Q.

-› a) The below comparison table show that the how feedback diodes differ from
freewheeling diodes :

Comparison of Freewheeling Diode and Feedback Diode:

Parameter Freewheeling Diode Feedback Diode

Function Provides a path for inductive Allows current to flow back
load current when the switch to the source in rectifier
turns off circuits
Application Used in DC-DC converters, Commonly used in rectifiers
motor drives, and inverters and regenerative braking
systems
Current Flow Conducts current when the Conducts current when
main switch is OFF voltage polarity reverses
Voltage Clamps voltage to prevent Ensures proper feedback of
Behavior spikes due to inductive loads voltage in circuits
Protection Protects the switching device Protects circuits by ensuring
Role from voltage spikes proper current flow
Circuit Connected across the load in Connected in feedback loops
Position parallel or rectifiers

Applications of Freewheeling and Feedback Diodes:

 Freewheeling Diodes: Used in choppers, motor drives, and inverters to

prevent damage from inductive voltage spikes.

 Feedback Diodes: Used in rectifier circuits and regenerative braking

systems to return excess energy to the power source.
Q.1

-› b) Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter:

Introduction:
 A full-bridge inverter is a type of inverter that converts DC power into
AC power using four switching devices.
 It is widely used in industrial applications where higher power and
efficiency are required.

Definition:
 A full-bridge inverter consists of four switching devices (MOSFETs or
IGBTs) and four diodes for feedback operation in case of an inductive
load.

Operation with Inductive Load:

 When T1 and T2 conduct, current flows through the inductor and starts
increasing.
 When T1 and T2 turn off, D3 and D4 conduct due to inductive energy,
allowing current to continue flowing.
 When T3 and T4 conduct, the direction of current reverses, and it
increases in the opposite direction.
 When T3 and T4 turn off, D1 and D2 conduct, allowing energy to return
to the source.

Diagram:
Q.1
Explanation of Diagram:
 The diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4 allow current to flow when transistors are
turned off.
 The output voltage waveform is still a square wave, but the current
waveform is not identical due to inductive effects.
 Inductive loads create feedback energy, which is stored and released
cyclically.

Modes of Operation:
 Mode 1 (T1, T2 conduct): Current flows through the load, producing a
positive output voltage.
 Mode 2 (D3, D4 conduct): Inductive load causes diodes to conduct,
feeding energy back to the supply.
 Mode 3 (T3, T4 conduct): Current reverses, producing a negative output
voltage.
 Mode 4 (D1, D2 conduct): Inductive load again feeds energy back to the
supply.

Key Observations:
 The inverter produces a square wave output regardless of the load type.
 Resistive loads result in current waveforms identical to voltage
waveforms.
 Inductive loads cause a phase shift between current and voltage due to
energy storage in the inductor.
 Diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4 help maintain current flow when the transistors
switch off.

Expression for RMS Output Voltage:

 The RMS output voltage is given by:
√(Vs) = Vs / √2
Where Vs is the supply voltage.
 Applications:
Q. Used in UPS systems for power backup.
 Used in motor drives for speed control.
 Applied in power conversion for renewable energy sources.

-› c) Given Parameters:
 DC supply voltage (Vs): 100 V
 Resistive load (R): 10 Ω

i) RMS Output Voltages at Third and Fifth Harmonics (V₀₃ & V₀₅):
 The RMS value of the nth harmonic component is given by:
- V₀n(rms) = (0.45 × Vs) / n
For the 3rd harmonic (n = 3):
- V₀₃(rms) = (0.45 × 100) / 3
- V₀₃(rms) = 15 V
For the 5th harmonic (n = 5):
- V₀₅(rms) = (0.45 × 100) / 5
- V₀₅(rms) = 9 V

ii) Distortion Factor (DF) of 3rd Harmonic Component:

 Distortion Factor (DF) is given by:
o DF₃ = 1 / √(1 + (1/3)²)
o DF₃ = 1 / √(1 + 1/9)
o DF₃ = 1 / √(10/9)
o DF₃ = 0.95

iii) Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):

 THD is calculated as:
o THD = √((V₀₃)² + (V₀₅)²) / V₀₁
Q.1
o THD = √(15² + 9²) / 100
o THD = √(225 + 81) / 100
o THD = √306 / 100
o THD ≈ 0.553 (55.3%)
Q.2

-› a) Control of Voltage using Various PWM Techniques and Their Advantages

 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a technique used in inverters to control

output voltage and reduce harmonics.
 It regulates the switching of semiconductor devices to shape the
waveform closer to a sine wave.

Definition:
 PWM is a method of varying the duty cycle of pulses to control power
delivery and improve efficiency in an inverter circuit.

Types of PWM Techniques:

i) Single-Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM):
 Uses a single pulse per half-cycle to control the output waveform.
 The pulse width is adjusted to control the output voltage.
 Results in high harmonic distortion due to a single switching per cycle.

Waveform:

ii) Multiple-Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM):

 Multiple pulses are used in each half-cycle to improve the output
waveform.
Q.2
 Reduces lower-order harmonics compared to SPWM.
 Used in applications where better waveform quality is needed.

Waveform:

iii) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM):

 Uses a sine wave as a reference to generate switching pulses.
 The duty cycle varies sinusoidally to closely approximate a pure sine wave.
 Most commonly used PWM technique due to its efficiency and reduced
harmonic content.

Waveform:
Q.2
iv) Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM):
 Uses vector representation of the output voltage for improved efficiency.
 Provides better voltage utilization and lower harmonic distortion than
SPWM.
 Commonly used in three-phase inverters for motor control applications.

Waveform:

-› b) Three Phase Voltage Source Inverter for Balanced Star R Load with 120 and
180 Degree Mode of Operation

 A three-phase inverter converts DC power into three-phase AC power.

 The 120-degree conduction mode is used for high-efficiency power
conversion.
 Each MOSFET conducts for 120 degrees, ensuring only two switches
conduct at a time.
Q.2
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 The circuit consists of six MOSFETs (T₁, T₂, T₃, T₄, T₅, T₆) arranged in a
bridge configuration.
 Each phase (R, Y, B) is connected to a balanced star load.
 At any instant, two transistors conduct, allowing controlled power flow.

Operation of 120° Conduction Mode:

 Two switches conduct at a time, ensuring a smooth transition between
phases.
 The conduction sequence follows six intervals, each lasting 60 degrees.
 The switching pattern ensures balanced phase voltages and reduced
harmonics.

Gate Signals for 120° Conduction:

 The base drive for each switch is delayed by 60 degrees relative to the
previous switch.
 Each transistor remains ON for 120 degrees and OFF for 240 degrees.
 This ensures that only two devices conduct in any given interval.
Q.2
Waveforms:

Mathematical Analysis of Waveforms:

 The RMS value of phase voltage is given by:
o V_phase(rms) = Vs / √2
 The RMS value of line voltage is:
o V_line(rms) = Vs / √3
 The phase voltage waveform consists of only odd harmonics, improving
efficiency.

Applications of 120° Conduction Mode Inverters:

 Industrial Motor Drives: Provides balanced AC power for three-phase
induction motors.
 Power Transmission: Converts DC into AC for high-voltage transmission.
 Renewable Energy Systems: Used in solar inverters and wind power
generation.
Q.2
 HVDC Systems: Helps in efficient power conversion and grid stability.

Applications of Three-Phase Inverters:

 Industrial Motor Drives: Provides efficient AC power for three-phase
induction motors.
 Renewable Energy Systems: Used in wind and solar power generation.
 HVDC Transmission: Converts DC power into AC for transmission
networks.
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): Ensures continuous power in case of
grid failure.
Q.3

-› a) Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

 A Switching Mode Power Supply (SMPS) converts unregulated DC input

into a regulated DC output.
 It is widely used in computers, industrial power supplies, and battery-
operated systems.
 Unlike linear regulators, SMPS uses high-frequency switching to improve
efficiency and reduce heat generation.

Block Diagram of SMPS :

Explanation of Block Diagram :

 The SMPS consists of the following major components:

o DC Chopper: Converts the input voltage using a high-frequency switch
(MOSFET, IGBT, or SCR).
o Comparator: Compares the reference voltage with the output voltage to
generate an error signal.
o Control Amplifier: Processes the error signal and adjusts the pulse width
accordingly.
o Oscillator: Generates a high-frequency sawtooth waveform that
determines the switching frequency.
Q.3
o Filter Circuit: Removes high-frequency ripples to provide a smooth DC
output.

Working of SMPS :
 The SMPS operates using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control.
 The comparator continuously compares the output voltage with the
reference voltage.
 If there is a voltage difference, an error signal is generated.
 The control amplifier adjusts the duty cycle of the chopper based on this
error signal.
 The oscillator provides a sawtooth waveform, which helps in controlling
the switching frequency.
 The chopper switches at a high frequency, converting the DC input into a
regulated DC output.
 A filter circuit at the output removes unwanted ripples and smooths the
voltage.

Control Waveforms in SMPS :

Explanation of Control Waveforms :

 The sawtooth waveform is compared with the control voltage to generate
the drive signal.
Q.3
 The ON and OFF duration of the switch is adjusted to regulate the output
voltage.
 A higher duty cycle results in a higher output voltage, while a lower duty
cycle reduces the voltage.

Classification of SMPS :
 SMPS is categorized into Isolated and Non-Isolated converters:
o Non-Isolated Converters:
 Buck Regulator (Step-down)
 Boost Regulator (Step-up)
 Buck-Boost Regulator
 Cuk Regulator
o Isolated Converters:
 Flyback Converter
 Forward Converter
 Push-Pull Converter
 Half-Bridge Converter
 Full-Bridge Converter

Applications of SMPS :
 Used in computers and electronic devices for efficient power conversion.
 Applied in telecommunications and industrial automation.
 Used in LED drivers and battery chargers for energy efficiency.

-› b) Given Data :

 Input Voltage (Vs) = 230V

 Load Resistance (R) = 10Ω
 Duty Cycle (𝛿) = 40% or 0.4
Q.3
Calculation of Average Output Voltage :
 The average output voltage is given by:
Va = 𝛿 * Vs
Substituting the values:
Va = 0.4 * 230
Va = 92V

Calculation of RMS Output Voltage :

 The RMS output voltage is given by:
Vo(rms) = √𝛿 * Vs
Substituting the values:
Vo(rms) = √0.4 * 230
Vo(rms) = 145.1V

Calculation of Average Output Current :

 The average output current is given by:
Ia = Va / R
Substituting the values:
Ia = 92 / 10
Ia = 9.2A

Calculation of RMS Output Current :

 The RMS output current is given by:
Io(rms) = Vo(rms) / R
Substituting the values:
Io(rms) = 145.1 / 10
Io(rms) = 14.51A

Calculation of Chopper Efficiency :

 The efficiency (η) of the chopper is given by:
η = (Va / Vs) * 100
Q.3
Substituting the values:
η = (92 / 230) * 100
η = 40%

-› c) Various Control Strategies for Choppers

Introduction :
 A chopper is a power electronics device used for converting a fixed DC
voltage to a variable DC voltage.
 The control strategy determines how the output voltage is regulated.
 Various control techniques are used to adjust the chopper’s duty cycle to
achieve the desired output voltage.

Types of Control Strategies :

 The main control strategies used in DC choppers include:

o Time Ratio Control (TRC)
o Current Limit Control (CLC)
o Frequency Modulation Control

Time Ratio Control (TRC) :

 In this method, the duty cycle of the chopper is varied to regulate the
output voltage.
 The output voltage depends on the ON time and OFF time of the switch.
 TRC is further classified into:
o Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): The chopping period is kept constant,
and the ON time is varied.
o Frequency Modulation (FM): The ON time is fixed, and the chopping
frequency is varied.
Q.3

Current Limit Control (CLC) :

 In this method, the chopper is turned ON or OFF based on the load
current.
 When the load current exceeds a predetermined limit, the chopper turns
OFF.
 When the current falls below a lower limit, the chopper turns ON again.

Comparison of Control Strategies :

 TRC is widely used due to its simplicity and ease of implementation.
 CLC is useful for applications where load current regulation is required.
 Frequency modulation provides better control in applications with high-
frequency switching.
Q.4

-› a) Step Up Chopper
Introduction :
 A step-up chopper, also known as a boost converter, increases the input
DC voltage to a higher output DC voltage.
 It is widely used in applications like DC motor control, power supplies, and
renewable energy systems.
 Unlike a step-down chopper, the output voltage in a step-up chopper is
always greater than or equal to the input voltage.

Circuit Diagram :

Explanation of Circuit Diagram :

 The circuit consists of an inductor (L), a power switch (T₁), a diode (D₁),
a capacitor (C), and a load resistor.
 The inductor is connected in series with the supply voltage.
 The transistor acts as a switch that controls the charging and discharging
of the inductor.
 A filter capacitor is used across the load to smooth out the output voltage.

Working of Step-Up Chopper :

 The operation of a step-up chopper can be divided into two modes:
o Mode 1 (Switch ON Period 0 to 𝛿T):

 The transistor is turned ON, and current flows through the inductor.
Q.4
 The inductor stores energy, and the diode is reverse biased.
 The output capacitor supplies the load during this period.
 Voltage across the inductor is Vₓ.

o Mode 2 (Switch OFF Period 𝛿T to T):

 The transistor is turned OFF, and the inductor releases its stored
energy.
 The diode is forward biased, allowing current to flow from the inductor
to the load.
 The output voltage is the sum of Vₓ and the voltage across the inductor.

Waveforms :

Explanation of Waveforms :
 The waveforms represent the variations of output voltage, inductor
current, and switch voltage over time.
 When the switch is ON, inductor current increases, and output voltage
remains constant.
Q.4
 When the switch is OFF, inductor current decreases, and output voltage
rises above the input voltage.

Derivation of Output Voltage Expression :

 Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) in the circuit:

During ON Period (0 to 𝛿T):
o The inductor stores energy.
o Voltage across the inductor: Vₓ = L (di/dt)
During OFF Period (𝛿T to T):
o The inductor releases energy.
o The output voltage is the sum of Vₓ and stored energy in the
inductor.
By applying steady-state analysis:
Vₓ (av) = 0
Using Kirchhoff’s equation:
Vₓ = Vo(1 - 𝛿)
Vo = Vs / (1 - 𝛿)
 This equation shows that the output voltage is always greater than the
input voltage.

-› b) Four Quadrant Chopper

Introduction :
 A chopper is a static power electronics device that converts fixed DC
input voltage to a variable DC output voltage.
 It operates as a high-speed switch to regulate the voltage and current
supplied to the load.
 Choppers are classified based on the direction of voltage and current
flow, leading to different quadrant operations.
Q.4
 They are widely used in electric vehicles, traction systems, and DC motor
speed control.

Types of Choppers :
 The classification of choppers depends on the voltage and current
direction in the vₒ - i₀ plane. There are five main types:
o Class A Chopper
o Class B Chopper
o Class C Chopper
o Class D Chopper
o Class E Chopper (Four Quadrant Chopper)

Class E Chopper (Four Quadrant Chopper) :

 Operates in all four quadrants.
 Provides complete control over motor direction and speed.
 Used in applications requiring full four-quadrant operation, such as servo
drives and electric vehicles.

Diagram :

Explanation of Diagram :
 The circuit consists of four switches and four diodes.
 When T₁ and T₂ conduct, the chopper operates in the first quadrant.
Q.4
 When T₃ and T₄ conduct, the chopper operates in the third quadrant.
 When T₁ and T₄ conduct, second quadrant operation occurs.
 When T₂ and T₃ conduct, fourth quadrant operation occurs.

-› c) Given Values:
- Input voltage (Vin) = 200 V.
- Output voltage (Vout) = 360 V.
- Chopping frequency (f) = 5 kHz → Time period (T) = 1/f = 1/5000 = 0.0002 s
(200 μs).

Calculation Steps:
1. Find duty cycle (D):
- Rearrange formula: 1 - D = Vin / Vout = 200 / 360 = 5/9.
- D = 1 - (5/9) = 4/9 ≈ 0.4444 (44.44%).

2. Calculate ON time (Ton):

- Ton = D × T = 0.4444 × 200 μs ≈ 88.89 μs.

3. Calculate OFF time (Toff):

- Toff = T - Ton = 200 μs - 88.89 μs ≈ 111.11 μs.

Final Results:
- ON time (Ton) = 88.89 μs.
- OFF time (Toff) = 111.11 μs.
Q.5

-› a) Over Current Protection Techniques:

Introduction:
 Over current occurs when the current in a circuit exceeds the rated limit,
which can lead to device failure and circuit damage.
 Proper protection techniques are necessary to ensure the safe operation
of power electronic devices.

Causes of Over Current:

 Short circuit of the load.
 Overload situation for an extended period.
 Shoot-through fault in inverters or choppers.
 Malfunctioning of the control circuit.
 Failure of the triggering circuit.
 Short circuiting of power devices in the same circuit.
 Current spikes or surges from the load, snubber circuit, communication
circuit, or supply side.

Over Current Protection Techniques:

1. Fuse Protection:
 Overcurrent in thyristor circuits occurs due to short circuits or
misalignment of firing pulses.
 A fast-acting fuse is used to disconnect the circuit before the thyristor
is damaged.
 The fuse melts at a lower current than the thyristor’s rating to ensure
protection.
 Proper fuse selection ensures it does not melt under normal load
conditions.

2. Semiconductor Fuses:
Q.5
 The semiconductor fuse consists of a silver fusing element with notches,
encased in a ceramic tube with quartz sand.
 When excessive current flows, high current density at the notch creates
an arc, leading to vaporization of the fuse element.
 The arc length increases, reducing the current flow until it reaches zero,
making the fuse completely open.
 Quartz sand aids in heat conduction and quenches the arc, preventing
further damage.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 The fusing element has a notch where high current density causes localized
heating.
 The generated arc reduces current flow and increases voltage across the
notch.
 At a critical point, the fuse vaporizes and becomes open, cutting off the fault
current.

Current vs. Time Characteristic of a Fuse:

 The peak let-through current is the maximum current a fuse can allow
before arcing starts.
 The melting time (tm) is the time when the fuse begins to melt.
Q.5
 The arcing time (ta) follows tm, during which the arc sustains until the
current reaches zero.
 The sum of tm and ta is called the clearing time (tc), which determines
the fuse's response time.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 The curve illustrates how a fuse reacts to an overcurrent condition over
time.
 The total clearing time (tc) is the sum of the melting and arcing times.
 The fuse protects the circuit by stopping excessive current before it
reaches damaging levels.

Placement of Semiconductor Fuses in Power Circuits:

 Semiconductor fuses are placed in series with each power device to
provide individual protection.
 A single-phase converter circuit requires multiple fuses to ensure
complete circuit safety.
Q.5

-› b) . Importance of Isolation Transformer :

Introduction:
 Isolation in power electronics is essential for ensuring electrical safety
and protecting circuits from faults.
 It prevents unwanted interference between high-power and low-power
circuits.

Importance of Isolation Transformer:

 Isolation transformers provide electrical isolation between two circuits,
ensuring safe and interference-free operation.
 Used to transfer electrical power while preventing direct electrical
connection.
 Helps in reducing power surges and noise, allowing smoother equipment
operation.

Applications of Isolation in Power Electronics:

1. Protection of Control Circuits:

o Provides electrical isolation between high-power converter circuits and
low-power control circuits.
o Prevents high voltage from damaging sensitive control systems.

2. Power Transfer Without Ground Connection:

o Ensures safe transfer of electrical power from an AC source to
electronic devices.
o Eliminates ground loops that can cause noise and signal distortion.

3. Reduction of Electrical Noise:

o Blocks unwanted noise from affecting sensitive electronic components.
Q.5
o Helps in filtering and stabilizing power supply signals.

4. Prevention of Electrical Shocks and Short Circuits:

o Protects circuits, equipment, and personnel from high-voltage shocks.
o Reduces risks of accidental electrical faults.

5. Signal Isolation in Triggering Circuits:

o Used in triggering circuits to safely pass signals from low-power control
units to high-power switching devices.
o Ensures reliable operation of thyristors and power transistors.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 The diagram represents an isolation transformer, which consists of:
o Primary Winding: Connected to the AC power source.
o Secondary Winding: Connected to the load circuit, ensuring electrical
isolation.
o Magnetic Core: Facilitates power transfer through electromagnetic
induction.
 The primary and secondary windings have no direct electrical connection,
ensuring safety and noise reduction.
Q.5

Working of Isolation Transformer:

 When an AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, it generates a
magnetic field in the core.
 This magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary
winding through electromagnetic induction.
 Since there is no direct electrical connection, only AC power is
transferred, while DC components and noise are blocked.
 This ensures that sensitive control circuits remain unaffected by power
line disturbances.

Advantages of Isolation Transformer:

 Provides electrical isolation between input and output circuits.
 Reduces electrical noise and prevents power surges.
 Enhances safety by eliminating direct connections between high and low
voltage sections.
 Used in medical equipment, industrial applications, and power electronics
for protection and stability.
Q.5

-› c) Given parameters:

- Maximum junction temperature (Tⱼ): 180°C

- Thermal resistance, junction to case (Øⱼc): 0.16°C/W
- Thermal resistance, case to sink (Øcs): 0.08°C/W
- Total thermal resistance (Øtotal): Øⱼc + Øcs = 0.24°C/W

formula for total average power loss (p):

- Total power loss = (Tⱼ - Tₛᵢₙₖ) / Øtotal
- Units: Temperature difference (°C) divided by total thermal resistance
(°C/W) gives power loss in watts (W).

case 1: heat sink temperature = 70°c:

- Temperature difference (Δt): 180°C - 70°C = 110°C
- Power loss (p₁): 110°C / 0.24°C/W ≈ 458.33 W

case 2: heat sink temperature reduced to 50°c:

- Temperature difference (Δt): 180°C - 50°C = 130°C
- Power loss (p₂): 130°C / 0.24°C/W ≈ 541.67 W
Q.6

-› a) Resonant Converters ( Zero Voltage Switching)

 A resonant converter is a type of power electronic circuit that utilizes

resonance between inductors and capacitors for efficient energy conversion.
 It helps in reducing switching losses and electromagnetic interference
(EMI).
 These converters operate by ensuring that switching occurs at either zero
current or zero voltage, leading to improved efficiency.

Types of Resonant Converters:

1. Load Resonant Converters: Utilize a resonant circuit connected to the
load to achieve zero voltage or zero current switching.
2. Resonant Switch Converters: Use a resonant circuit within the switching
network to minimize losses.
3. Resonant DC Link Converters: Employ a resonant DC link to create zero
voltage conditions before switching.
4. High-Frequency Link Integral Half-Cycle Converters: Operate at high
frequencies with integral half-cycle switching to improve efficiency.
 Electric vehicle battery chargers.
 Power inverters for renewable energy systems.

Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) Resonant Converter:

Introduction:
 Resonant converters generate zero voltage across the switch before
turning it on or off.
 Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) minimizes switching losses and improves
efficiency.
 It is widely used in high-frequency power electronics applications.
Q.6

Need for Resonant Converters:

 In traditional switching circuits, power loss occurs due to simultaneous
voltage and current flow during switching.
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control increases switching losses with
frequency.
 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) is a common issue in switched-mode
power supplies.
 Resonant converters enable zero current or zero voltage switching,
eliminating losses.

Principle of ZVS Resonant Converter:

 The switch turns on and off at zero voltage, reducing stress on
components.
 This is achieved by using resonant circuits with inductors (Lr) and
capacitors (Cr).

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 T: Main switching device.
 Cr: Resonant capacitor.
 Lr: Resonant inductor.
 Lf, Cf: Filter components.
 Dr: Freewheeling diode.
Q.6
 The resonant circuit ensures voltage across the switch is zero before
switching.

Operation of ZVS Resonant Converter:

 Before t₀, switch T is conducting, current i_g flows, and capacitor Cr
remains uncharged (v_c = 0).
 At t₀, T turns off at zero voltage. v_c starts increasing and reaches V_s
at t₁.
 After t₁, v_c exceeds V_s, initiating resonance between Lr and Cr.
 At t₂, v_c peaks at V_s + Z₀I₀, and then begins to decrease.
 At t₄, v_c reaches zero, and i_g (negative) starts flowing through diode
Dr.
 Switch T receives base drive but remains off until t₅ due to diode
conduction.
 At t₅, T turns on again at zero voltage and zero current.
 After t₆, T carries i_g = I₀ and v_c = 0.
 The cycle repeats when T turns off at t₇.

Diagram:

Explanation of Waveforms:
 Voltage across the switch oscillates due to resonance.
 The switch turns on and off when v_c = 0, ensuring ZVS operation.
Q.6
 The current waveform follows a resonant pattern, limiting peak stress on
components.

Advantages of ZVS Resonant Converter:

 Switch turns on and off at zero voltage, reducing losses.
 Switch current is limited to Z₀I₀.
 More efficient than Zero Current Switching (ZCS) at high frequencies.

Disadvantages of ZVS Resonant Converter:

 Switch must withstand voltage V_s + Z₀I₀.
 Requires bulky resonant inductors and capacitors.
 Circuit control is more complex than PWM control.

-› b) Heat Sink Design

 Power electronic devices generate heat due to conduction and switching

losses.
 If the heat is not dissipated properly, the junction temperature rises,
potentially damaging the device.
 Heat sinks help in heat dissipation by providing a larger surface area for
conduction and convection.

Role of Heat Sink:

 Transfers heat away from the semiconductor device to the surrounding
air or cooling medium.
 Prevents thermal runaway and ensures reliable operation of power
electronic circuits.
 Different cooling techniques include natural convection, forced air
cooling, liquid cooling, and vapor phase cooling.
Q.6

Concept of Thermal Resistance:

 The heat transfer from the device follows the equation:
P = ΔT / Rθ
where P is the power dissipated, ΔT is the temperature difference
between junction and ambient, and Rθ is the thermal resistance.
 Thermal resistance is the opposition to heat flow and depends on the
material and surface area of the heat sink.

Diagram:
 The diagram represents the thermal model of a power device mounted on
a heat sink.
 Tj: Junction temperature, Tc: Case temperature, Ts: Sink temperature,
Ta: Ambient temperature.

Explanation of Diagram:
 Rθjc: Junction-to-case thermal resistance.
 Rθcs: Case-to-sink thermal resistance.
 Rθsa: Sink-to-ambient thermal resistance.
 The total thermal resistance is given by:
Rθ = Rθjc + Rθcs + Rθsa

Thermal Model of a Power Device:

Q.6
 Heat dissipated at the device junction is transferred to the case through
encapsulation.
 The case then transfers heat to the heat sink, which ultimately dissipates
it to the surrounding environment.
 Proper selection of heat sink material and size reduces thermal resistance
and improves cooling efficiency.

Heat Sink Area and Heat Transfer Coefficient:

 The thermal resistance depends on the surface area of the heat sink and
follows the equation:
Rθ = 1 / (kA)
where A is the heat sink area and k is the heat transfer coefficient.
 Increasing the surface area reduces thermal resistance, enhancing heat
dissipation.

Reverse Recovery Losses in High-Frequency Switching:

 In high-frequency switching devices, reverse recovery losses contribute
to additional heating.
 The reverse recovery loss per pulse is given by:
J = VQ
where V is the reverse voltage applied after turn-off, and Q is the
reverse recovery charge.
 The average reverse recovery power loss is:
Prr = VQf
where f is the switching frequency.
 Managing reverse recovery losses is crucial for maintaining thermal
stability in power devices.
Q.6

-› c) Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Standards:

 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) standards define the limits and

testing methods to ensure electronic devices operate without causing or
suffering from electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 These standards help in maintaining proper functioning of electronic and
electrical systems in various environments.

Need for EMC Standards:

 To ensure that devices do not emit excessive electromagnetic radiation
that may affect other systems.
 To protect sensitive electronic equipment from interference caused by
other devices.
 To comply with international regulations for the safe operation of
electronic devices.
 To improve the reliability and efficiency of electronic products in
industrial and commercial applications.

Major EMC Standards:

1. CISPR (International Special Committee on Radio Interference):

o It defines limits and testing procedures for EMI emissions in electrical
and electronic devices.
o Used in consumer electronics, automotive, and industrial applications.

2. FCC (Federal Communications Commission - USA):

o Defines rules for electromagnetic emissions in commercial and
residential equipment in the USA.
o Divided into Class A (industrial) and Class B (residential) standards.
Q.6
3. IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission):
o Sets global EMC standards for electrical and electronic equipment.
o IEC 61000 series covers EMC immunity, emission, and safety
requirements.

4. EN (European Norms):
o Enforced in the European Union to regulate EMC compliance for all
electronic devices.
o EN 55032 and EN 55035 are commonly used standards for multimedia
equipment.

5. MIL-STD (Military Standards - USA):

o Defines EMC requirements for military and defense applications
o Ensures reliable operation of electronic systems in harsh environments.

6. DO-160 (RTCA Standard for Avionics Equipment):

o Specifies EMC and environmental test conditions for aircraft
electronic equipment.
o Ensures safe and interference-free operation of avionics systems.

Explanation of Two EMC Standards:

1. CISPR Standards:
 CISPR (Comité International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques)
is a part of the IEC that defines EMC regulations.
 CISPR 22: Regulates EMI emissions from information technology
equipment (computers, networking devices, etc.).
 CISPR 25: Defines EMC requirements for electronic devices used in
vehicles to prevent interference with onboard systems.
2. FCC Standards:
 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates electromagnetic
emissions in the USA.
Q.6
 Devices are classified into:
o Class A: Industrial and commercial equipment, allowed higher
emission levels.
o Class B: Residential equipment, with stricter emission limits to
prevent interference in homes.
 Ensures compliance of consumer electronics, communication devices, and
industrial systems.
 Q.7

-› a) UPS
- A UPS is used to provide backup power when the main supply fails.
- It plays a crucial role in applications where power interruptions can cause
data loss or equipment damage.
- UPS is commonly used with computers, medical equipment, and industrial
processes.

Types of UPS:
- Online UPS
- Offline UPS
- Line Interactive UPS

Online UPS:
Diagram:

Explanation of Online UPS:

- Online UPS is also known as inverter-preferred UPS.
- When mains power is available, the rectifier/charger provides power to
both the inverter and battery bank.
- The inverter is always on and continuously supplies power to the load
through a UPS static switch.
- The mains static switch remains off but can directly connect the load to
the mains if the UPS fails.
Q.7
- When mains power fails, the battery bank supplies power to the inverter,
ensuring an uninterrupted power supply.

- The charger/inverter block functions as a charger when mains is present

and as an inverter when mains is absent.

Advantages of UPS:
 Provides continuous power supply during outages.
 Protects sensitive electronic devices from power fluctuations.
 Ensures data integrity and prevents system crashes.

Disadvantages of UPS:
- Higher cost compared to standard power backup solutions.
- Batteries require regular maintenance and periodic replacement.
- Power efficiency may decrease in continuous operation modes.

-› b) Electronic ballast :

Introduction:
- An electronic ballast is used in fluorescent lighting systems to regulate
the current and voltage supplied to the lamp.
- It replaces the conventional inductive ballast, providing better efficiency
and performance.
- Electronic ballasts operate at high frequencies (20-40 kHz) to improve
energy efficiency and reduce flickering.

Characteristics of Fluorescent Lamps and Ballast:

Q.7
 Fluorescent lamps are more energy-efficient than incandescent lamps,
consuming about four times less power.
 The efficiency of fluorescent lamps increases when operated at higher
frequencies.
 Fluorescent lamps exhibit negative resistance characteristics, which
require an inductive ballast for stable operation.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
- The intersection of the fluorescent lamp characteristic and the inductive
ballast characteristic determines the stable operating point.
- The ballast ensures a controlled flow of current to prevent excessive
power consumption.

Block Diagram and Operation of Electronic Ballast:

Explanation of Diagram:
- The mains supply first passes through an EMI filter to reduce
electromagnetic interference.
- A diode rectifier converts the AC mains supply to DC.
- A capacitor filter smooths the DC voltage to remove ripples.
Q.7
- The DC voltage is converted back to high-frequency AC (20-40 kHz) using
an inverter circuit.
- This high-frequency AC is supplied to the fluorescent lamp, improving
efficiency and reducing flickering.
- EMI filters are necessary to prevent interference from affecting the
mains supply.

Advantages of Electronic Ballast:

- Provides up to 30% power savings compared to conventional ballast.
- Allows fluorescent lamps to operate at lower supply voltages.
- Consumes less power, reducing heat generation.
- Extends the life of fluorescent tubes by minimizing electrical noise from
the mains.

Disadvantages of Electronic Ballast:

- Operates at a poor power factor, requiring power correction measures.
- Generates electromagnetic interference (EMI), necessitating additional
filtering.
- Has a more complex internal circuit and control system.
- More expensive than conventional inductive ballasts.

-› c) LED Lamp Driver

Introduction:
- An LED lamp is a light-emitting diode (LED) product used in lighting
fixtures for high efficiency and long lifespan.
- LED lamps are more efficient than incandescent and fluorescent lamps,
with instant brightness and reduced power consumption.
Q.
- The initial cost of LED lamps is higher, but they provide long-term energy
savings.
- Over time, degradation of LED dye and packaging materials can reduce
light output.

Why is a Driver Required for an LED Lamp?

- LEDs require a stable and regulated power supply to operate efficiently.
- A driver ensures the LED receives a constant voltage and current,
preventing fluctuations that can shorten its lifespan.
- The LED driver circuit provides protection against voltage variations and
maintains consistent brightness.
- It converts high-voltage AC into low-voltage DC suitable for LED
operation.

LED Driver Circuit Principle:

- The LED driver circuit uses a transformer-less power supply to regulate
voltage and current.
- A high-rated AC capacitor reduces the input current to a suitable level.
- The AC voltage is rectified using a bridge rectifier and then regulated
using a zener diode.
- The regulated low-voltage DC is supplied to the LED for stable operation.

Diagram:
Q.7

Explanation of Diagram:
- A high-rated capacitor (225J - 400V) limits the AC current from the
mains supply.
- The bridge rectifier converts AC to DC, and a capacitor filters the
rectified DC voltage.
- A zener diode regulates the voltage to a safe level for LED operation.
- A series resistor limits the current flowing through the zener diode to
protect the circuit.
- The final output provides stable DC voltage and current to the LED.

Advantages of LED Driver Circuit:

- Allows direct LED operation from the mains supply.
- Uses a transformer-less design, making it compact and lightweight.
- Provides energy-efficient lighting with low power consumption.

Applications of LED Driver Circuit:

- Home lighting systems for energy-efficient illumination.
- Indicator circuits for electronic devices and appliances.
- Doorbell circuits to provide visual alerts.

Limitations of LED Driver Circuit:

- Direct use of AC supply can be hazardous if not handled properly.
- Best suited for single-phase domestic applications; unsuitable for three-
phase systems.
- The capacitor can produce voltage spikes due to mains fluctuations.
Q.8

-› a) DC Motor Drive for Single-Phase Separately Excited DC Motor

Introduction:
- A separately excited DC motor requires a controlled power supply to
regulate its speed and torque.
- A single-phase full converter drive is used to control the armature voltage
of the motor efficiently.
- The speed-torque characteristics can be modified by adjusting the
armature voltage and field current.

Equivalent Circuit and Torque-Speed Characteristics:

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
- The circuit consists of an armature voltage source (Va), back EMF (Eb),
armature resistance (Ra), and inductance (La).
- The field winding is excited separately to provide a constant magnetic
flux.
- The torque equation is given by T = Ka Φ Ia, where Ka is the armature
constant, Φ is the field flux, and Ia is the armature current.
- The speed-torque characteristic is nearly linear, and speed decreases
with increasing torque due to voltage drops.
Q.8

Speed Control Methods:

- The speed of a DC motor can be controlled using two methods:
- Armature Voltage Control: By varying the armature voltage (Va),
speed can be adjusted for a constant field flux.
- Field Current Control: By changing the field current (If), the field
flux (Φ) is varied, affecting motor speed.
- A controlled rectifier in the armature circuit allows speed variation by
adjusting the firing angle of SCRs.
- Similarly, a rectifier in the field circuit controls the field current,
modifying motor speed.

Constant Torque and Constant Power Regions:

Diagram:

Constant Torque Region:

- In this region, the torque remains constant, while speed and power
increase.
- The armature voltage is varied to control speed up to the base speed of
the motor.
- The base speed is reached when the rated armature voltage is applied.

Constant Power Region:

- In this region, power remains constant, but the torque decreases as speed
increases.
 Q.8
- Armature voltage remains constant, and speed is controlled by reducing
the field current.
- This mode allows the motor to operate at speeds higher than the base
speed.

Applications of Full Converter Drive:

- Industrial motor drives requiring variable speed control.
- Machine tools, elevators, and conveyor systems.
- Applications needing precise torque and speed regulation.

-› b) BLDC Motor Drive

Principle of Operation:
- A BLDC motor operates as a DC motor but without brushes or a
commutator.
- The armature supply frequency changes according to rotor speed
variations.
- This ensures that the armature field always moves at the same speed
as the rotor.
- The control system used is called self-control mode, which maintains
synchronous operation.
Diagram:
Q.8
Explanation of the Drive:
- The drive can operate from either an AC or DC power source.
- If powered by a DC source, a three-phase inverter is used to drive the
synchronous motor, making it a brushless DC motor drive.
- If powered by an AC source, a cycloconverter is used, making it a
brushless AC motor drive.
- The inverter or cycloconverter generates an output with a frequency that
varies proportionally with motor speed.
- This ensures that the armature and rotor magnetic field (mmf) waves
rotate at the same speed, producing steady torque like a conventional DC
motor.
- The rotor position is continuously monitored along with the phase
reference.
- This information is used to control the output frequency and phase of the
armature supply using a three-phase inverter or cycloconverter.
- Since this motor mimics a DC motor's operation but does not require a
commutator or brushes, it is called a brushless DC or AC motor drive.

Advantages of BLDC Drive:

- Provides the benefits of DC motor characteristics without the limitations
of brushes and commutators.
- Can be used in explosive environments as there are no spark-generating
contacts.
- Supports both AC and DC power sources for flexibility in applications.

Applications of BLDC Drive:

- Used in servo drives for precise motion control.
- Applied in high-power compression systems, blowers, fans, conveyors, and
steel rolling mills.
- Utilized in large ship steering systems and cement plants.
Q.8
- Helps in the starting of large synchronous motors in gas turbines and
pumped storage power plants.

-› c) Study of Various Selection Criteria and Performance Parameters of Batteries

in Battery Operated Power Systems

Introduction:
- Batteries serve as the primary energy source in electric vehicles and
battery-operated power systems.
- Their selection, performance evaluation, and charging characteristics are
crucial for efficiency and reliability.
- Different battery types are chosen based on application-specific needs such
as power output, durability, and cost.
Selection Criteria for Batteries:
- The selection of batteries depends on several factors to ensure optimal
performance and longevity.
- The key criteria include:
- Power requirement: The battery should meet the energy demand of the
system.
- Charging time and method: Faster charging technologies enhance usability
and efficiency.
- Operating environment: Batteries should withstand temperature
variations, depth of discharge, and operating current fluctuations.
- Vehicle characteristics: The design and weight of the vehicle influence
battery choice.
- Energy density: Higher energy storage per unit volume or weight improves
efficiency.
- Life, cost, and safety: Long battery life with minimal maintenance reduces
operational costs.
Q.8
- Manufacturing ease and maintenance: Simpler manufacturing and easy
maintenance improve scalability.
- Availability of charging stations: Ensures practical use for electric
vehicles and backup power systems.
- Trade-offs: Balance between energy, power, cost, lifespan, and safety
considerations.
- Commercial availability: Batteries should be readily accessible and cost-
effective.

Performance Parameters for Batteries:

- Battery performance is evaluated based on specific characteristics that

influence functionality.
- The major performance parameters include:
- Energy (Wh/kg): The total energy stored per unit mass.
- Energy density (Wh/L): The energy stored per unit volume.
- Rate of discharge (C-rate): The fraction of the battery's total charge
capacity used per unit time.
- Specific power and power density: Determines how quickly energy can
be delivered.
- Depth of discharge and pulse duration: Affects battery lifespan and
efficiency.
- Cost, life, temperature, and safety: Directly impact usability and
reliability.
- Rate of self-discharge: Measures energy loss when the battery is not
in use.
- Reactivity of electrolyte and electrode: Influences battery durability
and stability.
- Battery operating voltage: Determined by electrode materials,
influencing compatibility with electrical systems.
Q.8
- Type and mode of discharge: Defines the behavior of the battery
under load conditions.