Research Methodology
Introduction to Research Methodology
INTRODUCTION
One of the ways of estimating the true value of population
parameters is to test the validity of the claim(assertion or
statement) made about this value using simple statistics
e.g. a pharmaceutical company claims the efficacy of a medicine
against a disease that 95 % of all persons suffering from the disease
get cured
INTRODUCTION
To test such claims sample data is collected and analyzed. On the
basis of sample findings the hypothesized value of population
parameter is either accepted or rejected
The process that enables a decision maker to test the validity (or
significance ) of the claim by analyzing the difference between the
value of sample statistic and the corresponding hypothesized
population parameter value is called hypothesis testing
Hypothesis
Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the
solution of the problem.
A hypothesis is an assumption about the population
parameter.
A parameter is a characteristic of the population, like its mean
or variance.
Goal:Make statement(s) regarding unknown population
parameter values based on sample data
Hypothesis
Hypothesis goes beyond research questions
An unproven proposition or statement of relationships
A possible solution to a problem
Guess
Hypothesis are declarative in nature
Can be tested empirically
Features of Hypothesis
Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear
and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of
untestable hypotheses, many a time the research programmes have bogged
down. Some prior study may be done by researcher in order to make
hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can
be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by
observation.”
Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens
to be a relational hypothesis.
Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A
researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more
testable and he should develop such hypotheses.
Features of Hypothesis
Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that
the same is easily understandable by all concerned. Simplicity of
hypothesis should not compromise with its significance.
Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be
consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it
should be one which judges accept as being the most likely.
Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.
One should not use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be
tested in reasonable time for one cannot spend a life-time collecting data to
test it.
Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and
accepted generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem
condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain; it
should have empirical reference.
Features of Hypothesis
A hypothesis must be formulated in simple, clear, and
declarative form.
A broad hypothesis might not be empirically testable. Thus, it might
be advisable to make the hypothesis unidimensional, and to be
testing only one relationship between only two variables at a time
A hypothesis must be measurable and quantifiable.
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement based on the existing
literature and theories about the topic and not based on the
gut feel of the researcher.
The validation of the hypothesis would necessarily involve testing
the statistical significance of the hypothesized relation.
Types of Hypotheses
Null
that no statistically significant difference exists between the
parameter and the statistic being compared
Alternative
logical opposite of the null hypothesis
that a statistically significant difference does exist between the
parameter and the statistic being compared.
H0 always contains =
HA matches the question asked; it is what we’re trying to prove.
3. Development of working hypotheses:
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in
clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order
to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
Types of Hypothesis
Descriptive hypothesis:
This is simply a statement about the magnitude, trend or
behavior of a population under study. Based on past records,
the researcher makes some presumptions about the variable under
study. For example:
Students from the pure science background score 90–95 per cent on
a course on quantitative methods.
The current advertisement for the diet drink will have a 20–25 per
centrecall rate.
The literacy rate in the city of Indore is 100 per cent.
Types of Hypothesis
Relational hypothesis:
These are the typical kind of hypotheses which state the expected
relationship between two variables. While stating the relation
if the researcher makes use of words such as increase, decrease, less
than or more than, the hypothesis is stated to be directional or one-
tailed hypothesis. For example,
Higher the likeability of the advertisement, higher is the recall rate.
Higher the work exhaustion experienced by the BPO professional,
higher is the turnover intention of the person
Types of Hypothesis
Sometimes the researcher might not have reasonable supportive
data to hypothesize the expected direction of the relationship. In
this case he or she would leave the hypothesis as non-
directional or two-tailed. For example,
There is a relation between quality of working life and job
satisfaction experienced by employees.
Ban on smoking has an impact on cigarette sales.
Anxiety is related to performance.
FORMATS OF HYPOTHESIS
Directional Hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a statement to be tested about the true value
of population parameter
A hypothesis whether there exists any significant difference
between two or more populations with respect to any of their
common parameter can also be tested. In this case the
hypothesis can be stated in the form if- then statement
.Consider
If inflation rate has increased then wholesale index will also increase
If employees are healthy then they will take less sick leave
FORMATS OF HYPOTHESIS
Directional Hypothesis.
If terms such as positive, negative , more than etc are used to make a
statement , such a hypothesis is called directional hypothesis as it
indicates the direction of the relationship
Non Directional Hypothesis.
It indicates a relationship but offers no direction of relationship ( or
difference)e.g.
There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction
There is difference between average pulse rate of men and women
From Questions to Hypothesis
RESEARCH QUESTION HYPOTHESIS
1) What is the mean income of 1 ) The lower income people
heavy-drinkers of beer? consume more beer.
2) What age group of purchasers 2) The age group 35–44 is
of product ‘X’ buys ‘X’ the most? the heaviest user.
3) What will be the result on sales of 3) A 20 percent increase in
a 20 percent increase in price? price will not lead to
a decrease in rupee sales
ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Ideally the hypothesis testing procedure should lead to
acceptance of the null hypothesis Ho when it is true and the
rejection of Ho when it is not true
However the correct decision is not always possible
Since the decision to reject or accept a hypothesis is based on
sample date there is a possibility of an incorrect decision or
error
ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
There are two types of error
STATE OF NATURE
Sample Ho is true Ho is false
decision
Accept Ho Correct Type II error.
Decision=1- P(Type II)=
Reject Ho Type I error. Correct
p(Type I)= Decision
Power=1-
ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
TYPE 1 ERROR
This is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is
true and some alternative hypothesis is wrong
The probability of making a Type I error is denoted by the symbol
α
It is represented by the area under the sampling distribution curve
over the region of rejection
The probability of making a Type I error is referred to as level of
significance
The complement 1-α of the probability of Type I error measure the
probability level of not rejecting a true null hypothesis. It is also
referred to as confidence level
ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
TYPE II ERROR
This is the probability of accepting the null hypothesis when it is
false and some alternative hypothesis is true
The probability of Type II error varies with the actual values of the
population parameter being tested when null hypothesis Ho is false
Univariate
Techniques
Parametric Test Nonparametric Test
One One Sample Two or
Sample Two or More
Samples •Frequency More
•t test Samples
•Chi-square
•Z test Related
Independent •K-S
Independent
•t test •Paired t •Runs Related
test •Chi-Square
•Binomial •Chi-Square
•Z test •Median
•Sign
•One way
ANOVA
PROCESS OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING
1. Making a formal statement
2. Selecting a significance level
3. Deciding the distribution to use (Checking
of Normality)
4. Decide the decision rule
5. Selecting sample and variable for testing
6. Applying appropriate statistical test
7. Calculation of the probability (Calculating
Areas of Acceptance & Rejection)
8. Comparing the probability
9. Drawing Interpretation
PROCESS OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING
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