BE3254 – ELECTRICAL & INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING UNIT – IV: MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION

Subject Name : ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Subject Code : BE3254
Regulation : 2021
Department : Electronics and Communication Engineering
Year / Semester : I/II

UNIT-IV

MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Functional elements of an instrument, Standards and calibration, Operating Principle,

types Moving Coil and Moving Iron meters, Measurement of three phase power,
Energy Meter, Instrument Transformers-CT and PT, DSO- Block diagram- Data
acquisition.

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MEASUREMENT:
A measurement of any quantity either physical or electrical gives meaning when it is
compared with predefined standard quantity.
The basic requirements of the measurement:
❖The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
❖The apparatus used and the method must be provable.
The two methods of measurement are:
❖Direct method
❖Indirect method
Direct method of measurement:
The unknown quantity which is known as measurand is directly compared against a
standard. The result is expressed as a numerical number and unit.
Indirect method of measurement:
The unknown quantity is converted into some other form and then it is compared
against a standard.
The types of measurement are:
❖Primary measurement
❖Secondary measurement
❖Tertiary measurement
Primary measurements:
Primary measurements are direct method of measurements without involving conversion
of the measured quantity. E.g.: measurement of length of a bar using scale.
Secondary measurements:
Secondary measurements are the indirect method of measurements which involve one
conversion of the quantity to be measured. Eg: Measurement of pressure of manometers.
Tertiary measurements:
Tertiary measurements are the indirect method of measurements which involve two
conversions of the quantity to be measured.

Temperature is converted into voltage Voltage is converted into length

First conversion Second conversion

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1. Explain the functional elements of an instrument with a neat block diagram.

(May/June 2014) (or) Draw and explain the general block diagram of measurement
system with an example.

Primary sensing element:

• The measurement first comes into contact with primary sensing element where the
conversion takes place.
• This is first done by a transducer which converts the measurement or measured quantity
into usable electrical output.
• The transduction may be from mechanical, electrical or optical to any related form.

Variable conversion element:

• The output of the primary sensing element is in the electrical form suitable for control,
recording and display.
• For the instrument to perform the desired function, itis necessary to convert this output
to some other suitable output for preserving the original information.
Variable manipulation element:
• The signal gets manipulated here preserving the original nature of it.
• Example: - an amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces a voltage of
greater magnitude.
• The output is same voltage but of higher value, acting as a voltage amplifier.
• Here the output voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element since it
amplifies the voltage.
• The element that follows the primary sensing element in a measurement system is called
signal conditioning element.
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• Here the variable conversion element and variable manipulation element are collectively
called as data conditioning element.
Data transmission element:
• The transmission of data from one another is done by the data transmission element.
• In case of space crafts the control signals are sent from the control stations by using radio
signals.
• The stage that follows the signal conditioning element and data transmission element
collectively is called the intermediate stage.
Data presentation element:
• The display or readout devices which display the required information about the
measurement, forms the data presentation element.
• The information of the measurand has to be conveyed for monitoring, control process.
✓ In case of data to be monitored, visual display devices are needed like ammeters,
voltmeters.
✓ In case of data to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, TV equipment and storage
type CRT, printers are used.
• The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage.
• When a control device is used for the final measurement stage, it is necessary to apply
some feedback to the input signal to accomplish the control objective.
Example: Bourdon tube pressure gauge
• Due to pressure, closed end of tube is displaced. Pressure is converted to displacement.
• The closed end is linked to mechanical linkage to a gearing arrangement.
• The gearing arrangement amplifies the small displacement and makes the pointer to
rotate through a large angle.
2. Discuss the static and dynamic characteristics of measuring instrument.(MAY
2018) (13 marks)
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
• The static characteristics of an instrument are, in general, considered for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying process condition.
• All the static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or another of a process
called calibration.
• Desirable static characteristics are:
i. Accuracy
ii. Reproducibility
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iii. Sensitivity
iv. Linearity
• Undesirable static characteristics are:
i. Drift
ii. Dead zone
iii. Static error
iv. Hysteresis
Accuracy:
• It is the degree of closeness of a measurement compared to true value.
• The accuracy of any instrument system is measured in terms of its error.
• It is the ability of instrument to indicate true value. It is calibration against a standard.
Static sensitivity:
• Static sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to the
magnitude of input signal to be measured.
• Low sensitivity meter produces more loading effect.
• Meter with high sensitivity will give more reliable result. Eg: Milli-ammeter, Galvanometer.
Linearity:

Fig 4.1
• The ability to produce the input characteristics symmetrically is known as Linearity.
• It can be expressed as straight line.
• It is a measure of maximum deviation of any one of the calibration points from straight
line which is drawn by using the method of least square from the given calibration data.
• Any departure from straight line relationship is known as non-linearity.
Reproducibility:
• It is defined as the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.
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• It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.

• Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift.
Drift:
• It is defined as for a given input, the measured values do not vary with time.
Factors that cause the drift are:
• Mechanical vibrations
• High mechanical stress
• Wear and tear
• Stray electric and magnetic fields
Drift may be classified as
• Zero drift
• Span drift
• Zonal drift

Fig 4.2 types of drift

Zero drift:
The whole instrument calibration may gradually shifts due to slippage or due to
undue warming up of electronic tube circuits; the drift is called zero drift.
Span drift:
There is a proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale; the drift
is called as span drift.
Zonal drift:
The drift occurs over a span of an instrument, it is called as zonal drift.
Precision:

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A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e. successive readings

does not differ. (Precision is the consistency of the instrument output for a given value of
input).
Expected value:
The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations indicate one should
expect to measure.
Error:
The deviation of the true value from the desired value.
Dead zone:
It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument. The dead zone occurs due to friction, backlash and hysteresis in the
instrument.
Backlash:
It is defined as the maximum distance through which a part of a mechanical system can
be moved in one direction without applying appreciable force or motion to the next part
in a mechanical system.
Threshold:
It is defined as the minimum value of the input at which the output starts changing /
increasing from zero.
Resolution:
It is the smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will respond.
Signal to noise ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of desired signal to the unwanted noise is called signal to noise
ratio.
The noise can be broadly classified as:
i. Generated noise: The possible sources of noise are an account of internal components of
the amplifier like resistors, capacitors and transistors.
ii. Conducted noise: The power supply to the amplifier is the source of this noise. It may be
caused due to spikes, ripples or random deviations which are presented in the amplifier
circuit through power wiring.
iii. Radiated noise: The unwanted signals may be electric or magnetic fields on the
environment around the amplifier which are radiated into the interior of the amplifier.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:
• Instruments rarely respond to changes in the measured variables.

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• The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary element

(sensing element) to some unknown and predetermined variations in the measured
quantity.
• The three most common variations in the measured quantity are as follows:
✓ Step change: In this case the input is changed suddenly to a finite value and then
remains constant.
✓ Linear change: In this case the input changes linearly with time.
✓ Sinusoidal change: In this case the magnitude of the input changes in accordance with a
sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are:
Speed of Response:
It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the input.
Lag:
✓ It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the input.
✓ The measuring lag can be of two types
Retardation type: The response of the instrument begins immediately after a change in
input.
Time delay type: here response begins after a dead time. This causes dynamic error.
Fidelity:
• It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable
without dynamic error (faithful reproduction).
Dynamic Error:
• It is the difference between the true values of a quantity changing with time and the value
indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.
3. What are the different types of errors? Explain how to eliminate errors in
instrument. May 2014 (10m) May 2016, 2017 (16m)
The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the true
value of a quantity and its value as obtained by measurement, i.e. repeated
measurement of the same quantity give different indications.
• Static errors are categorized as Gross errors, Systematic errors and Random errors.
Gross Errors:
• This error is mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or errors
in recording observations.
• Errors may also be occurring due to incorrect adjustments and computational mistakes.

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• The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible.

• The error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording the
measurement parameter.
Systematic Errors:
• These errors occur due to defective or worn parts or ageing effects of the environment on
the instrument.
• There are basically three types of systematic errors,
i. Instrumental Error
ii. Environmental Error
iii. Observational Error
(i) Instrumental Errors:
• These are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their mechanical structure.
• Instrumental errors can be avoided by
a)Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement applications.
b) By applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error.
c) Calibrating the instrument against a standard.
(ii) Environmental Errors:
• Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device.
• Such as the effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or of
magnetic or electrostatic fields.
• These errors can be avoided by
(i)air conditioning,
(ii) hermetically sealing certain components in the instruments
(iii)using magnetic shields.
(iii) Observational Errors:
• Observational errors are introduced by the observer.
• The most common error is the parallax error introduced in reading a meter scale, and the
error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter scale.
• For example, an observer may always introduce an error by consistently holding his head
too far to the left while reading a needle and scale reading.
(iv) Random errors:
• After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that there are still some errors in
measurement are left.
• These errors are known as random errors.
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• Some of the reasons of the appearance of these errors are known but still some reasons
are unknown.
• Hence, we cannot fully eliminate these kinds of errors.
Sources of Errors:
• Noise
• Design limitations
• Weakening of measuring system.
Limiting Error:
• The accuracy and precision of an instrument depends upon its design, material used and
workmanship. The choice depends upon accuracy.
• The manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the nominal value of a particular
quantity.
• The limits of these deviations from specified value are defined as Limiting errors.

• Relative limiting error

• Absolute error is the difference between true value and measured value of a company.

Where, e is Absolute error

is the Observed reading
is the true reading

• Relative error is defined as the ratio of the error to the specified magnitude of a quantity.

Where, is the Relative limiting error.

4. Discuss the different types of standards of measurements. Nov 2010, Apr 2015
(8m)
A standard is defined as the physical representation of a unit of measurements.

CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS:

• International standards
• Primary standards
• Secondary standards
• Working standards
International standards of instruments:

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International standards are defined on the basis of International agreement. They are
regularly evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of fundamental
units. The standardized units are:
1) International ohm.
2) International amperes.

Primary standards:
• They are maintained at National standards laboratories in different countries.
• The function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary
standards.
• The standardized units are:
✓ Quite stable.
✓ Independent.
✓ Invariant.
• The following points are considered in primary standards:
✓ Accuracy of machining.
✓ Rigidity of construction.
✓ Low temp Coefficient.
Secondary standards:
• They are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration laboratories in
industries.
• Each laboratory sends its secondary standards to national standard laboratory standard
for calibration and compare with primary standards.
• Then the secondary standards are sent back to the industrial user by the national
laboratories with a certification as regards their measured value in terms of primary
standards.
Working standards:
• These standards are used to check and calibrate laboratory instrument for accuracy and
performance.
5. Give an introduction about measuring instruments.
Electrical instruments may be divided into two categories, which are,
i. Absolute instruments
ii. Secondary instruments

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Absolute instruments: These give the quantity to be measured in terms of instrument

constant and its deflection.
Secondary instruments: The deflection gives the magnitude of electrical quantity to
be measured directly. These instruments are required to be calibrated by comparing
with another standard instrument before putting into use.
The three types of secondary instruments are:
i. Indicating instruments
ii. Recording instruments
iii. Integrating instruments
Indicating instruments:
It indicates the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time when it is being
measured. The indications are given by a pointer which moves over a graduated scale.

Figure 4.3 Indicating instruments

Recording instruments:
These instruments keep a continuous record of the variations of the magnitude of an
electrical quantity to be observed over a defined period of time.
Integrating instruments:
These instruments which measure the total amount of either quantity of electricity or
electrical energy supplied over a period of time. Example: energy meters.
ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS:
• Indicating instruments are those which indicate the value of quantity that is being
measured at the time at which it is measured.
• Such instruments consist essentially of a pointer which moves over a calibrated scale
and which is attached to a moving system pivoted in bearing.
• The moving system is subjected to the following three torques:

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✓ A deflecting (or operating) torque.

✓ A controlling (or restoring) torque.
✓ A damping torque.

SPRING CONTROL:
• When the pointer is deflected one spring unwinds itself while the other is twisted.
• This twist in the spring produces restoring (controlling) torque, which is proportional
to the angle of deflection of the moving systems.

Figure 4.4: Spring control

GRAVITY CONTROL:
• In gravity controlled instruments, a small adjustable weight is attached to the spindle
of the moving system such that the deflecting torque produced by the instrument has
to act against the action of gravity.
• Thus a controlling torque is obtained.
• This weight is called the control weight.
• Another adjustable weight is also attached in the moving system for zero adjustment
and balancing purpose. This weight is called balance weight.

Where, Kg is a constant.

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Tc is the controlling torque

Figure 4.5: Gravity control

DAMPING TORQUE:
• Due to inertia, pointer moves from point ‘a’ to point ‘b’.
• This action produces oscillations and pointer will take some amount of time for
settling.
• To damp or to make these oscillations disappear some force or torque is required, this
torque is called damping torque.
• This damping torque is produced by any one of the four damping system.
Air friction damping:
✓ Aluminum piston attached to the spindle moves over the air chamber produces
damping by air friction.
Fluid friction damping:
✓ In this type oil is used instead of air because viscosity of oil is greater.
✓ A disc attached to the moving system is dipped into the oil pot.
✓ The disc moves in the oil and produces friction drag.
✓ This produces damping.
Eddy current damping:
✓ A conductor is attached to the moving system and made to move in the magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet.
✓ The conductor is aluminium circular disc.
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✓ When the moving system oscillates, the disc moves and cuts the magnetic flux.
✓ An emf is induced in the disc, since the disc has several closed path, a current flows.
This current is called eddy current.
✓ This eddy current interacts with the magnetic field, produces a torque which opposes
the spindle motion.
✓ This type of damping is called eddy current damping.
Electromagnetic damping:
✓ The deflecting system makes the coil to move in a magnetic field, produces a torque
which produces the current in the coil.
✓ By lenz law, this current produces a torque which opposes the movement of the coil,
and damps the oscillations of the moving system.
✓ This is called electromagnetic damping.
6. Explain the working of permanent magnet moving coil.
• The principle operation of PMMC is based upon the principle of “current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field it is acted upon by the force which tends to
move it.”
Construction:
• A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminium spindle positioned between the poles
of a U shaped permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys like alnico.

Figure 4.6: PMMC

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• The coil is pivoted on the jewel bearings and thus the coil is free to rotate.
Operation:
• When a current flows through the coil, it generates a magnetic field which is
proportional to the current in case of an ammeter.
• The deflecting torque is produced by the electromagnetic action of the current in the
coil and the magnetic field.
• The controlling torque is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs.
• Damping is caused by the current set up in the aluminium coil which prevents the
oscillation of the coil.
Torque equation

Where, Td= deflecting torque in N-m

N= number of turns of coil.
A= effective area of the coil in m2
I = current passing through the moving coil in A.
B= flux density in air gap in Wb/m2.
Let G=NBA= constant
Now Td= GI
• Controlling torque is provided by the spring and is proportional to the angular
deflection of the pointer.

Where,
Tc= controlling torque in N-m
KS= spring constant in Nm/rad or Nm/deg.
θ = angular deflection in rad or degree.
• For the final steady deflection i.e at equilibrium:
Tc= Td
Ks θ= GI

• (deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current)

Errors in PMMC instruments:
• Weakening of permanent magnet due to ageing and temperature effects.
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• Weakening of the springs due to ageing and temperature effects.

• Change of resistance of moving coil with temperature.
Advantages:
• Power consumption is less.
• High accuracy.
• Scale is uniformly divided.
Disadvantages:
• Only used for DC measurements.
• Torque reverses if current reverses.
• Cost is high.
7. With neat sketch, explain the construction and operation of repulsion type
moving iron instrument. Give advantages and limitations of such instruments.(
April/May 2016)
• Moving iron instruments are used for both AC and DC measurements.
• It has two types: attraction type and repulsion type.
• It consists of a stationary coil which is excited by the current or voltage under
measurement.
• It also consists of a plate of soft iron in case of attraction type.
• In case of repulsion type two plates are present.
• The plate or the vane forms the moving element of the instrument and moves in a
magnetic field produced by the stationary coil.
Principle:
• Supply is given to the stationary coil it becomes electromagnet.
• Vane moves to increase the flux of the electromagnet because the vane tries to follow a
path of minimum reluctance.

• Thus a force is developed for getting high inductance.

• This force gives the deflecting torque.
i. Attraction type MI instruments:
• The flat stationary coil forms the narrow slot like opening.
• Moving element is a flat disc or plate.
• When the current flows through the coil, magnetic field is produced.
• Moving iron moves from weaker field to stronger field side.
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Figure 4.7: Attraction type MI instrument

• For control torque this instrument uses spring.
• Damping is provided by air friction damping.
ii. Repulsion type MI instrument:
• Two vanes are present inside the stationary coil, one vane is fixed and another vane is
movable.

Figure 4.8: Repulsion type MI instrument

• Both vanes are similarly magnetized when the current flows through the stationary
coil therefore repulsion occurs.
• This type is divided into two types:
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✓ Radial vane type- vanes are radial strips of iron

✓ Co-axial vane type- vanes are sections of co-axial cylinders.
Torque equation:
• Normally current flows through the coil.
• Now a small increment in current is supplied to the coil, it results in a small
increment in deflection.
….... (1)

….. (2)

• Electrical energy supplied is given by, multiply I.dt on both the sides of the equation
(2),

…..(3)

• Stored energy changes from

• Therefore change in stored energy is

• Neglecting second and higher order terms,

..……(4)

• by the principle of conservation of energy,

Electrical energy supplied= increase in stored energy +mechanical work done
• from equation (3), (4) and (1),

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…..(5)

• control torque is provided by the spring

……(6)

• For final steady deflection, Tc=Td

• From equation (5) and (6),

8. With a neat diagram explain the construction and working principle of 1f

wattmeter. What is the importance of deflection torque in these instruments?
(April/May 2010)
(or)
With a neat diagram, explain the construction and working principle of
electrodynamometer type wattmeter. Also derive its torque equation. (Nov/Dec
2010) (April/May 2019) (Dec 2020)
➢ Single phase power can be easily measured using a 1 f wattmeter. Various types of 1
phase wattmeter are:
• Electrodynamometer wattmeter
• Ferro dynamic
• Thermocouple
• Low power factor.
Constructional details:

Fig 4.9 Electrodynamometer wattmeter

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Fixed coil:
• Fixed coils are wound with heavy wire with less number of turns in order to have low
resistance and hence low voltage drop across the meter.
• It is also called as current coil which is connected in series with the load and properly
laminated in order to avoid eddy current loss in conductor when heavy current flows.
Moving coil:
• It is generally attached to the spindle which is connected to the pointer. The moving
coil is also called as pressure coil.
• It is made up of thin wire and has more number of turns in order to have high
resistance.
Control torque:
• It is provided by springs.
Damping:
• Air friction damping is used.
Pointer and scale:
• Mirror type scale and knife edge pointer to avoid parallax error while reading.

Torque equation:

Fig 4.10 electric circuit of electrodynamometer wattmeter

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9. Write notes on three phase power measurement.

The three phase power measurement can be done by the following methods:
➢ By using three-phase wattmeter
➢ By using 3- single phase wattmeter (i.e.,) 3 wattmeter method.
➢ By using 2- single phase wattmeter (i.e.,) 2 wattmeter method.
➢ By using single phase wattmeter (i.e.,) 1 wattmeter method.

Three wattmeter method:

Fig. 4.11 Three wattmeter method

• This method consists of 3 wattmeter and hence the name 3 wattmeter and a
combination of PC and CC is called as element.
• In this 3 phase 4 wire system, the common point C of pressure coil and neutral point
O of the load coincides and hence voltages across PC of wattmeter is equal to per
voltage across the load.
Voltage across PC of wattmeter 1= VR
Voltage across PC of wattmeter 2= VY
Voltage across PC of wattmeter 3= VB
Where
VR= voltage across R-phase of load. (V)
VY= voltage across Y-phase of load. (V)
VB= voltage across B-phase of load. (V)
iR= current flowing through R-phase of load. (A)
iY= current flowing through Y-phase of load. (A)
iB= current flowing through B-phase of load. (A)

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Two wattmeter method: (may2021) (13m)

Fig. 4.12 Two wattmeter method

Case (i) star connection/wye connection or y-connection:

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Case (ii) delta connection:

Fig. 4.13 Two wattmeter method for delta connected load

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Fig.4.14 Phasor diagram of balanced star connected load

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10. Explain the construction and working principle of single phase induction
type energy meter. Write short notes on any 2 adjustments required in energy
meter. (Nov/Dec 2009, May/June 2014,2017) (Nov/Dec 2018)
• Energy meter is an instrument used to measure the total power consumed over a
specific interval of time. Unit of energy is Kwh.
• Energy= power * time
• Energy meter is an integrating type of instrument which measures the energy
consumed when power is delivered at an average rate of 1000 watts for one hour.
Basic principle:
• It is an integrating type instrument which works on the principle of induction. i.e.,
in this type of instrument, alternating fluxes are produced because of 1φ AC supply.
• These alternating fluxes induce the generation of eddy current in the moving system
which interacts with each other to produce a driving torque which causes the aluminium
disc to rotate and thus records the energy.
Constructional details:
• The four main parts of induction type of energy meter are:
➢ Driving system
➢ Moving system
➢ Braking system
➢ Registering system
Driving system:
• The driving system of the energy meter consists of two electromagnets whose core
is made up of silicon steel laminations.
• The coil of one of the electromagnets which is excited by the load current is called
as current coil and the corresponding electromagnet is called as series magnet.

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• The coil of the second electromagnet which is connected across the supply is
called pressure coil and the corresponding electromagnet is called shunt magnet.
Moving system:
• The moving system consists of aluminium disc mounted on a light alloy shaft.
• The disc is positioned in the air gap between the series and shunt magnets.
• The moving system is connected to a hardened steel pivot which is screwed to the
foot of the shaft.
• In this type of energy meter as there is no controlling torque, continuous
rotation of the disc is produced due to driving torque only.
Braking system:
• The braking system consists of permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the
aluminium disc.
• The aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a braking
torque.
Registering system:
• The function of a registering or counting mechanism is to record continuously a
number which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system.

Fig. 4.15 Induction type single phase energy meter

Principle of operation:
• When the pressure coil wound on the shunt magnet is connected across the supply
voltage, it carries a current IP proportional to the supply voltage, thus producing an
alternating flux φP.

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• As this flux φP is alternating in nature, it indicates an emf Eep in the disc which
in turn produces eddy current Iep.
• When the current coil wound on the series magnet carries the load current I,
it produces an alternating flux φe.
• This flux φc induces an emf Eec in the disc which in turn produces eddy current
Iec.
• Now the eddy current Iep interacts with φc and produces a torque T1.
• Similarly the eddy current Iec interact with φP and produces another torque T2.
As these torques are in the opposite direction, the net torque is the difference of the above
two torques.
Let
V= supply voltage
Ip= current through the pressure coil which is proportional to supply voltage. I= load
current.
Φ= phase angle of load.
Φp= flux produced by the current through P.C Φc= flux produced by the current through
C.C

Fig. 4.16 Phasor diagram of the induction type 1φ energy meter

Eep= eddy emf induced by flux Φp
Eec= eddy emf induced by flux Φc.
Iep= eddy emf induced by flux Φp
Iec= eddy emf induced by flux Φc
Net driving torque, 𝑇𝑑 𝖺 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 .................................................. (1)

• As the pressure coil is highly inductive in nature, IP lags V by 90°, neglecting

the resistance in pressure coil.
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• Since Φ is the phase angle of load, load current I lags the supply voltage by the
angle Φ.
• However ΦP will be in phase with IP, as Φp is the flux produced due to current IP.
• Similarly ΦC will be in phase with I, as ΦC is the flux produced due to load current
I. Let,
T1= ΦCIepcos( angle between ΦC and Iep)
T1= ΦCIepcos(90°+90°-φ) .............................................................. (2)
T1= ΦCIepcos(180°-φ)
T2= ΦPIeccos( angle between ΦPand Iec)
T2= ΦPIeccosφ ....................................................................................... (3)
Net driving torque, 𝑇𝑑 𝖺 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
Hence 𝜑𝑃𝐼𝑒𝑐 − cos 𝜑 − 𝜑𝑐𝐼𝑒𝑝 cos(180° − 𝜑) ................................................ (4)
𝑇𝑑 𝖺 𝜑𝑃𝐼𝑒𝑐 cos 𝜑 + 𝜑𝑐𝐼𝑒𝑝 cos 𝜑 ........................................................(5)
We know that ,𝜑𝑃 𝖺 𝐼𝑃 𝖺 𝑉

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Creeping in energy meter:

• At zero load conditions without any current through the current coil the disc rotates
due to the supply voltage existing in its pressure coil. This is called creeping.
Advantages:
➢ Accurate readings can be taken.
➢ Less maintenance.
➢ Cheap in cost.
➢ Frictional errors are less.
Disadvantages:
➢ used only for AC circuits.
➢ Creeping can cause errors.

11. Write short notes on two and three element energy meter.

Two element energy meter:

• The two element energy meter is used for 3 phase 3 wire system, which consists of
2 discs, one for each element.
• It is essential that the driving torque of the two elements should be equal when
equal amount of power passes through each element.
• Hence in addition to normal compensating devices attached to each element,
adjustable magnetic shunt is provided to both the elements in order to balance the 2
driving torques of the two elements.

Fig. 4.17 Circuit diagram of 2 element energy meter

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Fig. 4.18 Two element energy meter

Three element energy meter:

Fig. 4.19 circuit diagram of three element energy meter

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Fig. 4.20 Three element energy meter

• It consists of 3 elements necessary to measure energy consumed by the load
connected to 3 phase 4 wire system.
12. Explain with neat sketch the classification of instrument transformer. Write
a note on the errors affecting the characteristics of an instrument.
• In power systems, currents and voltages handled are very large therefore direct
measurements are not possible.
• The large currents and voltages are stepped down with the help of transformers so
that they could be measured with instruments of moderate size.
• Thus the transformers used in combination with measuring instruments for
measurement purposes are called as instrument transformers.
• Transformers used for measuring current is called as current transformer (C.T)
• The transformer used for measuring voltage is called potential transformer (P.T).
Current transformers:
• Current transformer is a device used to decrease the current level by stepping
up or down the voltage and keeping the energy constant.
• Hence current transformers are basically step-up transformers.
• The primary winding of the transformer is connected in series with the line
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carrying the current to be measured and therefore the primary current is dependent on
the load connected to the system whose current is to be measured.
• The secondary winding of the C.T is connected to a low range ammeter.
• In case of C.T the secondary current is less than the primary current.

Fig. 4.21 Current Transformer

• From the above equation it is clear that in order to decrease the secondary current
by 100 times, the secondary voltage should be increased by 100 times.
• If the turn’s ratio of C.T is known and the meter reading is known, the actual high
line current value can be determined.

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Potential transformers:

• The primary winding is connected across the high voltage line whose voltage is to
be measured and the secondary is connected to the low range voltmeter coil.
• One end of the secondary winding is always grounded for safety purpose.

Fig. 4.22 Potential Transformer

The main difference between C.T and P.T are:

• C.T acts as a step-up transformer whereas P.T acts as a step-down transformer.
• Secondary voltage of P.T is lesser than the primary voltage whereas secondary
voltage of C.T is higher than the primary voltage.
• Secondary current of the P.T is more than the primary current whereas secondary
current of the C.T is less than the primary current.
• In case of P.T, primary winding has more number of turns compared to the
secondary whereas in case of C.T, primary winding has less number of turns compared to
secondary.
• In case of P.T, the primary winding is connected across the load, whereas in case of
C.T, the primary winding is connected in series with the load.

13. Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

• Digital storage oscilloscope definition is an electronic device that stores and
analyses the signal in the digital format is known as Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO).
• When the input signal is given to the DSO, then it is processed, stored in the

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memory, and displayed on the screen.

• It stores the signal in the form of digital data as either 1 Or 0.

Block Diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

• As seen in the above figure, at first digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog
input signal, then the analog input signal is amplified by amplifier if it has any weak
signal.
• After amplification, the signal is digitized by the digitizer and that digitized signal
stores in memory.
• The analyzer circuit process the digital signal after that the waveform is
reconstructed (again the digital signal is converted into an analog form) and then that
signal is applied to vertical plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT).
• The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input and horizontal input.
• The vertical input signal is the ‘Y’ axis and the horizontal input signal is the ‘X’ axis.
• The time base circuit is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, so it is going
to generate the time base signal which is a ramp signal.
• Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier, and this horizontal
amplifier will provide input to the horizontal plate.
• On the CRT screen, we will get the waveform of the input signal versus time.
Working Principle
• The working principle of a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) is based on digitizing
and storing the input signals with the help of CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) and digital
memory.
• The process of digitization is the sampling of input signals at different periodic
signals.
• Here, the signal’s maximum frequency measured by the DSO depends on 2 factors,
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which are sampling rate and the converter nature.

• And also the function of the digital storage oscilloscope depends on the sampling
and the converter.
• Waveform Reconstruction
• Although the input is sampled according to sampling theory, aliasing effect can still
occur.
• This is so because the output is present as series of dots, that corresponds to the
sampled value.
• Digital storage oscilloscope uses interpolation technique, for visualization of final waves.
• Interpolation is a technique that creates new data points with the help of a discrete
set of known data points. It is basically of two types-
• Linear interpolation
• Sinusoidal interpolation
Let’s have a look at the figure illustrating interpolation methods-

• In linear interpolation, the dots are connected together by a straight line. It can be
used in pulsed or square wave generation but not in case of sinusoidal waves.
• In sinusoidal interpolation, the dots are connected so as to form sinusoidal
waveform. But it is not suitable for square or pulse waves.

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TWO MARKS

1. What is meant by measurement?

A measurement of any quantity either physical or electrical gives meaningful act when
it is compared with predefined standard quantity.
2. What is the broad classification of measuring instruments? (MAY 2018)
➢ Active/passive instruments
➢ Null/deflection type instruments
➢ Monitoring/control instruments
➢ Analog/digital instruments
➢ Absolute/secondary instruments

3. What is meant by instrument?

An instrument is a device for measuring the value or magnitude of a quantity or
variable.
4. What are the applications of measurement system?
➢ Monitoring of operations.
➢ Control of processes and operations.
➢ Experimental engineering analysis.
5. Define static characteristics of an instrument.
• When the instrument is used to measure a quantity which do not vary with time is
called static characteristics.
6. Define dynamic characteristics of an instrument.
• When the instrument is used to measure a quantity which vary with time is called
dynamic characteristics.
7. Define true value.
• True value is defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values when
the average deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero.
8. Define static error.
• It is defined as the difference between the measured value and true value of the
quantity.
9. What are the factors influenced in accuracy?
➢ Static error
➢ Dynamic error
➢ Reproducibility
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➢ Dead zone
10. Write the main static characteristics.
➢ Accuracy
➢ Reproducibility
➢ Sensitivity
➢ Drift
➢ Static error
➢ Dead zone
➢ Resolution

11. Define reproducibility.

• It is defined as the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.
• It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
12. Define threshold.
• It is defined as the minimum value of the input at which the output starts
changing/ increasing from zero.
13. State the function of measurement system.
• The measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the
quantity to be measured in an analogous form the analogous signal is then
processed by some intermediate means and it is fed to the end device which
presents the result of the instrument.
14. What factors cause drift?
➢ Mechanical vibrations.
➢ High mechanical stress
➢ Wear and tear
➢ Stray electric and magnetic fields
15. Differentiate between accuracy and precision.
ACCURACY PRECISION
It is the degree of closeness of a A measure of the consistency or
measurement compared to true value. repeatability of measurements
It gives the maximum error which is It gives its capability to reproduce a
maximum departure of the final result certain reading with a given accuracy.
from its true value.

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16. Classify the drift.

➢ Zero drift
➢ Span drift
➢ Zonal drift
17. Define zero drift.
• The whole instrument calibration may gradually shifts due to slippage or due to
undue warming up of electronic tube circuits; this drift is called zero drift.

18. Define span drift.

• There is a proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale; this drift
is called as span drift.
19. Define zonal drift.
• The drift occurs over a span of an instrument, it is called as zonal drift.
20. Define measuring lag and fidelity of dynamic characteristics of an instrument.
• Measuring lag is defined as the retardation or delay in response of an instrument to
changes in measured quantity.
• Fidelity is defined as the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape of input
with respect to time.
21. Differentiate resolution from threshold.

RESOLUTION THRESHOLD

It is the smallest change in measured It is defined as the minimum value

value to which the instrument will respond. Of the input at which the output starts
changing/ increasing from zero.

22. Define the term sensitivity of an instrument.

• Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to the
magnitude of input signal to be measured.
23. What is meant by absolute error of measurement?
• Absolute error is difference between the true value and measured value of a
quantity.
𝑒=𝑅0−𝑅𝑇
e-Absolute error
RT-true reading
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R0-observed reading
24. What are different types of errors in measurement system. (MAY 2018).
➢ Gross Errors
➢ Systematic Errors
(i) Instrumental Errors
(ii) Environmental Errors
(iii) Observational Errors
➢ Random errors
25. What are the reasons for gross errors?
➢ Incorrect adjustment
➢ Misreading of instrument scale
➢ Incorrect recording of experimental data
➢ Parallax error
26. What are the reasons for instrumental errors?
➢ Inherent short comings in an instrument
➢ Misuse of instrument
➢ Loading effect
27. How can we reduce the environmental errors?
➢ Air-conditioning
➢ Shielding
➢ Proper earthing
➢ Spring mounting
28. What are the causes for random errors?
➢ Hysteresis in elastic members
➢ Backlash in the movement
➢ Mechanical vibrations
29. What are the sources of errors?
➢ Energy exchanged by interaction
➢ Noise
➢ Design limitations
➢ Deterioration of measuring system.
30. Define backlash.
• It is defined as the maximum distance through which a part of the mechanical
system can be moved in one direction without applying appreciable force or motion

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to the next part in a mechanical system.

31. Define linearity.
• The ability to produce the input characteristics symmetrically is known as Linearity.
32. What are the sources of errors that may occur in permanent magnet moving coil
instrument?
➢ Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing and temperature effects.
➢ Weakening of springs due to same reasons
➢ Change of resistance of the moving coil with temperature
33. What are the advantages and disadvantages of PMMC instrument?
Advantages:
➢ The scale is uniform
➢ Low power consumption
➢ High torque / Weight ratio
➢ Using suitable value of shunts and multipliers respectively, we can use a single
instrument for many different ranges of current and voltages.
Disadvantages:
➢ These instruments are useful only for DC not for AC
➢ The cost is higher than that of PMMI instrument
34. What is the basic operating principle of a PMMC instrument?
• A moving coil that carries the current is placed between two poles of a permanent
magnet.
• When current passes through the coil, it produces a strong magnetic field. The
permanent magnet also produces magnetic field. The deflecting torque is produced
due to the interaction between two fluxed.
• Since the permanent magnet is fixed, the moving coil tends to move and the pointer
which is one of the parts of moving coil arrangement also moves.
35. Explain the operating principle of moving iron (MI) instrument.
• In this type of instrument the coil in which the current passes through is fixed. The
moving iron is a flat disc, which is mounted between the fixed coils.
• When current passes through the coil, the moving iron is moved either by force of
attraction or repulsion.
36. Why cannot a moving coil instrument be used in AC circuits?
• The deflecting torque of the instrument reverses if the current reverse.

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• If the instrument is connected to AC, the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals
and the deflection corresponds to mean torque, which is zero.
• So these instruments cannot be used for AC.
37. Which type of instruments is called universal instrument?
The moving iron instruments are known as universal instruments, because these
instruments can be used for both AC and DC.
38. What are the errors occurring in MI (MOVING IRON) instruments?
➢ Hysteresis error
➢ Temperature error
➢ Stray magnetic field error
➢ Frequency error due to reactance of instrument coil and eddy currents.
39. What are the advantages and disadvantages of MI Instruments?
Advantages:
➢ Universal use – Suitable for the measurement of both AC and DC
➢ Less friction loss hence high torque / weight ratio
➢ Cheapness – A single type moving element could cover entire range of current
➢ Robustness – Simple and rugged construction because there is no current
Carrying moving parts.
➢ Accuracy – Capable of giving good accuracy like 2%
Disadvantages:
➢ Scale – The scale of MI instrument is not uniform and is cramped at the lower end
and therefore accurate readings are not possible at this end.
➢ Errors – these instrument are subjected to serious errors due to hysteresis,
frequency changes and stray magnetic field
➢ Difference u AC and DC calibrations – there is a difference between DC and AC
calibrations on account of effect of inductance and eddy currents when the meter is
used on AC. Hence they must be calibrated for frequency at which they are used.
40. What are the main types of instrument used as ammeters and voltmeters?
➢ Permanent magnet moving coil
➢ Moving Iron
➢ Electrodynamometer
➢ Hot wire
➢ Thermocouple
➢ Induction

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➢ Electrostatic
➢ Rectifier
41. Write and explain the torque equation of moving coil.

Where

Where
𝐾 − 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For final steady state condition
𝑇𝑐= 𝑇𝑑
𝐺𝐼 = 𝐾𝜃
Final Deflection,

Current,

42. What are the operating forces needed for indicating instruments?
i)Deflecting force:
The force required for moving the pointer from its zero position
ii)Controlling force:
The force required to bring the pointer to final steady state position without over shoot
and to bring back the pointer to zero when deflecting force is absent.
iii)Damping force:
The force required to bring the pointer to final steady state position quickly without
oscillations.
43. What are the control systems used for producing control force?
➢ Gravity control
➢ Spring Control
44. What are the advantages of spring control over gravity control?
Advantages:
➢ Gravity control can be used only in vertically mounted instruments
➢ The scale used in gravity control type instruments is cramped at the lower end.
Hence not uniform.
45. What are the damping systems used in instrument?
➢ Air friction damping
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➢ Eddy current damping

➢ Fluid friction damping
46. What are the applications of PMMC?
• These instruments can be used as voltmeter and ammeter with multi-ranges
• Self-shielding magnets make the core magnet mechanism particularly useful in
aircrafts and other aerospace applications where more number of instruments are
mounted in one case to form a unified display. There by considerable amount of
weight is reduced.
47. Mention the two types of MI instruments.
➢ Attraction type
➢ Repulsion type
48. What are the applications of MI instruments?
➢ Used as multi-range ammeters and voltmeters
➢ Used as inexpensive indicators such as charging and discharging current indicators
in automobiles
➢ Extensively used in industries for measurement of AC voltage and current where
errors of the order of 5% to 10% are acceptable.
49. Mention the importance of moving coil instruments.
➢ Low power consumption
➢ Their scales are uniform
➢ High torque / weight ratio
➢ No hysteresis loss
50. Mention the importance of moving iron instruments.
➢ It is suitable for the measurement of both AC and DC
➢ Less friction loss
➢ High accuracy
➢ Simple and rugged construction.
51. What are the types of indicating instruments?
➢ Moving coil instruments
➢ Moving iron instruments
52. What are the different torque acts upon the moving system of the instruments
for good operation?
➢ Deflecting torque
➢ Controlling torque

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➢ Damping torque
53. List the measuring instruments you known.
➢ Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument
➢ Permanent Magnet Moving Iron (PMMI) instrument
➢ Dynamometer type wattmeter
➢ Energy meter
54. Why we need damping device in indicating instruments?
• Damping device is mainly used to prevent oscillation of the moving system and
enable the latter to reach its final position quickly.
55. Compare moving coil and moving iron instruments based on any two salient
features.

Sl.No. Moving Coil Instrument Moving Iron instrument

1. Scale is uniform Scale is not uniform

2. High Cost Less Cost
It is used only measurement of Measurement of AC and DC
3.
DC

56. Mention any two types of wattmeter.

➢ Dynamometer type wattmeter
➢ Induction type wattmeter
➢ Electrostatic type wattmeter
57. What are the coils in the wattmeter?
➢ Current coil
➢ Pressure coil
58. What are the errors which occur in an electro dynamometer type wattmeter?
➢ Error due to pressure coil inductance
➢ Error due to pressure coil capacitance
➢ Error caused by connections
➢ Eddy current errors
➢ Stray magnetic field errors
➢ Errors caused by vibrations
➢ Temperature errors
59. Name the instrument used for measuring the electrical power consumed during a
specific period.
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➢ Energy meter – used to measure energy consumption

60. What are the advantages of induction type energy meter?
➢ Simple operation
➢ High torque / weight ratio
➢ Cost is cheap
➢ Unaffected by temperature variations
61. What is the use of copper shading band in energy meter?
• Copper shading band also known as the power factor compensator is provided in
the central limb of the shunt magnet.
• It is mainly used to achieve exactly 90𝑜 phase displacement between the flux
produced in shunt magnet and the voltage across the shunt magnet.
62. List the major components of single phase induction type energy meter.
➢ Shunt Magnet
➢ Series Magnet
➢ Braking Magnet
➢ Pressure Coil
➢ Current Coil
➢ Disc
63. What is instrument transformer? Give its types.
Transformers used in conjunction with the measuring instruments for measurement
purposes are called instrument transformer. It is also used for production of power
circuits.
➢ Potential transformer
➢ Current transformer
64. State the advantages of instrument transformers.
➢ Used for extension of range
➢ Power loss is minimum
➢ High voltage and currents can be measured.

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