University Physics with Modern Physics

Fifteenth Edition, Global Edition, in SI Units

Chapter 16
Sound (and Hearing)

Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Learning Outcomes
In this chapter, you’ll learn…
• how to describe a sound wave in terms of either particle
displacements or pressure fluctuations.
• how to calculate the speed and intensity of sound waves.
• what determines the particular resonance frequencies of
sound produced by an organ or a flute.
• what happens when sound waves from different sources
overlap.
• the Doppler effect: Why the pitch of a siren changes as it
moves past you.
Introduction
• The sound from a horn travels more
slowly on a cold winter day high in the
mountains than on a warm summer day at
sea level.
• What determines the speed of sound in
air?
• We can think of a sound wave either in
terms of the displacement of the particles
or of the pressure it exerts.
• Why is the frequency of sound from a
moving source different from that of a
stationary source?
Sound Waves
• Sound is simply any longitudinal wave in a medium.
• The audible range of frequency for humans is between about 20
Hz and 20,000 Hz.

• For a sinusoidal sound wave traveling in the x direction, the

function y (x, t) gives the instantaneous displacement y of a
particle in the medium at position x and time t:

y (x, t) = A cos (kx − ωt)

(sound wave propagating in
the +x direction)
• In a longitudinal wave the displacements are parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave, so distances x and y are measured
parallel to each other, not perpendicular as in a transverse wave.
Different Ways to Describe a Sound
Wave (1 of 3)
Different Ways to Describe a Sound
Wave (2 of 3)
Different Ways to Describe a Sound
Wave (3 of 3)
• Sound can be described mathematically as a displacement
wave:
y (x, t) = A cos (kx − ωt)
(sound wave propagating in the
+x direction)
• The same sound wave can alternatively be described
mathematically as a pressure wave:
p (x, t) = Bk A sin (kx − ωt)
• The quantity BkA represents the maximum pressure
fluctuation, and is called the pressure amplitude:
Perception of Sound Waves (1 of 2)
• Shown in (a) is the pressure fluctuation versus time for
a clarinet with fundamental frequency f1 = 233 Hz:
• The mathematical process of translating the pressure–
time graph (a) into a graph of harmonic content (b) is
called Fourier analysis.
Perception of Sound Waves (2 of 2)
• Shown in (c) is the pressure fluctuation versus time
for an alto recorder with fundamental frequency
f1 = 523 Hz.
• The mathematical process of translating the
pressure–time graph (c) into a graph of harmonic
content (d) is called Fourier analysis.
Speed of Sound Waves
• The speed of sound depends on the characteristics of the
medium.
• In a fluid, such as water, the speed of sound is:

• In a solid rod or bar, the speed of sound is:

• In an ideal gas, such as air, the speed of sound is:

• Video Tutor Solution: Example 16.4

Table 16.1 Speed of Sound in Various
Bulk Materials
Material Speed of Sound (m/s)
Gases Blank
Air (20 degrees Celsius) 344
Helium (20 degrees Celsius) 999
Hydrogen (20 degrees Celsius) 1330
Liquids Blank
Liquid helium (4 K) 211
Mercury (20 degrees Celsius) 1451
Water (0 degrees Celsius) 1402
Water (20 degrees Celsius) 1482
Water (100 degrees Celsius) 1543
Solids Blank
Aluminium 6420
Lead 1960
Steel 5941
Ultrasonic Imaging
• This three-dimensional image of a
foetus in the womb was made
using a sequence of ultrasound
scans.
• Each individual scan reveals a
two-dimensional “slice”
through the foetus; many such
slices were then combined
digitally.
• Ultrasound imaging is also used
to study heart valve action and to
detect tumours.
Sound Intensity
• Sound waves transfer energy from one region of space to
another.
• The wave intensity I is defined as the time average rate
at which wave energy is transported per unit area across a
surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
• The intensity of a sinusoidal sound wave is proportional to
the square of the pressure amplitude:
Standing Sound Waves
• When sound waves propagate in a fluid in a pipe, the
waves are reflected from the ends and a standing wave
can be produced.
Organ Pipes
• Organ pipes of different sizes produce
tones with different frequencies (bottom
figure).
• The figure at the right shows
displacement nodes in two cross-sections
of an organ pipe at two instants that are
one-half period apart. The blue shading
shows pressure variation.
Harmonics in an Open Pipe (1 of 3)
• The fundamental frequency of an open pipe is shown.
• The shading indicates the pressure variations.
• The red curves are graphs of the displacement along the
pipe axis at two instants separated in time by one half-
period.
Harmonics in an Open Pipe (2 of 3)
• Higher harmonics in an open pipe have frequency:
Harmonics in an Open Pipe (3 of 3)
• Higher harmonics in an open pipe have frequency:
Harmonics in a Stopped Pipe (1 of 3)
• The fundamental frequency of a stopped pipe is shown.
• The shading indicates the pressure variations.
• The red curves are graphs of the displacement along the pipe
axis at two instants separated in time by one half-period.

• Video Tutor Solution: Example 16.12

Harmonics in a Stopped Pipe (2 of 3)
• Higher harmonics in a stopped pipe have frequency:
Harmonics in a Stopped Pipe (3 of 3)
• Higher harmonics in a stopped pipe have frequency:
Resonance and Sound
• The frequency of the
sound from this trumpet
exactly matches one of
the normal-mode
frequencies of the goblet.
• The resonant vibrations of
the goblet have such
large amplitude that the
goblet tears itself apart.
Interference (1 of 2)
• When two or more waves
overlap in the same region
of space they interfere.
• In the figure, two speakers
are driven by the same
amplifier.
• Constructive interference
occurs at point P, and
destructive interference
occurs at point Q.
Interference (2 of 2)
Beats (1 of 2)
• Beats are heard when two tones of slightly different
frequency (fa and fb) are sounded together.
• The amplitude rises and falls with a new, much lower,
frequency called the beat frequency:

• Beats between two tones can be heard up to a

maximum beat frequency of about 6 or 7 Hz.
• Listening for beats is an important technique in tuning
all musical instruments.
Beats (2 of 2)
The Doppler Effect (1 of 2)
• The Doppler effect for sound is the shift in frequency
when there is motion of the source of sound S, the
listener L, or both:
The Doppler Effect: Moving Listener
• A listener moving toward a stationary source hears a
frequency that is higher than the source frequency.
The Doppler Effect: Moving Source
• When a source is moving away from a listener, the
waves behind the source are stretched to a longer
wavelength.
The Doppler Effect (2 of 2)
• The Doppler effect explains the observed change in pitch of the siren on a
fire engine or ambulance.

• The frequency is high (fL > fS) when it is approaching you (uS < 0).

• The frequency is low (fL < fS) when it is moving away from you (uS > 0).

• Video Tutor Solution: Example 16.17

Shock Waves
• When an object travels at a speed greater than the
speed of sound in air, it creates a shock wave.
v
sin α =
vs

(A proper treatment involves far more complicated mathematics.)