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Dhambojhi higher Secondary School

Class-11 Physics
Teacher : Resham Chapagain

2078/10/16
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 Optics
Chapter -1

Reflection at curved mirrors

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 Concave mirror:
The spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is depressed is called
concave mirror. It is also called converging mirror. It can forms
both real or virtual image.

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 Convex mirror:
The mirror whose reflecting surface is bulged is called convex
mirror.it is also called diverging mirror because it diverges the light
in different direction.
It makes virtual image.

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Mirror formula for convex mirror
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 Chapter -2
Refraction through plane surface
The phenomenon of propagation of light from one homogeneous
medium to another is called Refraction of light. The phenomenon is Air(rarer)
mainly in governance to the law of conservation of energy and i
momentum. due to change in medium speed, and wavelength of light are
changed but its frequency remains constant.
r
The change in speed of light causes the refraction of light.
Laws of reflection of light
1. When a ray of light travels from rarer medium to denser medium, it
bends towards the normal and in this condition i>r.
2. When a ray of light travels from denser medium to rarer medium it
bends away from the normal and hence i<r.
3. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is
constant and is called refractive index.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
჻μ= . This is called Snells law.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 Prepared by Resham Chapagain 12
Refractive index in terms of speed of light:
The ratio of speed of light in vaccum or air to the speed of light in a
medium is called absolute Refractive index of the medium.
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟(𝑐)
჻ μ=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚( 𝑣)
Principle of reversibility of light:
When direction of a ray of light is reversed,
Air
the ray retrace its path.
aμ . gμ =1
g a
Glass

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 Real and apparent depth:
Let us consider an Object coin O placed in denser
medium say water is viewed from rarer medium.
C
it appears to be raised at point I which is the virtual
image of object. Thus, OA = t is called Real depth
and AI is called apparent depth of object
which is shown in fig.
According to snells law for water-air media
Wμ sin 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛<𝑂𝐵𝑁′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛<𝐴𝑂𝐵
a = sin 𝑟
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛<𝑁𝐵𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛<𝐴𝐼𝐵

𝐴𝐵 𝐼𝐵
Wμ 𝑂𝐵
a = 𝐴𝐵 = …………………………1
𝐼𝐵 𝑂𝐵
since B is very close to A so IB=IA and OB=OA then eq1 becomes
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 wμ 𝐼𝐴
or a =
𝑂𝐴
1 𝐼𝐴 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕
or 𝑎 = =
𝜇𝑤 𝑂𝐴 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕
჻ aμw = …………………. 2
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕

the apparent displacement in the position of the object is OI =d

then OI= OA - IA
𝑂𝐴 1
d = OA - 𝑎 = OA ( 1- 𝑎 )
𝜇𝑤 𝜇𝑤
1
჻d = t ( 1- ) …………….. 3
𝜇

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Lateral shift : The perpendicular distance between the direction of the
incident ray produced and the emergent ray is called Lateral shift.

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Critical angle:
The particular angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction
becomes 90o is called critical angle for the two given media.

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 Total internal reflection:
When a ray of light is travelling from denser medium to rarer medium is incident at an
angle greater than critical angle for the two media, the ray is totally reflected back into
same denser medium is called Total internal reflection. In this case, the reflection is
100% as compared to ordinary refection where it is partial. There is practically no loss
of light in total internal reflection.

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Condition of total internal reflection:

There are two condition necessary for total internal refection.

1. The light must pass from denser medium into a rarer medium.
2. the angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle for the
two given media.

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Relation between refractive index and critical angle:
When light travels from denser medium(glass) to rarer medium(air) then
according to snells law, we can write
gμ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
a =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
But i=c and r = 90. we can write
gμ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
a =
sin 90
1
𝑎 = sin 𝐶 glass
𝜇𝑔
aμ 1
჻ g =
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐶

This gives relation between critical angle

And Refractive index. since μ depends upon the Wavelength of light used,
critical angle also depends upon wavelength and will be different for
different colors of light even for the same pair of media. 21
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 Application of total internal refection:
1. Total reflecting prism
2. the brilliance of diamond and precious
stone due to total internal reflection.
3. Mirage in hot region
4. Mirage in cold region(looming).
5. In light pipe.
6. In optical fiber so on…..

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 Chapter -3
Refraction through prism
Prism:
A transparent medium bounded by three rectangular surface whose upper
and lower surface are triangular is called prism. generally prism is made by
either crown glass or flint glass.

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Deviation of light through Prism:
Let us consider a prism ABC through which a ray of light PQ refracted as shown
in figure above..
Now using the rules of geometry, we can write.
і = δ 1 + r1 ……………..1 A
And , e = δ 2 + r2 …………….2 W
Adding eq1 and eq2, we get
і + e = δ1 +δ2 +r1 +r2 ……………..3 N T δ N’
In ∆TQR, the side QT is produced
Q δ1 R
so, δ = δ1 + δ2 …………….4 i
δ2 e
r1 r2
then eq3 becomes r3 S
і + e = r1 +r2 + δ ………….5 P O
Now, in quadrilateral AQOR, we have
<AQO = <ARO = 90˚
Since, sum of four angles of quadrilateral is 360, so we can write
A + r3 = 180 ……….6
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 Again in ∆QOR we have
<QOR + r2+ r1 = 180˚
r3 + r2 + r1 =180˚ ………..7
From eq6 and eq7 , we get
A + r3 = r3 + r2 + r1
჻A = r1 +r2 ………..8
Then from eq5 and eq8 we get
჻і +e =A+δ
Thus, this eqn governs the refraction of light through a
prism.

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 Minimum deviation through a prism
It is experimentally found that as the angle of incidence increases from zero, the angle of
deviation decreases at first and becomes minimum for certain value of angle of incidence,
beyond which angle of deviation increases to maximum value with increase in angle
incidence to 90˚.
if light gets refracted through a prism then we know
A + δ = і+ e ………….1
And A = r1 +r2
But At minimum deviation condition of prism,
δ = δm , i = e and r1 =r2 =r say then eq1 becomes
A + δm = i + i
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚
჻ і= ………..2
2
And A = r + r
𝐴
჻ r= ……….3
2
If μ be the refractive index of prism, from snells law,
we have
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
μ= from eq2 and eq3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
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 𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚
sin( )
2
჻μ= 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚
sin( 2 )
჻ aμg = 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2

Which is relation between refractive index and angle of

minimum deviation.

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 Deviation through small angle Prism:
A prism of angle is less than 12˚ is called small angle prism. If angle of prism A is small r1 , r2
and hence і and e are also small.
We know that, in case of prism
A + δ = і + e ………1 A
Also, for refraction through face AB,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
μ= ……..2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟1
But for a small angle і and r1, sini ≈ і and sinr1 ≈ r1
so from eqn2, we have
𝑖
჻ μ= or і = μr1 ……….3
𝑟1
Similarly, for refraction at face AC, e = μ r2
Then eq1 becomes
A + δ = μr1 + μ r2
A + δ = 𝜇 (𝑟1 + 𝑟2)
A +δ=μA B C
჻ δ = A ( μ -1)
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 Chapter-4
Lenses
A transparent medium bounded by two definite geometrical shape is
called lens. The spherical shape is more common. However, in a lens one
of the two surface has to be spherical and the other can be plane or
spherical surface. lens is divided into two types.
1. Convex lens (converging lens)
2. concave lens (diverging lens)

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 Convex lens:
The lens whose middle is thick and corner or edge or periphery is thin
is called a convex lens. this is also called converging lens because they
converge at a point after refraction through the lens.it is used as a
magnifier, correct long sightedness of eye and in compound
microscope as objective and eyepiece.

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 Concave lens:
The lens whose middle portion is thin and corner or edge or periphery is
thick is called a concave lens. this is also called diverging lens because
they appears to diverge from a point. It is used in flash light ,correct
short sightedness of eye and in Galilean telescope as an objective.

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The lens formula:
The relation between object distance(u),image distance(v) and focal
length (f) of a lens is called lens formula or lens equation. And is given
1 1 1
by = + .
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

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 Lens formula for convex lens:
Let us consider a convex lens of focal length f and object AB is placed in
front of 2F whose real, inverted and diminished image A’B’ is formed
between F and 2F on another side. Which is shown in figure.

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From the figure, it is obvious that ∆ABO and ∆A’B’O are similar, so we can
write
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐵
= ……………1
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑂𝐵′
Again, ∆MOF and ∆A’B’F are similar, so we can write
𝑂𝑀 𝑂𝐹
= but AB= OM so,
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐹𝐵′
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐹
or = …………….2
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐹𝐵′
From eqn1 and 2,we get
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐹
=
𝑂𝐵′ 𝐹𝐵′
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐹
or = ′ ……………..3
𝑂𝐵′ 𝑂𝐵 −𝑂𝐹
Applying sign convention, we have
OB = u; OB’ = +v ; and OF = +f

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Then eq3 becomes
𝑢 𝑓
=
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓
uv –uf = vf
dividing by uvf, we get
1 1 1
- =
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1 1
჻ = +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
Which is lens formula for convex lens.

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 Lens formula for concave lens:
Let us consider a concave lens of focal length f. Let an object AB is
placed at a distance u whose virtual, erect and diminished image A’B’
is formed at a distance v. which is shown in fig.
From the figure, it is obvious that ∆ABC and ∆A’B’C are similar, so we
can write
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
= ……………1 M
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐶
Again, ∆MCF and ∆A’B’F are similar,
so we can write
𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝐹
′ = but AB= CM so,
𝐴 𝐵′ 𝐹𝐴′
𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐹
or ′ = …………….2
𝐴 𝐵′ 𝐹𝐴′

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 From eqn1 and 2,we get
𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝐹
′ =
𝐴𝐶 𝐹𝐴′
𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝐹
or = ……………..3
𝐴′ 𝐶 𝐶𝐹−𝐶𝐴′
Applying sign convention, we have
AC = u; CA’ = -v ; and CF = -f
Then eq3 becomes
𝑢 −𝑓
=
−𝑣 −𝑓−(−𝑣)
𝑢 −𝑓
=
−𝑣 𝑣−𝑓
vf = uv -uf
dividing by uvf, we get
1 1 1
= -
𝑢 𝑓 𝑣
1 1 1
჻ = +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
Which is lens formula for convex lens.
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 Power of lens:
The reciprocal of focal length of lens is called power of lens.
1
That is p = .
𝑓
Thus, smaller the focal length of lens greater is its power and vice
versa.
The power of lens indicates the converging or diverging capacity of
lens. The more bending capacity of lens, the more power of lense.
it is measured in diopter(D).

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 Chapter – 5
dispersion of light
Definition:
The phenomenon of splitting of white light when it passes through the
a prism, into its constituents color (VIBGYOR) is called dispersion of
light.

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 Cause of dispersion:
Cauchy’s formula for the refractive index of a material for light of
wavelength λ is given by
𝑏 𝑐
μ=a+ + ………1
λ2 λ4
Where a, b, c are constants. Since wavelength of violet light is smaller
than that of red light so according to this formula it is clear that μ of
material for violet light is more than red light. i.e. μv>μr.
Thus, the white light consisting of different color will emerge from
prism in different direction due to their different wavelength which is
recognized as dispersion.

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 Angular dispersion:
The difference in angle of deviation between any two colours of light is
called Angular dispersion.
Angular dispersion = δv- δr
= (μv -1)A – (μr-1)A
= (μv – μr)A
Thus, angular dispersion depends
upon the angle of the prism
and nature of prism material.

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 Dispersive power:
Thee ratio of angular dispersion to mean deviation is a constant called
dispersive power. it is denoted by omega(ω).
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 δ𝑣−δ𝑟
Dispersive power = =
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 δ
𝜇𝑣 −𝜇𝑟
჻ω=
𝜇 −1
The refractive index of flint glass is more than that of crown glass, so
dispersive power of flint glass is more than that of crown glass. when
white light passes through a prism ,it suffers deviation and dispersive as
well.

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 Chromatic aberration:
The inability of lens to bring the light of different colors at a single point is called
chromatic aberration. The lens can be regarded as a combination of number
prism.so, a lens splits white light into different color just as a prism does. So, violet
rays of light get focused close to lens while the red rays a little away from the lens
and rest all color are focused between Fv and Fr .
჻ Chromatic aberration = Fr- Fv
it is a lens defect only. It can be
Reduced using a combination of crown
glass convex lens with a flint
glass concave lens.

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Condition for Achromatism:
Let us consider two thin lenses of different materials of dispersive
power ω and ω’ be combined.

L L’
R
V

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Again, Let μv ,μ ,μr and μ’v , μ’ , μ’r be refractive indices of the first and
second lens for violet, yellow and red colors of light. let fv , f, fr and
fv’ , f’ fr’ are their corresponding focal lengths.
Then, by lens makers formula for first lens(L) we have
1 1 1
= (μv -1) ( + ) …………….1
𝑓𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
= (μ -1) ( + ) ………………2
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
= (μr -1) ( + ) .…………….3
𝑓𝑟 𝑅1 𝑅2
Similarly, for the second Lens(L’) we have
1 1 1
= (μ’v -1) ( + ) ……………4
𝑓′𝑣 𝑅1′ 𝑅2′
1 1 1
= (μ’ -1) ( + ) ……….…..5
𝑓′ 𝑅1′ 𝑅 2′
1 1 1
= (μ’r -1) ( + ) ……………6
𝑓′ 𝑟 𝑅1′ 𝑅2′
Where R1,R2 and R’1 and R’2are the radii of curvature of lens L and L’ .
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Now, if Fv be the combined focal length for the lens combination.
1 1 1
for violet color, then we have = + …………7
𝐹𝑣 𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑣′
similarly, for red color, we have
1 1 1
= + ………..8
𝐹𝑟 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑟′
For achromatism, we must have
Fv = Fr
1 1
=
𝐹𝑣 𝐹𝑟
1 1 1 1
+ = +
𝑓𝑣 𝑓′𝑣 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑟′
1 1 1 1
- = -( - ′ )
𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑟 𝑓′𝑣 𝑓 𝑟
1 1 1 1
(μv –μr) ( + ) = (μ’v –μ’r) ( + ) …………9
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅′1 𝑅′2
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Putting this values of eq2 and eq5 in eqn9, we get
(μ𝑣−μ𝑟 ) (μ′𝑣−μ′𝑟 )
= -
μ−1 𝑓 μ′−1 𝑓′
ω ω′
=-
f f′
𝑓 ω
჻ =- ………………10
𝑓′ ω′
Which is condition for achromatism.
Where ω and ω’ are the dispersive power of first and second lens.
Thus, ratio of dispersive power of lenses is equal to ratio of focal length for mean
color of the lenses.
Case: if the lens are of same material then ω = ω’ so from eq10, we have
𝜔 𝜔′ 1 1 1
𝑓
+ 𝑓′
= 0 𝑓
+ 𝑓′
= 0 𝐹
=0
჻ F = ꚙ or P = 0. a power less combination of will be formed which will
behaves like a plane glass not a lens.

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