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Radiography in Modern Industry

Paper Radiography
To many radiographers and interpreters the words "radiograph" and "film" are
synonymous. However, a combination of factors, among them, recurring silver
shortages and rising costs of other nondestructive testing methods, have
prompted increasing interest in the use of paper in industrial radiography.
Developments in papers, screens, and processing techniques have resulted from
the realization that radiographs on paper have distinct advantages to offer the
user who will consider them, not in the context of x-ray film, but as the product of
another recording medium, one which is to be viewed in an entirely different way.
Advantages of Paper Radiographs
What are some of the advantages of using paper in industrial radiography? For
one, rapid access. A damp-dry radiograph can be put in the interpreter's hands in
as little as 10 seconds after exposure. Moreover, radiographic paper, plus
intensifying screens, plus proper exposure equals good image quality. With direct
exposure, the image has acceptable subject contrast combined with wide latitude.
Convenience and economy also enter the picture. The paper processor is portable,
requires no plumbing connections and, in addition, has a low operating cost.
Applications for Paper Radiography
Where can you use paper radiographs in your nondestructive testing program?
The applications are numerous. For instance, there are many stages in production
that may require radiographic inspection before code or specification radiographs
are made. This is a prime area for the use of paper in radiography. Other
applications exist in foundries where in-process x-ray procedures are used to
monitor practices of gating and risering; checking core positions in wax patterns;
detecting shrinkage flaws, porosity, dross, or cavities in castings, and monitoring
root passes; and subsequent weld passes for a variety of flaws.
Radiographs on paper also find application in checking circuit boards for proper
assembly and absence of solder balls. In aircraft maintenance, paper radiographs
can be used to inspect for water in honeycomb, foreign material in oil pumps, and
for general survey work. Some other applications include on-site checking of
pipelines, pressure vessels, and weldments; inspection in industries such as food
processing, wood products, tires, seeds, and titanium reprocessing; bomb
detection; and many types of survey radiography.
Factors Affecting Paper Radiographs
Although there are areas of similarity between radiographs on paper and
radiographs on film, recognition of the differences between the two is, in some
instances, the governing factor for the production of good paper radiographs.
Paper requires more exposure control than film because it has less exposure
latitude and a shorter density scale. On the other hand, both paper and film
require control of scatter radiation in order to realize the most that is in the
product.
Exposure Techniques
The fact that radiographic papers have a shorter density scale and less exposure
latitude than industrial x-ray films demands more critical exposure parameters.
There are, therefore, precise techniques for exposing these papers to achieve a
properly exposed paper radiograph quickly. It is possible to choose a kilovoltage
that will tend to yield an acceptable penetrameter sensitivity for a given metal
and thickness range.
Processing Techniques
Radiographs on paper can be processed by stabilization, by automatic film
processing, or manually.
STABILIZATION PROCESSING
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Stabilization processing is a method of producing radiographs on paper much

faster than is possible by conventional develop-stop-fix-wash processing. The
primary differences between stabilization processing and ordinary radiographic
processing are in the speed and mechanism of development and in the method of
treating the unexposed, light-sensitive silver halide left in the emulsion after
development. Exposed paper processed by stabilization makes quality, ready-to-
use radiographs available in seconds. These stabilized radiographs are not
permanent, because the chemical reactions within the emulsion have been
stopped only temporarily. They will, however, last long enough to serve a number
of practical purposes.
In conventional processing, unused silver halide is dissolved by fixer and any
traces of soluble silver compounds left after fixing are removed by washing. The
resulting radiographs are stable for long periods. In stabilization processing, the
silver halide is converted to compounds that are only temporarily stable and the
radiographs have a limited keeping time. Stabilized radiographs often remain
unchanged for many months if they are not exposed to strong light, high
temperature, or excessive humidity. Commercial keeping quality can be achieved
by fixing and washing if a longer-lasting record is desirable.
Papers designed for stabilization processing have developing agents in the paper
emulsion. Development is achieved by applying an alkaline activator to the
emulsion surface. The stabilizer is applied to neutralize the activator and to
convert any remaining silver halide to relatively stable, colorless compounds.
Ordinary photographic papers or x-ray films cannot be developed by this process
because there are no developing agents present in either the emulsion or the
activator. Stabilization papers with developing agents in the emulsion can also be
hand-processed in x-ray processing chemicals.
Advantages of the Stabilization Process
In a stabilization process, a measure of radiographic stability is exchanged for
some definite advantages.
Simplicity. The process is adaptable to uncomplicated mechanical systems.
Space Saving Darkroom. Space and plumbing needs are greatly reduced. In
fact, some applications of the process do not require a darkroom.
Water Saving. Stabilized radiographs do not require washing.
Greater Uniformity. Mechanically processed radiographs have better day-to-day
uniformity in density than those processed manually.
Successful Stabilization Processing
To realize the advantages of stabilization processing, there are a number of
factors that must be taken into account.
Correct Exposure. This is essential because in this type of processing the
developing time is constant.
Processor Maintenance. Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for
cleaning and maintenance of the processor.
Capacity of Solutions. Don't overwork chemical solutions. Observe the
manufacturer's recommendations in regard to capacity and renewal of solutions.
Discard solutions--
1. When 150 square feet of radiographic paper has been processed
2. After 1 week regardless of the amount of paper processed
3. When a processed radiograph shows noticeable degradation
Dry Processing Trays. Check before loading them with chemicals. Some
stabilization solutions are not compatible with water.
Avoid contamination of the activator with the stabilizer. This results in
chemical fog on the radio- graphs. The smell of ammonia is an indication of
contamination.
Do not wash stabilized radiographs unless they have been fixed in an
ordinary fixing bath. Washing without fixing makes a stabilized radiograph
sensitive to light.
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Because stabilized radiographs are impregnated with chemicals, do not file them
in contact with processed x-ray films or other valuable material. Stabilized
radiographs that are to be kept for an extended period of time must be fixed and
washed (post-stabilization processing).
AUTOMATED PROCESSING
Some radiographic papers can be processed in specially modified automated film
processors. However, papers designed for stabilization processing are not usually
processable in film processors. Check the paper manufacturer's recommendations
for specific processing information.
Radiographic paper cannot be intermixed with x-ray film for processing.
Replenishment rates for paper are much lower than for film. Consequently, if film
is intermixed with paper, the film will receive improper processing.
MANUAL PROCESSING
Most radiographic papers can be processed manually. Check the manufacturer's
recommendations for the specific processing chemicals, times, and temperatures
required.
VIEWING PAPER RADIOGRAPHS
A correctly exposed, properly processed radiograph on paper is only part of the
story. To be useful in providing information, the radiograph must be viewed, and
viewing radiographs on light-reflecting paper is entirely different from viewing
radiographs on light-transmitting film. It is almost immediately apparent that
some of the familiar methods of measurement and interpretation applicable to
film are not relevant to the interpretation of paper radiographs.
Density--Transmission vs Reflection
When electromagnetic radiation--in the form of light, x-rays, or gamma rays--
reacts with the sensitive emulsion of x-ray film or radiographic paper, the
emulsion will show a blackening after it has been processed. The degree of
blackening is defined as density. Up to this point, radiographic paper acts
identically like film, but beyond this point, differences appear.
Density--Measurement
The density on transparent-based film is known as transmission density. DT and is
defined as the logarithm of the ratio of the incident light intensity, I O (from the
illuminator), on the radiograph, to the light intensity transmitted through the

radiograph, IT. The formula is:

Since this formula applies only to light-transmitting images, it cannot be applied to
an opaque-based imaging material such as radiographic paper. Therefore, a
slightly different means of measuring density is necessary, and this is called
reflection density, DR. Reflection density is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of
incident light intensity, I O, to the reflected light intensity, I R from the image area.

This formula is:

So, although the formula appears to be quite similar to that of transmission
density, in practical application, reflection density measures the light reflected
from the radiograph, not that which passes through. For example, reflection
densities are measured by a reflection densitometer, and the familiar
densitometer for measuring transmitted densities cannot be used.
To carry the discussion one step further, exposure is defined as the product of the
quantity of radiation--measured in roentgens or other units--and time. In this
respect, the exposure to radiographic paper is measured exactly the same as it is
for x-ray film, although the order of magnitude of the exposure may be different.
Reflection characteristic curves can be generated for radiographic paper. The
difference between these curves and those for film is that transmission density
values are used for x-ray film, while reflection densities are used for radiographic
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paper. Characteristic curves (which are also known as H & D curves) for paper
have a shorter range of densities and usually a shorter log exposure scale.
Comparable Densities--Paper and Film
Interpreters could easily be led astray at this point by becoming involved in the
purely objective relationship between reflection density and transmission density.
They may theorize, for example, that under a given set of viewing conditions,
reflection density of 0.7 appears to them to be similar to a transmission density of
2.0. In reality, the transmission density to reflection density relationship has no
bearing upon where the same radiographic information is recorded on the film's
transmission density scale as related to the paper's reflection density scale. The
question really is--which densities contain the same information if x-ray film and
radiographic paper are used to record the same image?
Given the correct intensity of illumination, it is universally believed that the most
useful information is recorded on the essentially straight line portion of the
characteristic curve. In fact, it is rather generally accepted that in industrial
radiography the higher the density of a film radiograph, the better the visibility of
tiny discontinuities limited mainly by the available intensity of the illuminator.
Because of the essentially opaque base of paper radiographs and the shoulder
effect of the H & D curve of paper, this concept cannot be applied to reflection
densities.
A radiographic image on paper of the same image area of a subject will contain
the same important image details as a radiograph on film. These details will be
modified in density (and possibly in contrast) because the response is
fundamentally different.
It must also be recognized, of course, that the total range of information capable
of being recorded will be less on a paper radiograph because the reflection
density scale is shorter than its x-ray film counterpart. For example, a reflection
density of 2.0 on a paper radiograph is so black that detail is completely obscured.
In addition, because of the opaque nature of the paper base, the method of
viewing reflected densities of images on paper is fundamentally different from the
method for viewing transmitted densities. Although these differences exist and
must be recognized, the similarities in practical usage between film and paper
radiographs are even more striking. Good practice indicates that the exposure
given to a radiographic paper is adjusted until the necessary and desirable details
of the image are distributed along the available density scale of the paper within
the constraints of optimum reflection viewing.
If this is done correctly, it will be noticed that the important details will tend to be
found in the mid-scale of subjective brightness provided by the density scale of
the paper. This is strikingly similar to that of a film radiograph in which the details
of a good image tend to be centered around the middle of the density scale
(usually about 2.0). The center point, or aim point, then, is a significant factor for
visualization of detail for both paper and film radiographs--even though the aim
point may be a different value, and the densities may be reflected or transmitted.
INTERPRETING PAPER RADIOGRAPHS
Whether produced on film or on paper, a radiograph containing useful information
must be viewed by an observer for the purpose of interpretation. The viewing
process is, therefore, a subjective interpretation based on the variety of densities
presented in the radiograph. To perform this function, the eye must obviously be
capable of receiving the information contained in the image. Judgements, likewise,
cannot be made if the details cannot be seen.
Viewing conditions are obviously of utmost importance in the interpretation of
radiographs. As a general rule, extraneous reflections from, and shadows over,
the area of interest must be avoided, and the general room illumination should be
such that it does not impose any unnecessary eyestrain on the interpreter.
When following these general guidelines in viewing film radiographs, then, the
light transmitted through the radiograph should be sufficient only to see the
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recorded details. If the light is too bright, it will be blinding; if too dim, the details
cannot be seen. The general room illumination should be at approximately the
same level as that of the light intensity transmitted through the radiograph to
avoid shadows, reflections, and undue eyestrain.
The natural tendency is to view radiographs on paper, like a photograph, in
normal available light. For simple cursory examination this can be done, but since
normal available light might be anything from bright sunlight to a single, dim, light
bulb, some guidelines are necessary. It has been found from practical experience
that radiographic sensitivity can be greatly enhanced if the following guidelines
for viewing are observed.
1. As noted in the general rule, all extraneous shadows or reflections in the viewing area of the
radiograph that adversely affect the eyes must be avoided. In fact, a darkened area, minimizing
ambient lighting, is desirable.
2. Since radiographs on paper must be viewed in reflected light, several sources of reflected light
have been used successfully. One method is the use of specular light (light focused from a
mirror-like reflector) directed at an angle of approximately 30° to the surface of the radiograph
from the viewer's side, so that reflected light does not bother the eyes. Light that comes from a
slide projector is specular light.
Other sources are the familiar high-intensity reading light, like a Tensor light, or a spotlight.
Another type of light that has been found to be very effective is a circular magnifying glass
illuminated around the periphery with a circular fluorescent bulb. When using this form of
illumination, the paper radiograph should be inclined at an oblique angle to the light to produce
the same specular lighting just discussed. These devices found in drafting rooms as well as
medical examining rooms are usually mounted on some sort of adjustable stand, and have the
advantage of low power magnification on the order of 3X to 5X. The magnifying glass should
be such that it does not distort the image, but it does emphasize the fact that the graininess
characteristics of paper radiographs are minimal.
Reflection density is different from transmission density. The difference is
important in viewing and interpreting radiographs on paper, but presents no
difficulty in procedure or visualization.

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