the Belay
It's a good idea for the leader to clip a high
point of the belay as their first piece of
gear. This eliminates the chance of a factor
two fall.

It's also much easier for the belayer to hold

a fall this way.

You can reduce the fall factor further by Fall Factor = 0.66 Fall Factor = 0.33
extending the belayer's anchor
attachment. 3m 2m 6m 2m

This puts less force on the first pieces of

gear if the climber falls.

Where to Belay
Recommended belay stations will be When looking for a belay, choose a place
described in the guidebook. You don’t have which:
to belay there, but they are usually the best - Has cracks for solid gear placements
spots. - Has protection from rockfall (especially if
there are climbers above)
Experienced climbers often stretch pitches - Does not cause the rope to run across
to the full rope length to reduce the number loose rocks
of belay changeovers and therefore speed - Allows communication between partners
the climb up. - Provides a comfortable stance for
belaying, if possible
Teams with an inexperienced partner may
do shorter pitches so they can
communicate more clearly.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch Climbing 180

Hanging Belays
If there is no belay ledge, you will have to The key points are making sure the anchor
create a hanging belay. Try to create this in is bomber and having the central point at
a place which at least has some good chest level or higher so you can lean out
footholds. comfortably.

It can be unnerving at your first few For long belays, keep moving your feet
hanging belays, because you must around to stop your legs from going numb,
completely trust your anchor and lean all or stand in a sling to get the weight on your
your weight on it. feet if there are no footholds.

Rope Management
Stacking or coiling the rope neatly so it
doesn’t tangle is important on multi-pitches.

If the belay ledge has a flat area, simply

stack the rope onto it in a place where it
won’t slide off.

If there isn’t a suitable belay stance to put

the rope, you can stack it in neat coils
across the rope which goes between your
harness and the anchor (lap coils).

Alternatively, stack it through a sling. Either

way, the first coils should be the longest,
with progressively smaller coils added on
top. This ensures the rope feeds out well on
the next pitch.

If it is windy or there are bushes or loose

rock below you, make sure to keep the coils
short enough so they don’t get stuck.

If climbing with half ropes, treat them as one

rope and stack them together in the same
way.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 181

Time Budget
Make a realistic estimate of how long the Break the climb down into pitches and
route might take. figure out how long each one will take.
Remember to add time for approaching
Figure out what time you need to have and descending the route and for belay
finished the route (to avoid thunderstorms changeovers.
or darkness etc..) and then work
backwards from there. Be conservative with your estimations –
it’s much easier to lose time than gain it.

Retreat Options
As part of your time budget, it’s smart to time, or places where you could easily
figure out places where you can switch to descend without leaving most of your rack
an easier route if you are running low on behind.
ttttttttt

Climb: Endgame, Cochise Stronghold, Arizona, USA. Photographer: Radek Chalupa. 182
Teams of Three

In most situations, a pair of climbers is help carry the gear and lead some of the
faster than a team of three. But having harder pitches.
someone to chat with at the belay makes
climbing as a three more social. There are many ways to connect three
climbers to the rope. Two popular methods
It also means you have an extra person to are described here.
ccccc

Caterpillar Style
Step 1
The leader climbs a pitch with one rope.

Step 2
The second climber follows on that rope,
but trails another rope (Both ropes are tied
into the harness tie-in points).

The second climber unclips the gear from

the first rope and clips it to the second rope
beneath them.

This ensures the third climber is protected

from a swinging fall if the pitch traverses. If
the pitch is straight up, the second climber
could remove the gear.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 183

Step 3
When the second climber has reached the
belay, the third climber starts up.

The third climber removes the gear as they

follow on the second rope.

Double Rope Style

Note: This technique is often employed
with half ropes. However, half ropes are not
designed to be used individually when
following a pitch. For this reason, it is
recommended to use two single rated
ropes instead.

Step 1
The leader climbs with both ropes. They
clip gear alternately to each rope.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch Climbing 184

Step 2
The second and third climbers follow,
keeping around 5 meters apart from each
other, while the leader belays them both at
the same time.

It is highly recommended to belay with an

auto-blocking belay device directly from the
anchor, such as an ATC in guide mode.

When communicating, finish the command

with the rope colour, so the belayer knows
which rope you mean (e.g: slack on red
rope).

Common Mistake
Clipping both ropes into a carabiner
causes the ropes to rub against each other
if a climber falls while leading or following.

This could damage your rope or even cut

through the sheath.

It also reduces the ropes impact absorbing

capabilities, and therefore puts a lot more
force on the gear. This makes the gear less
likely to hold the fall.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 185

If you need to clip both ropes to a piece of
gear (e.g: to protect both followers on a
traverse), use two quickdraws of different
lengths as shown.

These quickdraws are then removed by the

third climber.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch Climbing 186

Multi-Pitch Abseils

Attaching to the Anchor

After abseiling, attach to the next anchor as
described on page 157.

For bolted anchors, make sure to attach to

both bolts independently.

If there is only space for one

climber to attach, the other
climber can clip directly into
their partner’s screwgates as
shown.

However, this means that the

climber who descended last
must descend first on the next
abseil.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 187

Removing Your Belay Device
Once securely attached to the next anchor,
you can remove your belay device as
follows:

Step 1
Unfasten the screwgate. Unclip the
device’s cable and both ropes from it.

Step 2
Re-clip the cable. This ensures that you
can’t drop it.

Step 3
Pull the ropes out of the device.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch Climbing 188

Threading Ropes
Thread the rope through the next anchor
and tie a stopper knot in it before you pull it
down.

Tie the stopper knot big enough so that it

cannot fit through the main abseil point.
This ensures that you cannot lose your
ropes.

Alternatively, tie the rope to yourself so it

cannot be dropped.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 189

 Trad Climbing Basics:
Technique: Face Climbing

Climb: Flying Buttress Direct, Stanage, Peak District, England. Photographer: Jamie Moss 190
Technique: Introduction

This chapter introduces the most common Brightly coloured holds in a gym are
foot, hand and body positions used in rock obvious to find, but they are much more
climbing. subtle on rock. Often a foothold is just a
slightly lower angled dimple, or a series of
How you grip handholds or stand on tiny edges that require precise foot
footholds depends on their shape, size and positioning.
position.
Finding holds will get easier once you’ve
How you position your body depends on learnt to ‘read’ real rock. With practise,
the location of these holds and the angle of you’ll be able to use the holds quickly and
the rock. efficiently.

Practising in a climbing gym builds Watching experienced climbers or hiring a

strength, endurance, flexibility and climbing coach will help. But ultimately,
technique, but to climb well on real rock, improving your climbing movement
you’ll need to climb on real rock. requires plenty of real rock practise.

Climb: Bad Attitude, Dumbarton Rock, Scotland. Photographer: Fraser Harle 191
Technique: Footwork
Beginner climbers often concentrate on Having good footwork takes an enormous
looking upwards for something to grab with strain off your arms, making the climb
their hands, forgetting to look down for much easier. There are basically three
footholds. ways of using footholds; smearing, edging
and hooking.

Climb: Nick Kazlowski on Far Out, Bogas Cave, Central Coast, Australia. Photographer: Tim Haasnoot
Smearing
Smearing is a technique used to stand on
poorly-defined, sloping features. The aim is
to have as much surface contact between
the sole of your shoe and the rock as
possible, therefore maximising friction.

Focus on pushing your foot against the

rock with your weight concentrated over
your big toe.

Over time you will develop the ability to find

tiny irregularities in the rock. Smearing on a
dimple which is just a couple of degrees
lower in angle can make a big difference.

Keep a high heel if smearing on small

scoops. This keeps the pressure on the
front of your foot.

Keep a low heel if smearing on a uniform

slope. This gives more shoe-to-rock
surface contact and therefore more friction.
It also puts your calf muscles in a more
relaxed position.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 193

Edging
Edging means placing the very edge of
your shoe on a pronounced edge of rock.
Although any part of the shoe can be used
to edge, you normally do so with the inside
front part of the shoe, beneath the big toe.

With a good edge on vertical or

overhanging terrain, you can pull in with
your toe as well as push down. This moves
your lower body closer to the wall and
reduces the strain on your arms by keeping
more weight on your feet.

For tiny pockets and edges, you can edge

on the front point of the shoe. This
positions you neutrally so you can turn your
body in either direction for the next move. It
also gives you a little extra reach if you
stand up on your tiptoe.

For techniques such as back-stepping, it is

necessary to use the outside of the shoe
(normally beneath the base of your little
toe) to edge.

The outside edge is also useful when

stepping past your other foot on a traverse.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Face Climbing 194
Heel and Toe Hooking
Heel hooking is the technique of using the
foot as a ‘third hand’.

By hooking your heel over a flake or edge,

you are able to pull with your leg. This
allows you to move more fluidly and
controlled through what would otherwise
require a ‘dyno’.

On overhanging terrain, a crafty heel hook

often helps to pull you into the rock, stops
you from swinging out and provides extra
reach.

You can also employ a toe hook in a

similar way to a heel hook.

A ‘foot cam’ can work in the same way too.

Be aware that you may break your ankle if
you fall with your foot in a really good heel-
toe lock.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 195

Footwork Tips
* When you step from the ground to the * When you’ve found the best hold,
rock, make sure to wipe the dirt and gravel visualize how your foot will be positioned
from the soles of your shoes. on it. Don’t move your foot until you know
exactly where it’s going.
* With marginal smears or edges, it is
important to keep your foot in the exact * Push your feet in opposite directions
same position while your body moves up. (stemming) to keep the weight off your
Use your ankle as a hinge to absorb your arms.
movements. Any disruption to your foot
position will probably cause you to slip off. * If you’re not sure whether to edge or
smear, remember that you can smear an
* To minimize strain on your upper body, edge, but you can’t edge a smear.
use foot holds which are directly beneath
your hands.

Climb: Ha Chiamato Kubista, Cinque Torri, Italy. Photographer: James Rushforth 196
Technique: Handholds
The weight on your arms increases as the The challenge, therefore, is to use the
rock gets steeper and the footholds get lightest possible grip to make each move.
smaller.
There are endless ways of gripping holds,
Beginners often ‘over grip’ the rock and but four basic types are described on the
burn out their forearms too soon, making it following pages.
impossible to hold onto anything.

Climb: Manny Rangel at South Mountain, Phoenix, Arizona. Photographer: Chris Fox 197
The Crimp
Crimping works best when the thumb is
held over the index finger. This ‘closes’ the
crimp and makes the position stronger.
This is because your thumb is much
stronger than your fingers in this position.

If the hold is too small to fit all your fingers,

give priority to the middle finger (the
strongest), followed by the ring finger, the
index and finally the pinky.

Be careful when crimping sharp edges. If

you slip off suddenly, you’ll probably slice
your fingertips.

The Open Grip

The open grip is mainly used to hold onto
large or rounded features. Search for the
best position on the hold and then pull.

If the hold isn’t incut, you will rely on friction

between your hands and the rock to hold
on. For this reason, having more surface
contact gives you more grip.

An open grip on sloping holds works in a

similar way to your shoe when smearing.

In the long term, the open grip puts less

strain on the joints and tendons than
crimping.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Face Climbing 198
The Pinch
You pinch a hold in the same way as a
crab pinches it’s claws.

An effective use of the technique is to

pinch a hold between your thumb and the
side of your index finger.

Pockets
To hold onto a pocket, you essentially use
an open hand or crimp but with less
fingers.

If you can fit two fingers in the pocket, it’s

often better to use the middle and ring
fingers, rather than a middle and index
finger combo. This balances the load on
your fingers much better.

If the pocket is only big enough for one

finger, your middle finger will be strongest.

Be careful - the edges of pockets are often

sharp. When you pull hard on a pocket,
you are effectively grinding your finger
tendons over that sharp edge. A common ligaments in the fingers due to excessive
injury is to strain or break the delicate crimping and pocket pulling.
lllllllllllllll

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 199

Technique: Other Common Moves

Sidepull
It’s impossible to pull straight down on a
vertical crimp. Instead, these types of holds
are used as sidepulls.

Lean from the sidepull and use your feet to

oppose the force. This counter-pressure
keeps you in balance while you use your
legs for upward progress. Sidepulls often
give you more reach than a horizontal hold.

You can sometimes turn a sidepull into a

pinch if there is a catch for your thumb.
This will create more inward pulling power
if you need it.

Gaston
A gaston is the opposite of a sidepull. It is a
way of using a vertical crimp which is
directly in front of your face or chest.

Push outwards on the hold with your elbow

pointing away from your body.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Face Climbing 200
Palming and Stemming
Palming is similar to an open grip but you
use your palm instead of your fingers. You
can push yourself into a corner by palming
on both sides of it.

To stem, smear your feet on either side of

the corner. The opposing pressure of
pushing inwards with your hands and feet
keeps you in balance.

Stemming in the slightest corner can

provide your arms with a great rest.

Underclings
Underclinging relies on the counter-
pressure between your hand pulling out
from the hold and your feet pressing onto
the rock.

This technique is often used to keep a

climber in balance while searching for a
better hold above.

On consecutive undercling moves, such as

traversing under a flake, try to use
footholds as much as possible and keep
your arms straight. This takes the strain off
your arms.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 201

Mantling
Mantling is the technique of surmounting a swimming pool without using the stairs).
ledge when there are no holds above it to The following is a common mantling
help with this (imagine getting out of a method, though many variations exist.
ssssss

Step 1 – Step High

A high, well-placed foot is the foundation of
the mantle. With your hands on the ledge,
walk your feet up to the highest possible
foothold. You may even be able to heel
hook the ledge.

Step 2 – Pull and Press

Pull up and switch your hands to a palm
down press. Search above the ledge for
any hand holds. Leaning forward and
pulling yourself in with one hand makes the
next step easier.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Face Climbing 202
Step 3 – Foot Up
If your foot isn’t already on the ledge, you
can probably put it there now.

You may have to shuffle your hands to

make space for your foot.

Step 4 – Rock Over

Shift the weight onto your high foot and
stand up.

Try to avoid using the knee, as this will

make it more difficult to stand up.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 203

Dynamic Moves
‘Dynos’ are probably the most spectacular
climbing move. It is a way of using
momentum to reach between distant hand
holds.

It is almost always more efficient to move

statically between holds, but if a hold is too
far away, a dyno may be the only way.

Get your feet up high and focus on the

hold. Push up with your legs and pull with
your arms. Move your hand quickly
towards the hold. Grab onto the hold when
your body reaches its apex.

A dyno is much easier if you can keep your

feet on the footholds. This way, most of cannot be sure how good the hold is until
your weight is still on your feet when you you’ve committed. And committing is the
grab the hold. most important part of the dyno. If you
make a half-hearted attempt, you’ll be
The disadvantage of dynoing is that you unlikely to stick the hold.
cccccccc

Core Strength
Your core is the area between your lower out from the rock, butt first.
chest and your mid-thighs. Engaging the
core while climbing keeps you in control. Think of your core as something which
dictates the movements of your arms,
Without a tight core, you are likely to ‘sag’ rather than something which you are
beneath your arms, causing you to lean simply dragging up the crag.
ooooo

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Face Climbing 204
Technique: Rock Steepness

Slab Climbing
Climbing slabs (rock which is less than surface contact beneath your palms and
vertical) requires less strength and more feet.
balance than steeper angles of rock.
Small steps are generally more efficient.
Your body should remain in the same High steps tend to disrupt the delicate
upright position as when you’re walking. balance needed to stop you from sliding
With gravity forcing the weight onto your off.
shoes, you have more friction on the rock.
On sustained slab climbs, where most of
Essentially, you will hold onto features for your weight is on your feet, it’s common to
balance while pushing up with your legs. get ‘calf pump’ or ‘disco leg’. Make use of
any good footholds by standing with your
Friction slabs are generally devoid of any heel on the hold and your leg straight, so
positive features to crimp or edge on. To that your center of gravity is over your heel.
climb a friction slab, you must rely on the
ssssss

Climb: Patrick Deacon on The Marmolada, Italy. Photographer: James Rushforth 205
Vertical Rock
It is invariably more strenuous on the arms known as back-stepping. It allows you to
to climb a vertical rock than it is to climb a use footholds on either side of your body
slab of the same grade. with either foot.

It’s much more efficient to keep the weight Take advantage of any rests. Opposing
off your arms as much as you can. This is your feet against each other across a
done by pushing your hips and chest close corner (stemming) allows you to keep the
to the wall and by using the minimum weight off your arms.
amount of energy to complete each move
as possible. If you can’t get a two-hands rest, then
alternately shake out your arms when you
Remember that your feet provide the find a good handhold.
upwards thrust, while your hands primarily
pull you into the rock. It’s often better to do a series of small
moves, instead of a long one. Being
Keep your hips perpendicular to the rock stretched out tends to disrupt your balance
by standing on the inside edge of one foot and often makes the next move more
and the outside edge of another. This is strenuous.
kkkkkkk

Climb: Lynne Hempton on Mondviole, Frea, Italy. Photographer: James Rushforth 206
Overhanging Routes
To climb efficiently on overhanging rock, As with other angles of rock, it is more
you need to keep your hips close to the efficient to pull yourself into the rock with
rock and your arms straight whenever your arms and push yourself up with your
possible. Bent arms will tire out much legs.
faster.
This is much more physically demanding
One way to do this is to use the dropknee. on steep routes, but even the poorest
Place the outside edge of your shoe on a footholds will help ease the strain on your
hold and twist your knee downward. Be arms and give you something to push from.
careful though, dropknees put a lot of
tension on the ligaments in your knee.

Climb: Jason Piper on Into the Blue, Mt Ettalong, Australia. Photographer: Chris Fox 207
Technique: Summary
Climbing is like a dance. The aim is to soon begin to develop your own style and
choreograph these different types of holds move on to more advanced techniques.
and moves into one fluid movement.
After climbing each route, review the
It is much more efficient and enjoyable to techniques that you used. Ask yourself
move up fluidly, methodically and in what worked, what didn’t and what you
balance. Frantic, jerky movements are could do to climb the route more efficiently.
clumsy and will tire you out faster.
Practise makes perfect!
Once this becomes second nature, you will
nnnnn

Climb: Martin McKenna on Artemisia, Italy. Photographer: James Rushforth 208

 Trad Climbing Basics
Technique: Crack Climbing

Climb: Danny Guestrin on Sister Morphine, Mount Nemo, Ontario. Photographer: James Rosselet.
Crack Climbing
Cracks are often very striking lines. It’s no Jamming your hands and feet into cracks
surprise that many classic routes follow can be difficult (and painful) at first, but
crack systems. great fun once you learn the techniques.

Some climbs have short crack sections This chapter covers jams from fingertip
which offer the security of a solid jam and width to full body chimneys, as well as
the sanctuary of good gear. On other recommended clothing.
routes, a crack may be the only climbable
feature up an otherwise blank face. Techniques are listed in size order, but the
actual measurements of cracks are not
Since most trad gear is designed to work in given as this depends on how big your
cracks, there is usually an abundance of hands are. A climber with big hands may
bomber gear on crack climbs, making them get a finger lock in the same place that a
great routes for learning the art of placing small-handed climber gets a perfect hand
trad protection. jam.

Climb: Matt Blank in Indian Creek, Utah, USA. Photographer: VDiff Collection. 210
Dress for the Occasion

Clothing
For off-widths or chimneys, you’ll benefit socks under their shoes and tuck their pant
from long sleeves and long canvas pants. legs in to them.

Don’t wear your best clothes though – How much you cover up depends on the
they’ll get scraped up. Some climbers wear coarseness of the rock, how long the crack
is, and how good your technique is.

Shoes
Comfortable shoes which keep your toes you’ll benefit from wearing socks or taping
straight are best for most cracks. Torquing your ankles (or both) if you plan to climb
your feet into a crack when wearing tight anything wider than a fist crack.
fitting bouldering shoes is very painful!
For pure off-widths, you may be better with
A high-cut shoe will save your ankle skin some sticky rubber approach shoes
on wider cracks. If you have low-cut shoes, instead.

Gloves
Some climbing companies make rubber Rubber gloves are useful if you plan to do
gloves for crack climbing. a lot of crack climbing.

Made from the same sticky rubber as However, a cheaper alternative for the
climbing shoes, they are designed to recreational crack climber is to make your
protect your hands from the harsh own tape gloves using a roll of 1.5” wide
demands of crack climbing on coarse rock. athletic tape.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 211

Making Tape Gloves
There are many different ways to make More tape is better for wider cracks,
tape gloves. whereas thinner cracks require less.

The method described below provides a For routes which only have short crack
durable glove which protects well, but it sections, you’re probably better off without
covers the palm, which may make face gloves.
climbing a little more awkward.

Step 1
Starting on your palm, wrap the tape
around your hand twice as shown.

Spread your fingers wide so you don’t

make the glove too tight.

Step 2
Using thinner strips (split the tape in half),
wrap loops around each finger and your
thumb.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Crack Climbing 212
Step 3
Repeat step 1, but continue wrapping tape
down to your wrist.

When you’ve finished climbing, cut the You can now re-use the gloves by adding a
tape on the inside of your wrist and peel wrap around the wrist to hold them on.
the glove off (shave your hands if Some climbers also use spray adhesive to
necessary to make this less painful). help re-used gloves stick.

Taping up for the climb. Photographer: Fraser Harle 213

Finger Cracks

There are three techniques of climbing When the crack is too wide for a finger jam
finger cracks: but not wide enough for a hand jam, you’ll
- Finger locking have to resort to more strenuous and often
- Finger jamming painful 'off-fingers' alternatives; thumb
- Liebacking stacking and thumb camming.

Finger Locks
When there is a constriction in a crack
which accepts your fingers up to the
second or third knuckle, a finger lock can
be very secure.

Just slot your fingers in and pull down. The

further your fingers go in, the better the
lock.

Try locking with your thumb either up or

down for the best fit.

Finger Jams
If there are no constrictions for finger locks, into the crack and rotate your elbow down
you can use the more strenuous finger jam to torque your fingers into the crack.
instead.
This creates opposing pressure which jams
With the thumb down, insert all your fingers your fingers in place.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Crack Climbing 214
Liebacking
If you can’t jam or lock, liebacking might
get you through a few moves. Treat the
crack as one long sidepull and lean from it
while opposing the pressure with your feet.

This works best on corner cracks, but also

works well on offset cracks (where the rock
protrudes further out on one side – like a
mini corner).

If the crack is more incut on one side than

the other, use the more incut side for a
better handhold.

If there are footholds, you may be able to

switch to stemming to get a good rest. Be
careful though – it’s hard to place gear
when liebacking as you cannot see inside
the crack.

Fingertips Cracks
These cracks accept only the tips of your able to slot a pinky finger in and smear or
fingers. Super thin cracks are often difficult edge your feet off the crack.
to protect as well as climb.
Sometimes you will use the crack purely for
Look out for constrictions that you may be protection and climb on face holds around
ooooooo it.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 215

Thumb Stacks
To thumb stack, put your thumb in the
crack first, then wrap your index and
middle fingers over the top. As you pull
down and drop your elbow, the thumb stack
torques into the crack.

To fine-tune the jam, vary the number of

fingers you place over your thumb and the
depth they go into the crack.

Thumb Cams
To thumb cam, put your fingers against one
side of the crack with your thumb down and
push your thumb against the other side.

This puts a lot of pressure on your thumb

joints – be careful of dislocating it.

In corners, this only works with one hand,

since the thumb is in the wrong position on
the other hand.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Crack Climbing 216
Finger Crack Footwork
Footwork is often difficult in finger and off- Look out for wider spots or constrictions
finger cracks because they can be too where you can get more purchase with
narrow to get your foot into. Often you will your feet.
only be able to get the tip of your toe in.

Finger Crack Sequence

The crux of many finger cracks is finding Constrictions make the best holds in finger
the most efficient sequence. This is mostly cracks, but they also provide the best gear.
determined by the location of finger locks, If it is safe to do so, it can be better to use
face holds and footholds. the finger lock first, then place gear in it at
waist level.
You may need to shuffle your feet up
before moving your hands, or maybe you’ll It’ll make the climb much harder if you fill all
need to do a few finger locks before the best finger locks with gear before using
moving a foot up. them.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 217

Hand Cracks

At first, hand cracks are insecure and

painful on the hands and feet. But with
practise, a good hand jam is better than
any jug and a foot jam is as good as
standing on a ledge.

Put your hand in the crack, either thumb up

or down, and fold your thumb across your
palm. This expands your hand and jams it
in place.

As with other types of jam, look for

constrictions and slot your hand in just
above to make the jam less strenuous and
more secure.

Thin Hands
For thin hand cracks, push your hand in as
far as it will go and press your fingers
against the crack.

Your hand is jammed in position because

of the opposing pressure between your
finger tips and knuckles. It’s better if you
can get a thumb in to help too.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Crack Climbing 218
Wide Hands
For wide hand cracks, you can either cam
or cup your hand.

To cam, twist a hand jam so your thumb

goes further into the crack. This puts your
hand in a position which is half a hand jam
and half a fist jam.

For cupped hands, make a wide hand jam

and hook your thumb over your index
finger if you can.

The base of your palm and fingertips press

against one side of the crack, while your
knuckles push against the other.

You can twist this to combine the cupped

and cammed hand jam for more holding
power.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 219

Hand Crack Footwork
To jam your feet, slip your foot halfway into Then torque it in by pushing your big toe
the crack with the big toe up. down.

Hand Crack Sequence

To move fast on a straight-in hand crack, You will generally get more reach if the
jam with your thumbs up and ‘windmill’ your leading hand is thumbs down and the
arms – reach through with each jam, right following hand is thumbs up. Set a high
over left then left over right. Walk your feet jam, bring your lower hand up just beneath
up in the same pattern. it, then move your feet up and repeat.

If the crack is awkward, diagonal or in a On diagonal cracks, you will normally keep
corner, it is usually better to have a leading in balance better by having one foot in the
hand and a following hand – so you never crack while the other smears on the face.
reach through.

Climb: Lucy Creamer in The Peak District, England. Photographer: Jamie Moss 220
Fist Cracks

If you twist a hand jam further around it

becomes a fist jam. Your thumb knuckles
and outside edge of your index finger will
press against one side of the crack while
the outside edge of your pinky finger
presses against the other side of the crack.

You can fist jam with your palms facing in

or out, though facing out makes it easier to
move up on straightforward fist cracks.

If the crack leans or is in a corner, try

having your leading fist palm in and your
lower fist palm out. As with hand jams, set
a high jam, bring your lower hand up just
beneath it, then move your feet up and
repeat.

Fist Crack Footwork

Unless your feet are particularly narrow, fist Torque them in just as you would for a
cracks make great footholds. hand crack.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 221

Off-Width Cracks

Wide cracks are often regarded as more Learning the following skills takes
work than fun. Although they do require a dedication – be prepared to lose some
lot of effort and grovelling, the challenge skin in the process.
provides a satisfying reward.

Off-Width Sequence
The general off-width sequence is: Which wedging technique you use for your
- Get your feet wedged in the crack feet and upper body depends on the size
- Push your upper body up and wedge it in of the crack.
- Move your feet up
- Repeat Off-widths often change size so you’ll need
to use a variety of techniques.

Off-Width Footwork
Foot Cam
Slide your upper foot into the crack and
twist the ball of your foot against one side
of the crack and your outside heel against
the other.

You could then jam your lower foot on the

outside of the crack by pressing the inside
heel against one side and the outside front
of your foot against the other.

Heel-Toe Jam
If the crack is too wide for a foot cam, you
can use a heel-toe jam.

Position your foot horizontally with your toe

smearing on one side and your heel
jammed on the other.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Crack Climbing 222
Knee Jam
This works well if the crack is slightly You can do a foot cam below with your
bigger than your knee, but be careful not to other foot.
get your knee stuck.
As the crack gets slightly bigger, bury your
Slide your knee high into the crack. Then whole thigh in the crack, then bend your
pull your foot back and wrap your toes knee to expand your leg in place.
around the edge of the crack.

Off-Width Upper Body Technique

Hand Stacks
Set two jams side by side to fill the width of
the crack. You can jam hand/hand,
hand/fist, or fist/fist depending on the size
of the off-width.

For a hand/hand jam (butterfly stack),

place the backs of your hands together and
jam them in the crack with your thumbs up.

Hand/fist and fist/fist jams are generally

more secure with your arms crossed at the
wrist (rather than normal left/right
orientation).

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 223

Arm-Bar
The arm-bar involves placing your inside
hand deep into the crack.

Press your palm (thumbs up) against one

side of the crack, and your elbow and
shoulder against the other side. Use the
opposing force to get a secure jam.

The other hand can gaston the outer

edge of the crack. Grab it with your thumb
down and elbow out, then pull away from
yourself.

Chicken-Wing
Place your arm into the crack, elbow first,
with your arm bent and palm facing out.

Push your palm against the wall and push

your triceps against the other side.

Push down and outward on your chicken-

wing to cam your elbow and arm into
place.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Crack Climbing 224
Off-Width Tips
* Once you’ve wedged yourself in a wider * To avoid a massive whipper, keep a cam
off-width, it can be difficult to switch sides, clipped to the rope and shuffle it up as you
so plan before you get in there. climb. When appropriate, leave this cam
behind and continue up with another
* If you don’t need to switch sides, carry all clipped to the rope. Don’t forget to extend
your gear (belay device, chalk, cams, gear which is far back in the crack.
everything) on the side of your harness
which faces out. * Sometimes the crack tapers towards the
back so you might be able to get a fist jam,
* If you think you might have to switch or there may be small edges in and around
sides, it’s much better to carry your whole the crack which make upward progress
rack on a gear sling. Simply swing it easier.
around to the other side to keep it out of
the crack. * Focus on relaxing the muscles you aren’t
using to avoid unnecessary physical
* Make sure you have enough wide gear to exertion. Rest if you find a comfortable
protect the climb – many off-widths offer stance, and don’t forget to breathe.
no other protection.

Squeeze Chimneys
Squeeze chimneys are big enough to get - Press your knees against the front wall
completely inside, but only just. One way to and your heels against the back wall
squirm up is to use the sidewinder (knee bars)
technique.
To Move Up
To Get Set Up - Pivot at the waist to move your torso up
- Face one of the chimney walls and turn and reset the chicken wings
your body diagonally so your head is only - Move your hips up and twist them in
slightly higher than your feet place
- Set a chicken wing with your upper arm - Shuffle your feet up and reset the knee
and a reverse chicken wing with your bars
lower arm - Repeat
- Twist your upper hip forward so it
opposes the pressure of your butt It’s best to keep your gear hanging down
against the back wall on a gear sling.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 225

Chimneys
Wider chimneys are generally easier to There are different methods of climbing
climb than squeezes or off-widths, but chimneys. A standard technique is shown
often offer no protection. below.

Step 1
Set both feet against one chimney wall and
oppose this with your back against the
other.

Step 2
Set one foot against the back wall as high
as you can.

Step 3
Push up with this foot and your hands to
move your body up.

Step 4
Return your foot to a higher position on the
front wall and walk your other foot up to
join it.

Step 5
Repeat.

In a wider chimney, you may have to stem In a super wide chimney, a full-body stem
across it. Push off the left chimney wall may be required. With both hands on one
with your hands to move your left foot up. chimney wall and both feet on the other,
Then alternate with the right side. walk upwards. Make sure to keep three
points of contact as you move up.
Bend your knees and keep your feet high
to maintain a strong pressure on the Be warned – it’s hard to climb out of this
chimney walls. position.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Technique > Crack Climbing 226
 Trad Climbing Basics:
Essential Knots

Climb: Albert Cortès on Cantomanía, Lleida, Catalunya. Photographer: Peter O’Donovan 227
Essential Knots
This chapter introduces the most After tying any knot, it is important that you
commonly used knots for trad climbing. dress it correctly. This means tightening
each strand and adjusting the loops and
Every climber should be able to recognize, twists so they are perfectly aligned.
tie and untie the following knots without
having to think about it. Remember that Your knots should look exactly like the
you will trust your life to each knot. diagrams in this manual. A knot which isn’t
well dressed could slip or fail.

Climb: Bishop's Rib, Chair Ladder, Cornwall, England. Photographer: Sam Simpson 228
Figure-8 Tie In
The figure-8 is widely accepted as being
the safest knot to tie-in with.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Make a loop about a meter You should end up with an Pass the end of the rope
from the end of the rope. '8'. Make sure the knot is through both of the two
Wrap the end of the rope around 90cm from the end points on the front centre
around the base of the of the rope (The exact of your harness – the
loop, then push the end length varies with ropes of same ones your belay loop
through the loop. different diameters). runs through. It is
important that the rope
goes through your harness
in exactly the same way as
your belay loop does.
90cm

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 229

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
Use the end of the rope to Continue following the Make sure the end of the
're-trace' the figure of 8 twists until you end up rope is around 25cm long.
knot. Follow the twists of back at the start of the If it is shorter, you'll have to
the rope starting from knot. untie and start again. After
where the rope joins your this, you will need to tie a
harness. Pull the whole thing tight. 'stopper knot'. Loop the
short section of rope
around the main length.

25
cm

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 230

Step 7 Step 8 Step 9
Do this twice, with the Push the end of the rope Pull this tight too (make
second loop closer to you through these two loops, sure it's pushed right up
than the first. away from you. against your figure of 8
knot).

If you didn't have enough rope left to tie a It takes a bit of practise to judge just the
stopper knot, you'll need to retie the figure right amount of rope from the start, but
of 8 so that you do. you'll get used to it soon.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 231

Figure-8 on a Bight
Uses:
- Attaching the rope to a belay anchor - Creating a master point in a cordelette or
sling

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Form an ‘8’ shape in the Push the end of the rope Pull it tight.
rope as shown. through the top part of the
8.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 232

Stopper Knot
When tying a figure-8 in the end of a rope,
make sure to add a stopper knot.

Warning:
Figure-8’s are designed to be end-loaded directions, the knot can roll over itself and
(pulled along the line of the knot). lose strength or fail completely.

If you load the loop in two opposing For this reason, you should never use the
uuuuuuu figure-8 to join ropes for abseiling.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 233

Clovehitch
Uses:
- Attaching yourself to the anchor

Step 1
Make two identical loops in the rope. Put
the rear loop over the top of the front loop.

Step 2
Clip a screwgate carabiner (never use a
snapgate carabiner) through these two
loops.

Step 3
Pull it tight and fasten the screwgate.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 234

Overhand Loop
Uses:
- Creating a master point in a cordelette or
sling

Step 1
Clip the sling to both bolts and pull the
strands down so they are equal.

Step 2
Pull the bottom of the sling around to form
a loop.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 235

Step 3
Push the end of the sling through the loop
as shown.

Step 4
Pull the knot tight and clip a screwgate
carabiner to the central point.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 236

The same knot can be used
to equalize three or more
pieces.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 237

Girth Hitch (Larksfoot)
Uses:
- Attaching slings to your belay loop - Fastening a sling around a tree
- Attaching slings together - Connecting a sling to a carabiner without
opening the gate

Step 1
Feed a sling through your belay loop.

Step 2
Put one end of the sling through the other.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 238

Step 3
Pull it tight.

Strop Bend
You can also link two slings together using
these same steps.

Arrange the girth hitch as shown to create

a strop bend. This is basically a neater
version of the girth hitch.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 239

Double Fisherman’s Bend
Uses:
- Tying two ends of cord together to make
a prusik or cordelette.

Step 1
Loop one end of the cord around the other
end twice, then push the end through these
loops.

Step 2
Pull it tight and do the same with the other
end of the cord.

Step 3
Pull it all tight so that the two knots jam
together.

Make sure the tails are at least 10 times

the diameter of the cord (e.g: 5cm tails for a
5mm prusik cord).

Triple Fisherman's Bend

Add an extra coil to make a triple
fishermans.

Some slippery cords (such as dyneema)

require a triple so they don’t slide apart
under load – check the manufacturers
recommendations.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 240

The Autoblock (French) Prusik
Uses:
To back up an abseil. A correctly tied prusik prusik for most ropes.
will auto-lock if you let go of the ropes.
Different types of prusik have advantages
A 1.25m length of 5mm cord tied with a in certain situations. Learn more about
double fisherman's bend makes a suitable prusiks:
ppppppppppp www.vdiffclimbing.com/prusik-types

Step 1 Step 2
Wrap the prusik around both ropes a few Clip the ends together with a screwgate
times. carabiner.

More wraps will create more friction around Pull the knot tight, make sure it is neat and
the ropes, though four wraps are generally the double fisherman's bend is away from
enough. the ropes.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 241

Step 3
Clip the prusik to your leg loop. The prusik
will slide down the ropes if you hold it close
to your leg loop and lock around the ropes
if you let go. Test this before you abseil.

If it doesn't lock, take it off and re-tie it with

an extra wrap around the ropes.

Harness
If your prusik loop is too long, it's possible Leg Loop
that it could jam into your belay device
during the abseil. If this happens, it can be
difficult to control your descent.

To avoid this, you can extend your belay

device with a sling (see page 170).

Ascending a Rope with Prusiks

You can also use prusiks to ascend ropes.

Learn how:
www.vdiffclimbing.com/prusik-rope

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 242

Water (Tape) Knot
Uses:
- Joining flat or tubular webbing of equal
width

Step 1
Tie a loose overhand knot near one end of
the webbing.

Step 2
Thread the other end into the knot as
shown.

Step 3
Retrace the original knot, making sure it
lies flat at all times.

Step 4
Cinch the knot tight. The tails should be at
least 10cm long.

Warning:
The water knot should never be used to Make sure the knot is tight and the tails are
join webbing of unequal width or to join at least 10cm long each time you use it.
rope/cord to webbing. In these cases, the
knot is very weak and prone to slipping. Some climbers duck-tape the tails to keep
them neat and to help prevent creeping. If
The water knot can untie itself over time you do this, leave the ends of the webbing
with repeated loading and unloading. in view so you can see them.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 243

Slip Knot
Uses:
- Tying off pitons, tree stumps or other
poor gear in order to reduce leverage

Step 1
Form a loop in a sling (thin Dyneema
works better than nylon).

Step 2
Pull a bight through this loop as shown.

Step 3
Slip this bight over the piton.

Step 4
Cinch it tight and push it as close to the
rock as possible to reduce leverage.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 244

How to Tie-Off a Belay Device
When belaying with a standard belay
device, you obviously can't let go of the
rope. But sometimes it's really useful to
have both hands free.

This could be to switch gear at a multi-pitch

anchor, to sort out a rope tangle or to
escape the system in an emergency
situation.

Method 1 – The Overhand Knot

In situations where the rope isn't weighted,
a simple overhand knot backed up to your
belay loop will work.

However, if the rope becomes weighted

when using this method (e.g. if the leader
falls), it will be almost impossible to release
the tie-off.

If there is any chance of this happening,

you should instead use method 2 - the
releasable knot.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 245

Method 2 – The Releasable Knot
The following steps explain how to tie-off weighting the rope, and also how to
your belay device while the leader is release the tie-off when it's weighted.
………...

Step 1
Pass a loop of the slack rope through your
screwgate carabiner with one hand while
keeping hold of the rope with the other
hand.

Step 2
Pass a loop from the opposite side through
the first loop so that a knot is formed
around the spine of the carabiner.

Do not tie this knot around the gate of the

carabiner.

Step 3
Make sure the second loop is around 40cm
long. Pull it tight, then tie an overhand knot
on this loop.

The belay device is now locked off.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 246

Step 4 – Releasing Under Load
First untie the backup overhand knot. Then
holding the slack rope securely with both
hands, simply pull down to release the
knot.

You should be ready to expect a few

centimetres of rope to slip through. Do not
let go of the rope!

You can now belay or lower the climber as

normal.

Top Tips
* If you are belaying with two ropes, simply
treat them as one rope and follow the
same steps.

* Make sure to communicate with your

partner so they know not to continue
climbing while tied-off.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 247

Alpine Butterfly
Uses:
- Equalizing a two-bolt belay
- Isolating a damaged section of rope
- Forming a fixed loop in the middle of a
rope. This provides a clip-in point which
can be loaded in 2 or 3 directions

Step 1
Form a loop in the rope.

Step 2
Twist the loop so it becomes two loops.
Then pull the top of the upper loop behind
and underneath the line of the rope.

Step 3
The upper loop is now beneath the line of
the rope. The next step is to push it
through the original first loop.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 248

Step 4
Pull it tight.

View from View from

front back

An alternative way to tie the

alpine butterfly is to wrap it
around your hand three times
as shown.

Pull the top wrap down over

the other two, then back up
behind them.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 249

Equalizing a Two-Bolt Belay
Tie a large-looped alpine butterfly to one
piece and a clovehitch to the other piece.

Adjust the clovehitch to fine tune the

equalization.

Isolating a Damaged Section

This is useful when using your rope as a
fixed line or in a situation where the rope
will not pass through any carabiners.

Obviously, you will not be able to lead climb

with a knot in your rope!

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 250

Double Bowline
Uses:
- Securing the end of a rope around a large - Could also be used to tie the rope to your
object such as a tree harness

Step 1
Wrap the end of the rope
around a tree or other suitable
object.

Form two loops in the rope as

shown.

Step 2
Push the end of the rope up
through the two loops and
around the back of the main
strand.

Step 3
Push the end of the rope back
down through the loops.

Pass the end around the back

of the knot and push it up
through the new loop as shown.

Step 4
The double bowline is now tied,
but needs a stopper knot to be
complete.

Pass the end of the rope

around the main strand twice.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 251

Step 5
Finish the stopper knot to
complete the double bowline.

Warning:
The double bowline is great for
tying around a tree or boulder
as part of a top-rope anchor.

Some climbers also use the

double bowline for tying in
because it’s easy to untie after
multiple falls. However, it has
been known to untie itself,
especially if the rope is stiff.
This is due to lots of movement
in the rope as you climb.

The figure-8 is recommended

as a much safer alternative for
tying into your harness.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Essential Knots 252

 Trad Climbing Basics
Next Steps

Climb: Lee Babcock on Right Parallel Space, Vedauwoo, Wyoming. Photographer: Joe Shultz 253
Your First Trad Lead
Leading trad for the first time can be pretty route, or following a trad route. Here are
scary. Suddenly you're exposed to greater some tips for your first few times on 'the
dangers than you would leading a sport sharp end'.
…...

Practise Placing Gear Follow the Leader

It is important to learn how to place trad Once you've practised placing gear at
gear well before you lead anything. A good ground level, the next logical step is to
way to start is to walk along the base of follow, or 'second', an experienced leader
your local crag and place every piece on on a single pitch route.
your rack in as many different spots as you
can find. Get used to placing and removing When you are removing the gear, try to
each size and type of gear. understand how they placed it and why
they chose that exact place instead of
Assess each piece carefully; which way will another. Remove each piece and then
it be pulled if you fall? How solid is the rock place it back in the exact same spot.
around the piece? Could it be pulled out by
movement in the rope as you climb past?
Could you remove it easily? Lower Your Grade
Choose a route that you find easy. A HVS
When you find a place which has three trad route may equate to around F5+ on a
good pieces close together, practise grade conversion chart, but in reality it's
equalizing them together with a cordelette much harder to climb the trad equivalent.
or a long sling to make a belay. While the actual moves are the same
physical difficulty, it takes much longer to
Have your experienced partner check the find potential gear placements, and to
gear and give you critiques about whether place gear well, than it does to clip a
it was placed correctly. quickdraw.

The fundamentals of placing gear are easy Also, without a line of bolts and coloured
to learn. But recognising subtle holds to follow, you'll often end up doing
constrictions in cracks and maximising many more moves to reach the same
rock-to-nut surface contact is an art only point, and not always going the easiest
learnt through experience. Practise makes way.
perfect!

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > Next Steps 254

Take Your Time Single Pitch
Have a look around for better gear Try a short climb first. If something goes
placements and take time to figure out the wrong, it'll be much easier to get down
moves. Focus on placing each piece as from a single pitch than a multi-pitch.
perfectly as it can be.

Make slow and controlled movements, Be Ready

committing to holds only when you've We strongly recommend that you take a
explored the best way of holding them. course with a qualified climbing instructor.
Once you have gained approval from them,
you can lead your first climb.
Make a Belay Plan
It's a good idea to assess the top of the Wait until you're ready, but don't postpone
crag first to find potential anchor points and it too long or you may never try. Be brave,
figure out your belay position. take your time and focus on making the
climb safe. And make sure to have fun!
Remember what gear you will need for the
anchor and make sure to still have it when
you reach the top!

Climb: Shuteye Ridge, California. Photographer: Tom Slater. 255

Final Words
Learning the techniques of placing gear It's important to develop the ability to adapt
and building anchors isn't enough to make your trad skills to suit situations like these
you a proficient trad climber. that do not have a textbook solution.

Unexpected situations often arise, Being able to solve problems quickly is a

especially on multi-pitches (such as not vital skill which can only be learnt through
having enough rope to reach a solid belay, experience.
or retreating from a climb with damaged
ropes and poor anchors). So get out there, and climb some rocks!

Climb: Superdirect, Dinas Mot, Wales. Photographer: Jethro Kiernan. 256

About VDiff
VDiff creates quality information for
climbers.

Every article produced is derived from

personal experience.

Approved methods are then researched

from guides and instructors around the
world and compared with trusted sources,
such as The UIAA.

After that, the methods are tested with

modern climbing gear to make sure they're
accurate and up-to-date.

Detailed illustrations are then added to

accompany this quality information.

Next, feedback is reviewed from climbers

who view the information, and appropriate
changes are made.

After that, it is joined together into an easy-

to-understand format.

The final product is then made available by

donation only.

By removing the financial barrier, everyone

has access to learning safe climbing
techniques.

Learn more: www.vdiffclimbing.com 257

Other VDiff E-Books
VDiff e-books are payable by donation. These e-books are regularly updated. Get
Set your own price, download and enjoy! the latest versions from the VDiff shop:
www.vdiffclimbing.com/shop

Rock Climbing Basics: The Beginner’s Guide

This e-book will teach you how to:
- Use basic climbing gear
- Tie into the rope
- Belay (lead and top rope)
- Climb efficiently
- Understand fall potential
Plus much more.

Sport Climbing Basics

This e-book will teach you how to:
- Use assisted-braking belay devices
- Lead sport climbs
- Set up top ropes
- Clean sport anchors
- Abseil safely (including using a prusik
knot)
- Use advanced belay techniques
- Climb with better technique
- Assess bolt quality
Plus much more.

VDiff – Trad Climbing Basics > About VDiff 258

Climbing Grades Explained to Non-Climbers

See more: www.vdiffclimbing.com/fun 259