4 Year Grammar

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7/12/2020
Chapter 7
Simple Sentences
 What is a simple sentence?

A simple sentence is the sentence that consists of

one independent clause only. Hence,

She met him on the train.

S V Od Adv

She met him on the train while he was travellig to London.

Clause1 Clause2
 Patterns of the Simple Sentence

Clauses consist of elements, some of which are obligatory and others are optional.
Depending on the obligatory elements, seven patterns have been identified for the
simple sentence in English. These patterns are:

1. S V(intensive) Adv(place)

These three elements are obligatory in the structure of the clause. Intensive verbs are
the verbs copula verbs (verbs to be) and linking verbs. Intensive means to focus, and
intensive verbs focus on the subject by connecting what follows them to the subject. In
this pattern the intensive verbs are followed by Adv of place, as in :

He has been here.

S V(intensive) Adv (place)

The Adverb of place can be a simple adverb as in the sentence above or a prepositional
phrase, e.g.,

Mary is in the playground.

S V(intensive) Adv (place)
2. S V(intensive) Cs(subject complement)

 e.g., My boss seemed a reliable person.

S V(intensive)
Cs (NP)
The intensive verb here can be a verb to be or a linking verb, i.e., links the
subject to the element that comes after it. The verb (seem) in this sentence
is a linking verb. Other linking verbs are: feel, sound, appear, look, become,
etc. The subject complement describes the subject and not the verb. It can
either be a noun phrase as in the sentence above or an adjective, as in :

You should be more careful.

S V(intensive) Cs (Adjective)
Exercise 1: Identify the patterns of the
following sentences:

 1. A university is a community of scholars.

2. You’re so young.
3. They are in class.
SIMPLE SENTENCE
PATTERNS (2)
 Patterns 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7
◦ The verb in these patterns is of a different category as we are going to deal with the
transitive/intransitive type of verbs. A verb can be described
as transitive or intransitive based on whether it requires an object to express a complete
thought or not. A transitive verb is one that only makes sense if it exerts its action on an
object. An intransitive verb will make sense without one (i.e., an object). Some verbs
may be used both ways.
◦ In order to understand the idea of the transitive verb, we can say that a better word to
associate when you see “transitive” is “transfer”. A transitive verb needs to transfer its
action to something or someone—an object. In essence, transitive means “to affect
something else”. So, the verb here transfers the action done by the subject to the
object. An important feature of the sentences that contain a transitive verb is that they
can be transformed from the active voice into the passive. The transitive verb is of three
types: monotransitive, complex transitive, and ditransitive. These verbs are found in
patterns 3, 4, 5, and 6.
Pattern 3 : S V(monotrans.) Od
◦ E.g., Heat expands metals.
S Vmonotrans. Od
◦ The verb in this pattern is called monotransitive as it takes one object only, which is
called the direct object.
◦ The sentence with a monotransitive verb and one object has one form in the passive
voice. Thus, to transform the above sentence from active into passive, we can :
◦ Metals are expended (by heat).
S Vpass [A]
◦ The sentence in the passive form has a pattern that starts with the S, followed by Vpass
( a verb in the passive form), and [A] an adjunct that is optional.
Pattern 4 : S V(complex trans.) Od Adv(place)
◦ E.g., I put the pencil on the table.
S V complex trans. Od Adv(place)
◦ The verb in this pattern is called complex transitive as it is followed by two elements: a
direct object and an adverb of place. A number of points we must pay attention to
here. They are:
◦ 1. The adverb of place is related to the Od and not the subject.
◦ 2. The adverb of place is an obligatory element.
◦ 3. The sentences in this pattern can also be transformed into the passive voice. So, the
sentence above will be:
◦ The pencil was put on the table (by me).
S V pass Adv(place) [A]
◦ The adverb of place is obligatory in the passive form of the sentence folloed by an
optional adjunct.
Pattern 5 : S V (complex trans.) Od Co
◦ E.g., They elected him a president.
S V(complex trans.)
Od Co
◦ The verb in this pattern is also called complex transitive as it is followed by two
elements: the direct object and a complement of the object. So ( a president) in the
above sentence complements the meaning of the object (him) and not the subject
(They).
◦ Like the subject complement, the Co can also be a noun phrase and adjective.
◦ The sentences that belong to this pattern can also be transformed into the passive
structure, but you have to notice here that the Co in the active sentence becomes Cs
in the passive one, as follows:
◦ He was elected a president (by them).
S Vpass Cs [A]
Pattern 6: S V(ditrans.) Oi Od
◦ The verb in this pattern is called ditransitive as it takes two objects: indirect and direct,
e.g., She told the children a story.
S V(ditrans.) Oi Od
◦ We need to pay attention to the following :
1. The Oi comes before the Od.
2. The Oi has to be animate while the Od can be both animate and inanimate.
3. Since there are two objects in the active form of the sentence, we can have two
sentences in the passive voice as both of the Oi and Od can take the role of the
subject in the passive form of the sentence, as follows :
 1. The children were told a story ( by her ). ( A passive sentence by using the Oi as S)
S Vpass Od [A]
2. A story was told to the children (by her). (A passive sentence by using the Od as S)
S Vpass A [A]
◦ Notice that the Oi in most sentences is transformed into Adjunct.
Pattern 7 : S V(intransitive)
◦ The verb in this pattern is called intransitive as it does not an object, e.g.,
The plan worked.
S V intrans.
◦ The sentences with intransitive verbs cannot be transformed into the passive since they
do not have an object that can take the position of the subject.
◦ Some intransitive verbs can either stand alone or be followed by adverbs,
e.g., We must go to the store.
◦ Some verbs in English can belong to the two caetgories: transitive and intransitive, as
follows:
She sings a song. ( S V(monotrnas.) Od)
She sings beautifully. ( S V(intrans.) (A))
Exercise 1: Identify the pattern of the
following sentences:
◦ 1. The flowers grew beside the front porch of the old house.
◦ 2. Music heals souls.
◦ 3. My family and I played music in the car.
◦ 4. Ann bought me nothing for my birthday.
◦ 5. They thought the man a wicked sinner.
Exercise 2: Identify the clause patterns of which the
following sentences are transformations:
◦ 1. Twenty civilians were killed in the bomb explosion.
◦ 2. Michael was nominated the captain.
◦ 3. The librarian was given the textbook by me.
Exercise 3 : Say whether the
following sentence is ambiguous
or not. If so, explain how:

(( They called her a doctor.))

Simple Sentence Patterns
(3)
1. Optional & Obligatory Sentence
Elements
 Most obligatory adverbials are Adv(place), especially in patterns 1 & 4.
Adv(place) can be optional in other sentence patterns, e.g.,
I put the kettle on the stove.
This sentence belongs to pattern 4, so the Adv(place) (on the stove) is
obligatory, while in a sentence like:
The boy ate the apple in the kitchen.
The Adv(place) is optional as it can be deleted from the sentence without
affecting the meaning of the sentence. So, the sentence is pattern no. 3.
 Other types of adverbs can also be obligatory, as in the following sentence:
She treated him kindly. ( S Vmonotrans. Od A )
 Adv(place) can be metaphorical and obligatory especially in patterns 1 &
4, e.g.,
We are in a bit of a mess. (S Vintens. Adv(place))
We kept him off cigarettes. (S Vcomplextrans. Od Adv(place))
In these two sentences, the Adv(place) is not a real one, but metaphorical. It is
similar to the real Adv(place) in form as both are prepositional phrases.
 Other obligatory elements in the simple sentence patterns are the Od and
C. However, in some cases, these two elements can be optional, e.g.,
He is eating. ( S Vintrans.)
This sentence can be expanded by adding a Od and hence the verb is
changed from being intransitive to transitive;
He is eating an apple. ( S Vmonotrans. Od )
The same thing can be applied to the Co, as in :
He made her career. ( S Vmonotrans. Od )
But we can also say :
He made her career a success. ( S Vcomplextrans. Od Co )
 The Oi can also be optional especially with the verbs that can behave
differently in English, e.g.,
He is teaching. ( S Vintrans. )
He is teaching English. ( S Vmonotrans. Od )
He is teaching those boys English. ( S Vditrans. Oi Od )
So, when changing the verb (teach) from intransitive to transitive, the Od is
added to expand the sentence and the pattern is changed. Also, the second
sentence can be further expanded by adding Oi (those boys). So, the verb
(teach) becomes a ditransitive verb, and the sentence pattern is 6.
Simple Sentence Patterns
(4)
Patterns Relations
 1. Conversion : a grammatical process involving changing the verb from
intransitive to transitive. In this case, the sentence pattern will also change,
She sings. ( S Vintrans. ) Pattern 7
She sings a song. ( S Vmonotrans. Od ) Pattern 3

 Passive transformation: Sentences with transitive verbs can be transformed

from the active form into the passive. The pattern of the passive sentence
will be different from that of the active sentence, e.g.,
He broke the window. ( S Vmonotrans. Od)
The window was broken. ( S Vpass )
 I gave the poor a penny. ( S Vditrans. Oi Od)
This sentence has two forms in the passive as it has two objects, as follows:
1. The poor was given a penny. ( S Vpass Od )
2. A penny was given to the poor. ( S Vpass A )
 When sentences are transformed from active into passive, the focus is
changed from the doer of the action ( the subject ) to the result of the
action.
 (Note): In informal English, the verb (get) can be used instead of the verb
(to be) in changing the sentences into passive, e.g.,
The window got broken.
Also, the verb (become) can be used to change sentences into passive when
talking about action that are gradually achieved, e.g.,
With the course of time, the furniture became covered with dust.
 3. Semantic Equivalence. This relation is found in two sentences which are
similar in meaning, but they have different structures (patterns), e.g.,
The baby is sleeping. ( S Vintrans.)
The baby is asleep. ( S Vintens. Cs )

 4. Intensive Relation: This type of relations is found in the sentence patterns

containing Cs and Co. The Cs relates to the subject, which are joined by
the copula verb ( a linking verb or verb to be ), e.g.,
My class is empty.
In SVOC pattern, the Co relates to the Od. This kind of implied relationship
between the Od and the Co can be expressed by a corresponding SVC
sentence with a copula verb (be), e.g.,
 We find them very pleasant.
They are very pleasant.

Carol made Jim and Mark her assistants.

Jim and Mark become Carol’s assistants.

 Intensive relation can also be found between the S and the adverbial in
pattern 1, and the Od and the A in pattern 4, e.g.,
He wants the payment in dollars.
The payment is in dollars.
 Note : SVOiOd clauses can also be transformed into AVOA clauses by
changing the Oi into a prepositional phrase with (to), (for) or (with/against)
, e.g.,
He bought his wife a ring.
He bought a ring to his wife.

I played him a game of chess.

I played a game of chess with/against him

Simple Sentence Patterns
(5)
 Multiple Class Membership

Some verbs in English can belong to a number

of different classes, and hence can occur in
more tan one clause pattern. When this
happens there is often a slight change of
meaning. For example, the verb (get) can
belong to six patterns, as in the following
examples :
1. He’ll get a surprise. ( to have) S Vmonotrans. Od
2. He is getting angry. (to become) S Vintens. Cs
3. He got through the window. (to get into/out) S Vintrans. A
4. He got his socks wet. (to have) S Vcomplextrans. Od Co
5. He got her a splendid present. (to bring) S Vditrans. Oi Od
6. He got himself into trouble. (to cause) S Vcomplextrans. Od Aplace
Note : Structural ambiguity can arise because of the multiple class
membership of verbs, e.g.,
I found him a good roommate.
This sentence can be interpreted as S V Od Co ( I found that he was a good
roommate.) Or S V Oi Od ( I found a good roommate for him. )
 Optional Adverbials :

 The seven simple sentence patterns can be expanded by adding

adverbials which are optional (i.e. put between brackets ), e.g.,
I admire your courage. S Vmonotrans. Od
I greatly admire your courage. S (A) Vmonotrans. Od
That is silly. S Vintens. Cs
That is quite silly. S Vintens. (A) Cs
She sings. S Vintrans.
Sometimes she sings beautifully. (A) S Vintrans. (A)
Sentence Elements Syntactically
Defined
In order to define sentence elements syntactically, three important questions
need to be answered regarding each element:
1. What is the form of this element?
2. Where does it occur in the sentence?
3. Is there any specific feature that distinguishes it from other elements?
The answer for these three questions will form a complete syntactic definition
for each of the sentence elements we studied in the simple sentence patterns.
1. Subject
1. In terms of form, the subject should be a noun that may occur in different forms like a simple
noun, a subject pronoun, a noun phrase (NP), or a clause with a nominal function;

2. As for position, the subject usually occurs in statement initially (at the beginning of the
sentence), before the verb. Whereas in questions, the subject appears after the operator (the
aUxiliary Used fo form questions).

3. The subject has to have both number and gender concord (agreement) with its verb.
E.g
o
The window is open.
oThe windows are open.
Did you open the window?

What you said was unacceptable.

2. The Direct Object
1. In form, the Od is a noun that may appear as a simple noun, an object pronoun, a
noun phrase, or a clause with nominal function;
o2. The Od appears after the subject and verb;
3. In passive transformation, the Od takes the place ofthe subject, e.g.
He broke the window.
He broke it.

Thewindow was broken.

He saw what happened last night.
3. The Indirect Object
1. Like the subject and direct object, the Oi is a noun that may appear in the form ofa a simple noun,
an object pronoun, a noun phrase, ora clause with nominal function;
2. It occurs after the subject and verb and before the Od;
o3. It is characterized by the following:
o
A. It can be transformed into a prepositional phrase and put at the end of the sentence;
oB. in passive transformation, it can also takes the place of the subject, e.g.
gave the poor a penny.
I gave a penny
to the poor.
The poorwas givena penny.
4. The Complement (Cs & Co)
o1. It is either a noun phrase or adjective phrase or a clause with a nominal function;
2. The Cs appears after the subject and intensive verb; while the Co appears after the Od;
3. It has a co-referential relation with the subject or object, and it does not become subject in the
passive transformation (especially the Co), e.g.,
He is gteacher.
oShe seems unhappy.
They made him president.
He was made president.
5. The Adverbial
o1. It is ad adverb phrase, adverbial clauUse, noun phrase or prepositional phrase;
2. It is generally mobile, i.e., is capable of occurring in in more than one position in the
clause;
It is generally optional, i.e. can be removed from the sentence without affecting its
acceptability except the Adverb of place in patterns 1 & 4; e.g.,
Isaw him (this morningl.
We were af school.

(Sometimes)_she sings [beautifully).

When you finish homework, you may leave.
1. Affected
It is the typical semantic role of the Od.

2. Locative
It is the Od that indicates place of the action, e.g.
 We walked the streets ('We walked along/through the streets').
 He swam the river ('He swam across the river').
 He passed the notice ('He passed by the notice').
 The horse jumped the fence (*... jumped over the fence').
There are similar uses of such verbs as turn, leave,
reach, surround, penetrate, mount, cross, climb.
Superficially, these objects may look like adverbials
with an omitted preposition.
In most cases their status as objects is clear,
however, from their ability to assume subject role in
a corresponding passive clause:
The fence was jumped by the horse.
3. Effected
An effected object is one that refers to something which exists only
by virtue of the activity indicated by the verb, e.g.
 Baird invented television.
 John has painted a new picture.
 I'm writing a letter.
 One may include in this category also the type of object (sometimes
called 'cognate') which repeats, partially or wholly, the meaning of
the verb, e.g., ( to sing a song, to dream a dream, to fight a fight, to
die a miserable death, etc. )
 A third type of effected object takes the form of a verbal noun
preceded by a common verb of general meaning, such as do, make,
have, take, and give. This construction is often more idiomatic,
especially in colloquial English, than an equivalent construction
with an intransitive verb, e.g.,
 He did little work that day ('He worked little that day').
 He made several attempts to contact me ('He attempted several
times to contact me').
 The prisoner made no comment ( ??? ).
 He’s having a smoke ( ???)
 He takes a rest ( ???)
 He gave a jump/ a yell (???)
 Notes :

1. Have and take in these examples have agentive subjects (have

being the typical British, and take the typical American form), while
give usually has an involuntary force and therefore accompanies an
'affected' subject.
He gave a jump (contrasts with) He took a jump
in suggesting that he could not help the action.

2. In (The baby had a bath ) the verb have has an affected subject.
Similarly, in
(He took a fall/beating) the subject is affected.
3. A more dubious category of object consists of phrases of extent or measure, as
in
 He ran a mile.
 It costs ten dollars.
 It weighs almost a ton.

As these clauses do not generally permit the passive transformation, there is

reason to analyse them as SVA rather than SVO. However, the final element
behaves at least marginally like a direct object, as is shown by question forms
with What alongside How much:

 What does it weigh ?

 How much does it weigh ?
1. Recipient
2. Affected
This happens when give (or sometimes related verbs like pay, owe)
has an 'effected' object as direct object and an 'affected' object as
indirect object, e.g.,
 I gave the door three kicks ('I kicked the door three times').
 I paid her a visit ('I visited her').
These clauses, as the paraphrases make clear, are equivalent to
clauses with a direct object as 'affected' object.
CONCORD
 What is concord?
Concord is the grammatical agreement between two words in
a sentence. The most important type of concord in English is
concord of number between subject and verb. In subject-verb
concord, if the subject of the sentence is singular, the verb
must also be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be
plural as well, e.g.,
The window is open. (grammatical concord )
The windows are open. (grammatical concord )
 Notes:
1. A clause taking the position of subject counts as singular, and hence a singular verb is used, e.g.,
What Bill did doesn’t shock his friends.
To arrive early is good.
2. A prepositional phrase acting as subject is also considered singular, e.g.,
Inside the freezer is dark and cold.
3. Nominal relative clauses can be singular or plural since they are equivalent to noun phrases, e.g.,
What I like best is football.
(It is equivalent to : The sport I like best is football).
What were once great ideas are now nothing.
(It is equivalent to : The ideas that were once great are now nothing).
4. Ininformal speech, there is a tendency to use (is/was) with pseudo subject (There) in
existential sentences, e.g.,
There is two patients in the waiting room. (informal)
(Existential sentences are those sentences starting with There followed by a form of the
verb be, and expressing the notion of existence).
5. Exceptions to the previous rules include: a. the nouns ending with (-s) like (news), nouns
referring to fields of science (physics, mathematics, politics, economics, linguistics, etc.),
nouns referring to diseases like (measles), etc. They are considered singular, e.g.,
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
Measles is sometimes serious.
b. The nouns that do not have singular forms like people, cattle, clergy, police, etc. They
are called unmarked plural, e.g.
Our people are complaining.
6. Plural
words and phrases (including the coordinated ones) are considered singular
when they are used as names, quotations or titles, e.g.
Little Women is an American novel.
Crime and Punishment is Dostoevsky's best novel.

However, the titles of some works which are collection of stories can be singular
or plural, e.g.
The Canterbury Tales exists/exist in many manuscripts.
 Notional Concord & Proximity
Notional Concord is agreement of verb with subject according to the idea of number rather
than the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that idea, e.g.
Here under notional concord we consider the relationship between collective nouns and their verbs. A collective
noun is a noun used to refer a group of people or things e.g. committee, team, government, staff, family,
public, people, etc. With collective nouns, the context determines whether the verb is singular or plural. If the
noun is taken as a unit, then the singular verb will be used. But if the members in the group are seen as separate,
then, the plural will be used, e.g.,
The committee meets once in a year.
The committee contribute to issues as they are empowered.
Proximity
This principle denotes agreement of the verb with whatever
noun or pronoun closely precedes it, sometimes in preference
to agreement with the headword of the subject, e.g.

One of your friends is here. (Grammatical concord)

One of your friends are here. ( Proximity )
 Collective Nouns
In British English, collective nouns are notionally plural but grammatically singular. So, they follow notional
concord. Whereas in American English, the singular form is used, e.g.,
The public are tired of demonstration. ( British English )
The public is tired of demonstration. ( American English )

It is widely known that the singular and plural forms are, in fact, interchangeable, as the meaning of the
collective noun depends on context, i.e., on whether the collective noun refers to a group that is being
considered as a single undivided body, or as a collection of individuals, e.g.
The audience is enormous. ( =a single, undivided group)
The audience were enjoying the show. ( =the reactions of the individual members of the audience)
CONCORD OF COORDINATED SUBJECT
 WHAT IS THE COORDINATED SUBJECT?

 The coordinated subject contains two or more elements (nouns, noun

phrases or nominal clauses) joined by a coordinator like and, either
….or, neither…..nor, e.g.
John and Ann are coming.
Either the teacher or his student is coming.
Neither John nor Ann are coming.
 CONCORD OF COORDINATED SUBJECT

 A distinction has to be made between appositional coordination and non-

appositional coordination.
 Non-appositional coordination includes cases where the coordinated elements do
not have the same referent and thus are treated as an implied reduction of two
clauses. So, a plural verb is used since the subject is considered plural, e.g.
Jake and George are my roommates. [Jack is my roommate and George is my
roommate.]
What I say and what I think are my own affair. [What I say is my own affair and
what I think is my own affair.]
 Conjoinings expressing a mutual relationship also take a plural verb, e.g.
Your cell phone and mine are similar. [Your cellphone is similar to mine and mine is similar to
yours.]
 A singular verb form is used with conjoinings which represent a single entity, e.g.
The Bat and Ball sells good juice.
Broad beans and eggs makes a good Iraqi dish.
 Arithmetical sums may be ysd with a singular or plural verb, e.g.
Two and two [is/are/equals/equal] four.
Ten times five [makes/make] fifty.
 APPOSITIONAL COORDINATION

 Appositional coordination means that the coordinated elements refer to the same thing. Hence, clause
reduction is not possible and a singular verb is used as the subject in this case is singular, e.g.
This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main street of
the city.
 The following example, however, could have either a singular or plural verb, depending on the meaning:
His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected paper {was/were} with him in the
conference.
Singular was is used if the servant and the editor are the same person, and plural were if they are two
different people.
 APPOSITIONAL COORDINATION

 Some freedom is allowed in the interpretation of abstract

nouns since it is not always easy to decide if they represent two
qualities or one, e.g.
Her calmness and confidence {is /are} astonishing.
Law and order {has/have}been established
 COORDINATION WITH OR & EITHER…OR

 When two noun phrases are joined by or or either….or, both grammatical concord and proximity
concord can be used. Grammatical concord is clear when each member of the coordination has the
same number:
Either the Mayor or her deputy is bound to come.
What I say or what I think is none of your business.
 Proximity principle is to be used when the coordinated noun phrases have different numbers. The
general rule, here, is that the number of the verb is determined by the number of the last or closest
noun phrase, e.g.
Either the teacher or his students were to blame.
Either the students or their teacher is to blame.
 COORDINATION WITH NEITHER….NOR

 The rules for the negative correlatives neither. . . nor are the same as for
either. . . or in formal usage. In less formal usage, they are treated more
like and for concord. Thus, [the first example below] is more natural in
speech than [the second one]:
Neither he nor his wife have arrived.
Neither he nor his wife has arrived.
 COORDINATION WITH “NOT. . . BUT” AND “NOT ONLY. . . BUT
ALSO”

 The coordinating correlatives not. . . but and not only. . . but also behave like or
with respect to number concord.
 The coordinating correlatives not. . . but and not only. . . but also behave like or
with respect to number concord, e.g.
Not only he but his wife has arrived.
Not (only) one but all of us were invited.
Not just the students but even their teacher is enjoying the film.
 The mixed expression one or two follows the principle of proximity in having plural concord:
One or two reasons were suggested.
 Similarly, one and plus a fraction has plural concord, since the notion of plural applies not to at least two but to
more than one, e.g.
One and a half years have passed since we last met.
 Grammatical concord is usually obeyed for more than:
More than a hundred terrorists were killed yesterday.
More than five thousands have participated in the opening ceremony.
Although more than one person is notionally plural, a singular verb is preferred (one) person operates as head of
the noun phrase., e.g.
More than one person has protested against the proposal.
 INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS AS SUBJECT

 Another area of ambivalence for subject-verb number concord is that of indefinite expressions of
amount or quantity, especially with the determiners and with the pronouns no, none, all, some, any,
and fractions such as half. They have both count and noncount uses.
 With noncountable nouns (present or implied), the verb is of course singular, e.g.
No money has been spent on repairs.
None (of the money) has been spent on repairs.
Some cement has arrived.
Some (of the cement) has arrived.
 INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS AS SUBJECT

 With plural count nouns (present or implied) the verb is plural, e.g.
No people of that name live here.
Some books have been placed on the shelves.
 None with plural count nouns is in divided usage, e.g.
None of the books {has/have} been placed on the shelves.
 With either and neither the singular verb is generally used, e.g.
The two candidates have arrived, {and either/but neither} is welcome.
 INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS AS SUBJECT

 The proximity principle may lead to plural concord even with indefinites such as
each, every, everybody, anybody, and nobody (or indefinite phrases such as
everyone, any one), which are otherwise singular, e.g.
Nobody, not even the teachers, were listening.
Everyone of that audience were pleased with the show.
 Many people consider the above sentences and similar ones as being ungrammatical
for they contradict rules of grammatical concord.
 Concord of
Coordinated Subject(2)
 Coordination with or & either…or
• When two noun phrases are joined by or or either….or, both grammatical concord and
proximity concord can be used. Grammatical concord is clear when each member of the
coordination has the same number:
Either the Mayor or her deputy is bound to come.
What I say or what I think is none of your business.
• Proximity principle is to be used when the coordinated noun phrases have different
numbers. The general rule, here, is that the number of the verb is determined by the number
of the last or closest noun phrase, e.g.
Either the teacher or his students were to blame.
Either the students or their teacher is to blame.
 Coordination with neither….nor
• The rules for the negative correlatives neither. . . nor are the same as for
either. . . or in formal usage. In less formal usage, they are treated more like
and for concord. Thus, [the first example below] is more natural in speech
than [the second one]:
Neither he nor his wife have arrived.
Neither he nor his wife has arrived.
 Coordination with “not. . . But” and
“not only. . . but also”
• The coordinating correlatives not. . . but and not only. . . but also behave
like or with respect to number concord, e.g.
Not only he but his wife has arrived.
Not (only) one but all of us were invited.
Not just the students but even their teacher is enjoying the film.
 NOTES:

• The mixed expression one or two follows the principle of proximity in having plural concord:
One or two reasons were suggested.
• Similarly, one and plus a fraction has plural concord, since the notion of plural applies not to at least two but
to more than one, e.g.
One and a half years have passed since we last met.
• Grammatical concord is usually obeyed for more than:
More than a hundred terrorists were killed yesterday.
More than five thousands have participated in the opening ceremony.
Although more than one person is notionally plural, a singular verb is preferred (one) person operates as head
of the noun phrase., e.g.
More than one person has protested against the proposal.
 Indefinite expressions as subject
• Another area of ambivalence for subject-verb number concord is that of indefinite
expressions of amount or quantity, especially with the determiners and with the
pronouns no, none, all, some, any, and fractions such as half. They have both
count and noncount uses.
• With noncountable nouns (present or implied), the verb is of course singular, e.g.
No money has been spent on repairs.
None (of the money) has been spent on repairs.
Some cement has arrived.
Some (of the cement) has arrived.
 Indefinite expressions as subject
• With plural count nouns (present or implied) the verb is plural, e.g.
No people of that name live here.
Some books have been placed on the shelves.
• None with plural count nouns is in divided usage, e.g.
None of the books {has/have} been placed on the shelves.
• With either and neither the singular verb is generally used, e.g.
The two candidates have arrived, {and either/but neither} is welcome.
 Indefinite expressions as subject
• The proximity principle may lead to plural concord even with indefinites
such as each, every, everybody, anybody, and nobody (or indefinite
phrases such as everyone, any one), which are otherwise singular, e.g.
Nobody, not even the teachers, were listening.
Everyone of that audience were pleased with the show.
• Many people consider the above sentences and similar ones as being
ungrammatical for they contradict rules of grammatical concord.
CONCORD OF PERSON
CONCORD OF PERSON
The subject and its verb have to agree in person as well as number. Within any clause
with a present tense verb, the subject and verb must agree in person (first, second,
or third), e.g.
I am your friend. ( 1st person concord)
He is ready. (3rd person concord)
Her mother wears jewelry. (3rd person concord, adding 3rd person singular (-s))
CONCORD OF PERSON
With coordinated subject with or, either … or, and neither …. nor, the proximity rule
works, e.g.
Either my wife or I am coming.
Neither I nor my brother is to blame.
Because many people find such sentences awkward, a modal auxiliary verb is
preferred to be used as it is invariable for person, e.g.
Either my wife or I will be coming.
CONCORD OF PERSON
Cleft sentences are one way to add emphasis to what we want to say. It is called cleft
because it divides a clause into two separate sections, each with its own verb. The
first part starts with it followed by the verb be which in turn is followed by the
element on which the focus falls. The second section starts with the relative pronoun
subject whose verb agrees with whatever precedes it, e.g.
It is I who am to blame. (Formal English)
It is me who is to blame. (Informal English)
OTHER TYPES OF CONCORD
 SUBJECT-COMPLEMENT CONCORD
Subject-complement concord of number exists between S and Cs in SVCs (when the Cs
is a noun), e.g.
The child is an angel.
The children are angels.
However, there are exceptions to this rule; as follows:
1. They turned traitor. (but: They became traitors).
(turn traitor) is an idiomatic structure in English. Hence, it doesn’t change its form with
the plural subject. However, when we change the verb to (become), the noun (traitor)
should have concord in number with the subject.
 SUBJECT – COMPLEMENT CONCORD
2. What we need most is books.
What we need most are books.

The two sentences are correct, although sentences no.(1) does not show concord between
the subject and its complement. The rule followed here is notional concord as the
nominal relative clause in the first sentence is singular (it refers to the thing needed),
while in the second sentence it is plural (as it refers to the books themselves).
 SUBJECT-OBJECT CONCORD
The subject agrees with its object in number, person, and gender when the object
takes the form of a reflexive pronoun (himself, myself, themselves,…) and the genitive
pronoun (his own), e.g.
John hurt himself.
Ann hurt herself.
I hurt myself.
She is making a sweater for herself.
They are destroying their own houses.
 SUBJECT – OBJECT CONCORD
Note: Collective nouns in Br English are considered plural, and hence a plural
reflexive pronoun is used with them, e.g.
The navy congratulated themselves on the victory.
 PRONOUN CONCORD
It is the correspondence (agreement) of the pronoun with its antecedent in number,
person and gender, e.g.,
John hurt his foot.
Ann hurt her foot.
They hurt their feet.
However, the pronoun may not agree with the noun that precedes it when each of the
noun and pronoun refer to two different things or people, e.g.
John hurt her foot.
 PRONOUN CONCORD
When the indefinite pronouns (someone, somebody, nobody, everyone, everybody,
…) are used as subject, there is the problem of using the suitable pronoun that
agrees with in gender as English as no gender-neutral 3rd person singular pronoun.
Thus, in informal English, the plural pronouns ( they, their) are used as they are
considered a neutral pronoun, e.g.,
Everyone thinks they have the answer. (Informal English)
I formal English (writing), this solution is unacceptable, and hence the masculine
pronouns (he, his) are used to refer to both genders,
Everyone thinks he has the answer. (Formal English )
 PRONOUN CONCORD
Another way is to use both of the masculine and feminine pronouns, although such a
solution has been found to be cumbersome:
Everyone thinks he or she knows the answer. (Formal English)
The same problem might be raised with coordinated subject with (either…or), e.g.
Either he or his wife has changed their mind. (Informal English)
Either he or his wife has changed his mind. (Formal English)
Either he or his wife has changed his or her mind. (Formal English)
THE VOCATIVE
 DEFINITION

 A vocative is a nominal element added to a sentence or clause optionally, denoting the one or more
people to whom it is addressed, and signalling the fact that it is addressed to them, e.g.
John, I need your help. (voc SVO)
It is a lovely day, Mrs. Johnson. (SVCs voc)
You, my friends, will have to work hard. (S voc VA)
These three sentences show how a vocative may take an initial, medial, or final position in the sentence; in
its optionality and freedom of position, it is more like an adverbial. Intonationally, the vocative is set off from
the rest of the clause by constituting a separate tone-unit. The most characteristic intonations are shown above: fall-
rise for an initial vocative; rise for a medial or final vocative.
FORM:

 In form a vocative may be:

(1) a single name with or without title, e.g. John, Mrs. Johnson, Dr. Smith, etc.
(2) The personal pronoun (you) or the indefinite pronoun (somebody); e.g. :
Behave yourself, you.
(This is markedly impolite.) Or an indefinite pronoun; e.g. :
Get me a pen, somebody.
FORM

(3) Standard appellatives, usually nouns without pre- or postmodification (not even the possessive pronoun). These
are also used as titles of respect, like :
 family relationships: mother, father, uncle: or more familiar forms like: mom(my) (AmE), mum(my)(BrE)t dad(dy),
auntie
 endearments: (my) darling\dear\love\honey (AmE), etc.
 TITLES of respect: sir, madam, My Lord,Your Excellency,Your Majesty, ladies and gentlemen, etc.
 markers OF profession or status : doctor; Mr/Madam Chairman; Mr President; (Mr) Prime Minister; Father (for
priest); Bishop, etc.
FORM

(4) A nominal clause (very occasionally), e.g.

Whoever said that, come out here.
(5) Items under (1), (2), or (3) above with the addition of modifiers or appositive elements of various kinds:
(1) My dear Mrs. Johnson; young John
(2) You with the red hair .you over there. (impolite),
Informal but not impolite like: you boys; you (young) fellows (familiar); you guys (familiar AmE)
(3) Old man fellow (familiar); young man/woman
 FUNCTIONS

1. One obvious function of a vocative in English is to seek the attention of the person
addressed, and especially to single him out from others who may be within hearing.
2. A second function, less obvious but certainly no less important, is to express the
attitude of the speaker towards the addressee.
3. Vocatives are generally used as a positive mark of attitude, to signal either respectful
distance or familiarity (varying from mild friendliness to intimacy).
Negation in English
What is negation?

 Negation is the process that turns an affirmative statement into its opposite
denial, e.g.,
 She is a nice girl. (An Affirmative sentence)
 She is not a nice girl. ( A negative sentence)
 Sentences in English are generally changed into negative through
negating the verb; by adding the (not) to the operator, as in the following
examples:
You should sleep late. You should not sleep late.
I like playing tennis. I do not like playing tennis.
What is negation?

 Exceptions to this:
 Verbs to be can take (not) even when they function as main verbs, e.g.
She is a teacher.
She is not a teacher.
 When (have) is a lexical verb (ie., a main verb= to possess), it is negated in the
following ways:
I have a car.
I don’t have a car. ( Am E)
I haven’t a car. (Formal Br E)
I haven’t got a car. (Informal Br E)
Abbreviated (Contracted) Negation

 There are two ways to do this:

1. Abbreviating the operator and attach it to the subject (usually when the
subject is a pronoun),e.g.
He is not coming.
He’s not coming.
2. Abbreviating the particle of negation, e.g.
He isn’t coming.
Abbreviated (Contracted) Negation:

 Note: There is no contracted form for (am not). The only way to abbreviate this
structure is through abbreviating the operator, e.g.,

I am not coming.
I’m not coming.
 In Yes-No questions, (am not) is replaced with (aren’t) in Br E and (ain’t) in Am
E., e.g.

Am I not beautiful?
Aren’t I beautiful? (Br E)
Ain’t I beautiful? (Am E)
Assertive and Non-assertive Forms :

 There are some words which are mainly used in affirmative sentences.
Examples are: some, once, already, somebody, something, sometimes,
somewhere, someone etc. These words are often called assertive words.
 We do not usually use assertive words in questions and negatives. Instead
we use other words like any, anything, anybody, ever, yet, etc. These
words are often called non-assertive words, e.g.,
I have bought something.
I haven’t bought anything.
They have already arrived.
They haven’t arrived yet.
Alternative Negative Elements

 Instead of the verb, other elements in the sentences can be negated like
the subject or the object by making them preceded by the negative
words (no) or (not). This may or may not cause a change in meaning, e.g.
An honest man would not lie.
No honest man would lie.
I didn’t see any birds.
I saw no birds.
Alternative Negative Elements

Many people didn’t attend the meeting.

( The people who missed the meeting)

Not many people attended the meeting.

( Few people attended the meeting)
THANK YOU
Negation in English
 Negative Inversion

 When negative adjuncts are made initial, there is inversion of subject and
operator, e.g.

Jim has never tried that.

Never has Jim tried that.

We have seen the results nowhere clearly.

Nowhere have we seen the results clearly.
More than one non-assertive Forms:
 If a clause contains a negative element, it is usually negative throughout,
from the occurrence of the negative to the end, or at least until the
beginning of a final adjunct. This means that after a negative, the non-
assertive forms must normally be used in place of every assertive form that
would have occurred in the corresponding positive clause, e.g.

I have already travelled somewhere by air.

I haven’t travelled anywhere by air yet.

He sometimes said something to both of us.

He didn’t ever say anything to either of us.
More than one non-assertive Forms:

 The non-assertive forms even occur in positive subordinate clauses following a

negative in the main clause:

Nobody has promised that any of you will be released yet.

A negative A positive subordinate
main clause clause
 Double Negation:

 Occasionally when two negatives occur in the same clause, the meaning is
positive, e.g.
I can’t not obey. (= I have to obey. )

Not many people have nowhere to live.

(= some people have somewhere to live.)
Adverbs and Determiners of Negation:
 There are several words which are negative in meaning, but not in
appearance. They include seldom and rarely (adverbs meaning 'not often');
scarcely and hardly (adverbs meaning 'almost. .. not/no'); little and few
(determiners or adverbs meaning 'not much' and 'not many' respectively - in
contrast, a little and a few are positive); only (determiner or adverb meaning
'no more/other than‘); and barely (adverb meaning 'only just‘).
 For three reasons these are treated as negative forms:
1. They are followed by non-assertive rather than assertive forms, e.g.
I seldom get any sleep.
2. When in pre-subject position, they normally cause subject-operator inversion:
Rarely have they helped us.
3. They are followed by positive rather than negative tag-questions, e.g.
She scarcely seems to care, does she?
Adverbs and Determiners of Negation:

 In addition to the words discussed, verbs, adjectives, or prepositions with

negative meaning can govern non-assertive forms, e.g.
He denies I ever told him.
I forgot to ask for any change.
Unaware of any hostility,
Without any delay,
Against any changes,
Scope of Negation
 Scope of Negation
• The stretch of language over which the negative meaning operates. The
scope of the negation normally extends from the negative word itself to the
end of the clause, or to the beginning of a final adjunct. The subject, and any
adjuncts occurring before the predication, normally lie outside it. (The
operator is sometimes within, and sometimes outside, the scope).
 Scope of Negation
• There is thus a contrast between:
• I definitely didn't speak to him ('It's definite that I did not')

• I didn't definitely speak to him ('It's not definite that I did‘)

 Scope of Negation
• When an adverbial is final, however, it may or may not lie outside the scope,
e.g.
• I wasn't listening all the time. (= I listened none of the time)

• I wasn't listening all the time. (= I listened some of the time)

 Scope of Negation
• If an assertive form is used, it must lie outside the scope; e.g.,
• I didn't listen to some of the speakers. (= I listened to some)

• I didn't listen to any of the speakers. (= I listened to none)

THANK YOU
Focus of Negation
 Focus of Negation

• In describing negative clauses, it is important to identify not only the scope

of negation, but also the focus of negation. A special or contrastive nuclear
stress falling on a particular part of the clause to indicate that the contrast of
meaning implicit in the negation is located at that spot, and also that by
implication the rest of the clause can be understood in a positive sense, e.g.
• The following sentence can be understood in different ways each time we
change the location of the nuclear stress:
• I didn’t take John to the swimming pool today. (the nuclear stress is on the
subject (I). The subject is the focus of negation, i.e. it is not I who took John
to the swimming pool but someone else);
• I didn’t take John to the swimming pool today. (the verb is the focus of
negation. The sentence means that I did something with John today but not
taking him to the swimming pool).
• The scope and focus are interrelated in such a way that the scope must
include the focus. From this it follows that one way of signalling the extent
of the scope is by the position of the focus. One example of this is when,
atypically, the scope of the negation is extended to include a subordinate
clause of reason:
• I didn't leave home, because I was afraid of my father.

( Because I was afraid of my father, I didn’t leave home).

 • I didn't leave home because I was afraid of my father.

(I left home, but it wasn't because of my father that I did so).

Negation of Modal
Auxiliaries
Negation of Modal Auxiliaries
 The negation of modal auxiliaries requires some
attention, in that here e scope of the negation may or
may not include the meaning of the auxiliary itself.

 We therefore distinguish between auxiliary negation and

main verb negation.

 The past tense negative modal auxiliaries follow the

same negative pattern as their negative present tense
equivalents.
 Negation of can/could

Ability Permission Possibility

Can Auxiliary Negation Auxiliary Negation Auxiliary Negation

He cannot speak You cannot go You can’t be
English. (He is not swimming. (You serious. (It’s not
able to …). are not allowed possible that …. ).
to ….. ).
Could Auxiliary Negation Auxiliary Negation Auxiliary Negation
He could They could not The road could
not/couldn’t play smoke in the not be blocked. (It
the banjo. (He was theatre. (They was not possible
not able to … ). were not allowed that … ).
to …. ).
 Negation of May/Might

Permission Possibility
May Auxiliary Negation Main Verb Negation
You may not go They may not bother to
swimming. (You are not come if it’s raining. (It is
allowed to … ). possible that they will not
bother to come … ).
might Auxiliary Negation Main Verb Negation
They might not smoke in They might not bother to
the theatre. (They come if it’s raining. (It is
were/are not allowed to possible that they will not
… ). bother to come … ).
 Negation of shall/should

Shall Main verb negation Main verb negation

(willingness/intention on (prediction)
the part of the speaker)
Don’t worry, you shan’t I shan’t know you when
lose your reward. (I’m you return. (I predict that
willing to see that you I will not know you when
don’t lose your reward). you return).
should Main verb negation Main verb negation
(Logical necessity ) (prediction)
You shouldn’t go there. I shouldn’t be here when
(It’s necessary/advisable you return. (I predict that
that you will not go I will not be here when
there). you return).
 Negation of will/would

willingness insistence prediction

Will Main verb negation Main verb Main verb
negation negation
Don’t worry, I won’t He won’t do what They won’t have
interfere. (I am willing he’s told. (He arrived yet. (I
not to interfere). insists on not predict that they
doing what he’s have not arrived
told). yet).
would Main verb negation Main verb Main verb
negation negation
I wouldn’t interfere. They wouldn’t stop He wouldn’t
(I was willing not to smoking. (They come. (I
interfere ). insisted on not to predicted that he
stop smoking). would not come).
 Negation of must

obligation Logical necessity

must Main verb negation Can’t is used in this sense
You mustn’t keep us all instead ‘There must be a
waiting. ( You are mistake’ but ‘There can’t
obliged not to keep us be a mistake’.
waiting).
 Oughtn’t & Needn’t

Obligation Necessity
Ought not to Main verb negation Main verb negation
(oughtn’t to) You oughtn’t to keep us He oughtn’t to be long.
waiting. (You are (It is necessary that he is
obliged not to keep us not long).
waiting).
Need not Auxiliary negation Auxiliary negation
(needn’t) You needn’t pay that It needn’t always be my
fine. (You are not fault. (It is not necessary
obliged to pay that fine). that … ).
TYPES OF SENTENCES IN ENGLISH
 1. STATEMENTS

• Statements are sentences in which the subject is always present and generally
precedes the verb, e.g.
John will speak to the boss today.
• Exceptions to this involve statements without a subject as a result of ellipsis,
e.g.
( I )Thank you.
(I’m) Sorry for your loss.
(It’s ) Good to see you here.
 2. QUESTIONS

• Questions are sentences marked by one or more of the following criteria:

• A. the placing of the operator immediately before the subject, e.g.
Will John speak to the boss today?
Note: In negative Yes-No questions, the formal form is to place the subject
immediately after the operator, while (not) in its full form is used after the
subject, e.g.
Did John not send it?
However, the general form of such questions is to use (not) in its contracted
form between the operator and the subject, e.g.
Didn’t John send it?
 2. QUESTIONS

B. The initial positioning of an interrogative or a wh- element,

e.g.
Who will speak to the boss today?

C. Rising intonation, e.g.

John will speak to the boss?
 3. COMMANDS

• Commands are sentences which normally have no

overt grammatical subject, and whose verb is in
the imperative, e.g.
Close the door!
Take your medicine!
 4. EXCLAMATIONS

• Exclamations are sentences which have an initial

phrase introduced by (What) or (How), without
inversion of subject and operator, e.g.
What a nice girl she is!
How fast you ran!
QUESTIONS
 Types of Questions
◦ Questions can be divided into three major classes according to the type of answer
they expect :
◦ 1. Those that expect the answer yes or no such as
Have you been to Paris ?,
are yes-no questions;
2. Those that expect a reply that supplies an item of information, as in
What is your name? Where do you live?
are Wh- questions;
3. Those that expect as a reply one of two or more options presented in the question are
alternative questions, e.g.
Would you like to go for a walk or stay at home?
 Yes-No Questions
◦ Yes-no questions are usually formed by Placing the operator before the subject and
giving the sentence a rising intonation, e.g.
He passed the exam.
Did he pass the exam?
Note : Again, (be) and sometimes (have) (in BrE only) count as operator even when they
occur without a following main verb, so that the whole verb is placed in front of the
subject, e.g.
The Joneses are late again ~ Are the Joneses late again?
He has a car. [ Does he have a car? ( Am E )
Has he (got) a car? ( Br E )
◦ Note : By placing the nuclear stress in a particular part of a yes-no
question, we are able to 'focus' the interrogation on a particular
item of information which, unlike the rest of the sentence, is
assumed to be unknown. Thus the focus falls in different places in
the following otherwise identical questions, e.g.
Was he a famous actor in those days ?
( I know he was once a famous actor - but was it then or later?)
Was he a famous actor in those days ?
('I know he was an actor in those days -but was he a famous
one?')
 Types of Yes-No Questions
◦ According to the answer the speaker expects, Yes-No questions are of three types:
◦ 1. Neutral orientation
The speaker asks a Yes-No question whose answer can either be Yes or No. Such
questions are characterized by the use of non-assertive forms, e.g.
STATEMENT QUESTION
Someone called last night. Did anyone call last night?
The boat has left already. Has the boat left yet ?
These question have neutral polarity, in the sense that it leaves open whether the answer
is positive or negative. Hence questions, like negatives, belong to the class of 'non-
assertions‘.
 Types of Yes-No Questions
2. Positive orientation:
A question has positive orientation, for example, if it uses (as sometimes happens)
assertive forms in preference to non-assertive forms, e.g.
Did someone call last night ? (' Is it true that someone called last night')
Has the boat left already ?
These questions indicate that the speaker has reason to believe that the answer is yes: he
merely asks for confirmation of that assumption. They are frequently used in making an
offer, e.g.
Would you like some cake ?
 Types of Yes-No Questions
3. Negative orientation:
The opposite case of negative orientation is found in questions which contain a negative form
of one kind or another:
Can't you give us any hope of success ? (' Is it really true that you can't...?')
Does no one believe me ?
Negative orientation is complicated, however, by an element of surprise or disbelief which
adds implications of positive meaning. Thus, the sentence:
Isn’t your car working?
means ' Do you really mean that your car isn't working ? I had assumed that it was.' Here there
is a combining of a positive and a negative attitude, which one may distinguish as the old
assumption (positive) and new assumption (negative). Because the old assumption tends to
be identified with the speaker's hopes or wishes, negative orientated questions often express
disappointment or annoyance.
 Types of Yes-No Questions
◦ A second type of negative question combines not (the formal
signal of negative orientation) with the assertive items which are
the formal signals of positive orientation:
Didn't someone call last night?
Such questions are similar in effect to type [I] tag questions, or
alternatively to statements showing disbelief: 'Surely someone
called last night!'
YES-NO QUESTIONS WITH MODAL
AUXILIARIES
 YES-NO QUESTIONS WITH MODAL AUXILIARIES
The formation of yes-no questions with modal auxiliaries is subject to certain limitations
and shifts of meaning.
1. The modals of 'permission' (may especially BrE, and can) and of ‘obligation’ (must,
especially BrE, and have to) involve the speaker's authority in statements and the
listener's authority in questions; e.g.
May/Can I borrow your car? (=Will you permit me to take your car? Listener’s Authority)
Yes, You may/can. (=I permit/don’t permit ….. )
No, you may not/cannot. (Speaker’s Authority)
 Must I leave?
Do I have to leave?
(=Are you telling me that I should leave? Listener’s Authority)
Yes, you must/have to.
No, you mustn’t/don’t have to.
(= I’m telling you …. (Speaker’s Authority)
2. A similar switch from listener to speaker takes place with shall ('volition') which
(especially in BrE) implicates the speaker's will in statements, but the listener's will
in questions:
You shall suffer for this. (=I intend to make you suffer; Speaker’s will)
Shall I switch off the lights? (=Do you want me to switch off the lights; Listener’s will)
Notes : A. The direct question with shall is restricted to first subject pronouns.
B. With we, shall has both exclusive and inclusive senses, e.g.
Shall we carry your suitcases ? (' Would you like us to ,..?')
Shall we have dinner? ('Would you like us [including you] to .. ,?)

3. May (' possibility') is not employed at all in questions; can (or more commonly, in
AmE, could) takes its place, e.g.
Can/Could they have missed their flight?
Yes, they may have/might have.
4. Need (in BrE) is a non-assertive auxiliary in clauses where the corresponding
positive form is must, e.g.
(BrE) Need it happen?
(AmE/BrE: Does it have to happen?)
-Yes, it must/has to.

Note : If, on the other hand, must had occurred in the question, it would have had
positive orientation: ‘=Is it a fact that it must happen?'.
Tag & Declarative
Questions
 Tag Questions
• A further type of question which conveys positive or negative orientation is
the tag question appended to a statement, e.g.
The boat has already left, hasn't it?
You aren't throwing these shoes away, are you?
The rules for forming the most common type of tag question are:
 Tag Questions
1. The tag question consists of operator + subject (an enclitic negative particle
preceding the subject, a full particle following it) in that order: is he? isn't he?
can't I? will you? could you not? did they not ?
2. The operator is the same as the operator of the preceding statement, e.g.
I haven't met you, have I ?
Where the statement has no operator, use ( do, does, did), e.g.
He likes his job, DOESN't he?
 Tag Questions
3. The subject of the tag is a pronoun which either repeats, or appropriately
substitutes for, the subject of the statement.
4. If the statement is positive, the tag is negative, and vice versa.
5. The nuclear tone of the tag occurs on the auxiliary, and is either rising or
falling.
 Types of Tag Questions
Four main types of tag question emerge from the observance of these rules:
Type (1) Positive Assumption + Neutral Expectation
e.g., He likes his job, D´OESNt he?
Type (2) Negative Assumption + Neutral Expectation
e.g. He doesn’t like his job, D´OES he?
 Types of Tag Questions
The tag questions in these two types are produced with a rising tone. The
meanings of these sentences, like their forms, involve a statement and a
question; each of them, that is, asserts something then invites the listener's
response to it. Sentence [1], for example, can be rendered 'I assume he likes his
job; am I right?'. [2] means the opposite: 'I assume he doesn't like his job; am I
right ?'. Clearly these sentences have a positive and a negative orientation
respectively.
 Types of Tag Questions
Type (3) Positive Assumption + Positive Expectation
e.g., He likes his job, D`OESNt he?
Type (4) Negative Assumption + Negative Expectation
e.g. He doesn’t like his job, D`OES he?
 Types of Tag Questions
The tag with the falling tone, it will be noted, invites confirmation of the
statement, and has the force of an exclamation rather than a genuine question.
In this, it is like exclamatory yes-no questions with a falling tone, e.g.
Isn't it gorgeous father!
 Types of Tag Questions
Note : There is a further, less common, type of tag question in which both
statement and question are positive, e.g.
You've had an Accident, have you?
The tag always has a rising nucleus, and the situation is characteristically
preceded by oh or so, indicating the speaker's arrival at a conclusion by
inference, or by recalling what has already been said.
 Declarative Questions
Not all yes-no questions have subject-operator inversion. The declarative question is a
type of question which is identical in form to a statement, except for the final rising
question intonation, e.g.
John spoke to the ´boss?
Declarative questions show their assertive feature through not using non-assertive
forms, e.g.
*The guests have anything to eat?
The guests have something to eat?
 Declarative Questions
• Note : Declarative questions are similar in force to Tag questions Types 1
and 2 in that have neutral orientation. However, when they are said with
falling tone, they change to require confirmation with (yes) or (no)
accordingly.
Wh - Questions
  Wh- questions are formed with the aid of one of the
following simple interrogative words (or Q-words):
who/whom, whose, what, which, when, where, how, why,
etc.
How to form  As a rule,
Wh-Questions:  (1) the Q-element (ie. clause element containing the Q-
word) comes first in the sentence (apart from some
conjuncts and disjuncts);
Examples:
  (2) the Q-word itself, moreover, takes first position in
the Q-element. The only exception to the second
principle is when the Q-word occurs in a prepositional
complement. Here English provides a choice between
How to form two constructions, one formal and the other colloquial.
Wh-questions: In formal style, the preposition precedes the
complement, whereas in colloquial style, the
complement comes first and the preposition is left
'trailing' at the end of the sentence:
  E.g.,
I based my prediction on your report.

On what did you base your prediction? (formal)

What did you base your prediction on? (colloquial)
Example: We may perhaps express this difference more neatly by
saying that colloquial English insists that the Q-word
comes first, while formal English insists that the Q-
element as a whole comes first.
 1. Wh- questions are said with a falling tone.
2. The Wh-question element takes the function of the
element it is asking about, e.g.,

Who helps you? (Who=Subject)

Whom did you see? (Whom=direct object)
Notes: Where did you put your coat?(Where=Adv place)

How often did you visit your aunt?

(How often=Adv frequency)
(More examples are found on p:197)
 3. normal statement order of elements is upset in wh-
questions not only by the initial placing of the Q-element,
but by the inversion of subject and operator in all cases
except that in which the Q-element is subject, where the
rule of initial Q-element takes precedence over the rule of
inversion.
4. Subject-operator inversion is the same in its application
Notes: to wh-questions as in its application to yes-no questions: if
there is no operator in the equivalent statement do is
introduced as substitute operator in the question. Lexical
be (and sometimes, in BrE, have) acts as an operator, e.g.
How are you ?

Who have we here?

 5. Although there is no verbal Q-word for English, the
content of the verbal element can be questioned by what
as the object of the generalized agentive verb do, e.g.
a: What are you doing? ' b: I'm reading.

a : What have you done to/with my book ?

b : I've hidden it.
Notes: 6. An indirect object cannot act as Q-element: instead of
*Who(m) did you give the present ?

the equivalent prepositional complement construction is

used:
Who{m) did you give the present to? Or
To whom did you give the present?
 7. Adjuncts of instrument, reason, and purpose are
normally questioned by the prepositional constructions,
e.g.
What shall I mend it with ?

What did you do that for?

Although the latter could be replaced by

Notes: Why did you do that ?

it has no alternative with a preposed preposition:

*For what did you do that ?
In this respect it is like informal questions with be
followed by a final preposition, e.g.

What was it like ? (but not *Like what was it ?).

 8. Abbreviated questions consisting of Q-word and final
preposition (which in this construction regularly bears
nuclear stress), e.g.
Where from/to?

What for/with?
Notes: Who with/by ?
are as popular in colloquial speech as questions
consisting of the Q-word only: Where? Who? Why?.

There is a common abbreviated negative question (Why

not?).
Exercise:
Alternative
Questions
 Definition & Structure

– The alternative question expects as an answer one of two or more alternatives

mentioned in the question, e.g.
Would you like a steak or chicken?
– The alternative questions comes in two forms:
1. The first form is similar to the Yes-No question in structure, but different in
intonation; instead of the final rising tone, it contains a separate nucleus for each
alternative: a rise occurs on each item in the list, except the last, on which there is
a fall, indicating that the list is complete, e.g.
Shall we go by bus or train?
 Definition & Structure

2. The second type of alternative question is really a compound of two separate

questions: a wh-question followed by an elliptical alternative question, e.g.
Which ice-cream would you like? Chocolate, vanilla or strawberry?
The original form of this question is :
Which ice-cream would you like? Would you like chocolate, vanilla or strawberry?
 Notes

1. Any positive yes-no question can be converted into an alternative question by

adding or not ? or a matching negative clause, e.g.
Are you coming ?
Are you coming or not?
Are you coming or aren’t you?
 Notes

2. The structure of alternative yes-no questions follows the pattern of clausal

coordination; that is, two or more separate questions are collapsed together,
wherever convenient, by ellipsis, e.g.
Did Italy win the World Cup or (did) Brazil (win the World Cup) ?
The elements put between brackets are ellipted because of repetition. Often the
remaining part of a second or subsequent alternative question is fronted to the
appropriate position in the first question. So, the final version of this question is:
Did Italy or Brazil win the World Cup?
 Notes

Where there is no repeated structure, no ellipsis is possible, and so the second

question appears in its full form, e.g.
Is it RAINing or has it STOPPED?
 Minor Types of Questions

1. Exclamatory Questions
It is a question in form, but is functionally like an exclamation. The most
characteristic exclamatory question is a negative yes-no question with a final falling
instead of rising tone, e.g.
Hasn't she grown!
Wasn't it a marvelous concert!
These invite the listener's agreement to something on which the speaker has
strong feelings. The meaning, contrary to appearances, is vigorously positive.
 Minor Types of Questions

A positive yes-no question, also with a falling tone, is another (but less common)
way of expressing a strong positive conviction, e.g.
'Am 'I HUNGry!
'Did 'he look anNOYED!
'Has 'she GROWN!
Both operator and subject usually receive emphatic stress.
 Minor Types of Questions

2. Rhetorical question
Just as the exclamatory question is a question which has the effect of an
exclamation, so the rhetorical question is a question which functions as a forceful
statement. More precisely, a positive rhetorical question is like a strong negative
assertion, while a negative question is like a strong positive one, e.g.
Is that a reason for despAiR? ('Surely that is not a reason ...')
Is no one going to deFEND me? ('Surely someone is going to defend me')
Unlike exclamatory questions, these rhetorical questions have the normal rising
intonation of a yes-no question.
 Minor Types of Questions

There is also a rhetorical wh-question, which is equivalent to a statement in which

the Q-element is replaced by a negative element, e.g.
Who knows/cares? ('Nobody knows/cares')
What Difference does it make? ('It makes no difference')
Again, the intonation is that of an ordinary wh-question, except that a rise-fall tone
is likely.
COMMANDS IN ENGLISH
Definition:

 Commands are a type of sentence in which someone is being told to do

something. Command sentences usually, but not always, start with
an imperative (bossy) verb because they tell someone to do something, e.g.
Stop talking now!
Don’t press that button.
Ask Max to sign this form and then send it off immediately please, Gwyn.
Beat four eggs, like this. Then add the flour gradually. Don’t beat the eggs too
much though.
Types:

1. Commands without a subject :

It is the most common category of commands, which differs from a statement in
that :
(1) it has no subject,
(2) it has an imperative finite verb (the base form of the verb, without endings
for number or tense), e.g.
Pattern SV: Jump (V)
Pattern SVCs: Be reasonable (V Cs)
Pattern SVOA: Put it on the table (V Od Aplace)
Notes:

1. The imperative verb, however, is severely restricted as to tense, aspect,

voice, and modality. There is no tense distinction or perfect aspect, and only
very rarely does the progressive form occur, e.g.
Be preparing the dinner when he comes in.
2. A passive is equally rare. Usually the auxiliary used is not (be) as in :
Get washed.
Yet, the auxiliary (be) can be used in a limited set of commands, like:
Be prepared.
Be seated.
Be reassured by me.
Notes:

3. Modal auxiliaries do not occur at all in imperative sentences.

4. Stative verbs can be interpreted as dynamic, however, in special contexts:
Know the answer by tomorrow! ( = 'Get to know. ..', 'Learn...').
5. Commands are apt to sound abrupt unless toned down by markers of politeness
such as please:
Please eat up your dinner;
Shut the door, please.
Or change the command into a question or a statement, e.g.
I’d like you to bring us four coffees at eleven when we take a break in the meeting.
I’d be grateful if you didn’t tell anyone about this.
Will you bring us the files on the Hanley case please, Maria?
2. Commands with a Subject

It is implied in the meaning of a command that the omitted subject of the

imperative verb is the 2nd person pronoun you. This is confirmed by the
occurrence of you as subject of a following tag question (Be quiet, will you), and
by the occurrence of yourself and of no other reflexive pronoun as object:
Behave yourself, not 'Behave himself etc.
There is, however, a type of command in which the subject you is retained,
differing from the subject of the finite verb in always carrying stress:
You be quiet!
You mind your own business, and leave this to me!
2. Commands with a Subject

These commands are usually admonitory and frequently express strong irritation.
As such, they cannot naturally be combined with markers of politeness, such as
please:
*Please, you be quiet!
They may be used, however, in another way, to single out (by pointing) two or
more distinct addressees:
You come here, Jack, and you go over there, Mary.
A 3rd person subject is also possible:
Somebody open this door.
Everybody shut their eyes.
Jack and Susan stand over there
2. Commands with a Subject

It is easy to confuse the subject, in these commands, with a vocative noun

phrase. Whereas the subject always precedes the verb, however, the vocative (as
we saw earlier) is an element that can occur in final and medial, as well as
initial, positions in the sentence. Another difference is that the vocative, when
initially placed, has a separate tone-unit (typically fall-rise); the subject merely
receives ordinary word-stress:
vocative: Mary, play on my side.
vocative: Play on my side, Mary.
subject : 'Mary play on my side.
The distinctness of vocative and imperative subject is confirmed by the
possibility of their co-occurrence:
John, you listen to me!
3. Commands with let

First person imperatives can be formed by preposing the verb let followed by a
subject in the objective case:
Let us all work hard.(more usually : Let’s … )
Let me have a look.
The same applies to 3rd person subjects:
Let each man decide for himself.
If anyone shrinks from this action, let him speak now.
4. Negative Commands

To negate 2nd and 3rd person commands, one simply adds an initial Don't,
replacing assertive by non-assertive forms where necessary:

Open the door. Don't open the door.

You open the door. Don't you open the door.
Someone open the door. Don't anyone open the door.
4. Negative Commands

1st person imperatives, on the other hand, have two possibilities :

Let’s open the door.
Either negated as
Let’s not open the door.
Or
Don’t let’s open the door. (informal and esp. Br E)
The second possibility is used with the 3rd person command with Let :
Let someone open the door.
Don’t let anyone open the door.
5. Persuasive Commands

 A persuasive or insistent imperative is created by the addition of do (with a

nuclear tone) before the main verb;
Do have some more cake.
Do let's go to the theatre.
Notes:
1. Do, like don't and let's, acts as an introductory imperative marker, and is not
identical with the emphatic do of statements. Do and Don’t in commands are
different from the operators used to make negatives and questions. They can be
used before (be), as in :
Do be seated!
Don’t be silly!
Notes:

 This peculiarity of imperative do is also found in the quasi-imperative (Why

don't you) construction:
Why don't you be careful.
2. Do, don't, and let's are used in isolation as elliptical commands: :
A : Shall I open the door?
b: Yes, do
Or : No, don’t
A : Shall we watch the game?
b: Yes, let's.
EXCLAMATION IN
ENGLISH
 DEFINITION

• We use exclamations to express surprise or shock or a strong emotion about something.

The type of phrase or clause associated with exclamations is called exclamative or
exclamatory sentences.
• We usually form exclamatives with what or how. In writing, we usually put an
exclamation mark (!) at the end of the exclamative:
What an amazing car it is !
How beautifully she sang!
 STRUCTURE

• We restrict our attention to the type of exclamatory utterance introduced by what or

how.
• Exclamations resemble Wh-questions in involving the initial placement of an exclamatory
Wh-element, which may be called the X-element, e.g.
What a lovely day it is!
X - element S V
 STRUCTURE

• The syntactic order is therefore upset to the extent that the X-element (which may be
object, complement, or adverbial as well as subject) may be taken from its usual
(statement) position and put into a position of initial prominence. On the other hand, in
contrast to Wh-questions, there is generally no subject-operator inversion:
This is a beautiful city. ( S Vintensive Cs)
What a beautiful city this is ! ( Cs (X-element) S Vintensive )
She drives perfectly. ( S Vintrans. A)
How perfectly she drives ! ( A (X-element) S Vintrans. )
 STRUCTURE

• More examples :
We had a wonderful party. ( S Vmonotrans. Od )
What a wonderful party we had ! ( Od ( X-element ) S Vmonotrans. )

An enormous crowd came. ( S Vintrans. )

What an enormous crowd came ! ( S (X-element ) Vintrans. )
 STRUCTURE

• The X – element, like the Q – element of the Wh - questions, can also act as
prepositional complement, the preposition being normally postposed, e.g.

We are in a mess. ( S Vintensive A )

What a mess we are in ! ( A ( X-element ) S Vintensive )
 EXERCISE

• Change the following statements into exclamatory sentences, then identify the X – element and its
function in each one:
1. It was a very hot day.
2. She dances very well.
3. They look exhausted.
4. He is very generous.
5. She is an incredibly strong woman.
6. We have awful weather.
7. The jellyfish swims gracefully.
8. A terrible teacher has just arrived.
Minor types of
sentences
 Formulae
• Sentences are formulae in the sense that although they may have the
appearance of belonging to one of the major classes, they enter into few of
the relations of substitutability that are common to members of those
classes. For instance, the greeting formula (appropriate to a first meeting)
How do you do ? cannot be subordinated as an indirect question {'They
asked him how he did) or answered in equivalent statement form (I did very
well).
 Irregular Sentences
• Wh-questions missing important elements in their structure, e.g
• Why get upset?
• Why not enjoy yourself ?
• How about moving to New York?
 Irregular Sentences
• Verbless imperatives, e.g.
• Down with him!
• Off with the lid!
• Some archaic expressions like
• Long live the queen!
• Bless you!
• God save the queen !
• May all your dreams come true!
 Irregular Sentences
• To this we may add a number of exclamatory types:
• If only I'd listened to my parents!
• To think I was once a millionaire!
• Oh for a drink!
• Oh to be free! (archaic except when jocular)
• You and your statistics!
• Now for some fun!
 Aphoristic sentences
• Among other minor sentence types is the aphoristic sentence structure found in
many proverbs. These all have one structural feature in common: the balancing of
two equivalent constructions against each other.
• The more, the merrier (no main verb in both parts; The more there are of us, the
merrier we are).
• Least said, soonest mended (no aux. verb in both parts; The least that is said, the
soonest to be mended)
• Handsome is as handsome does (handsome is used as a noun in both parts)
• Easy come, easy go (Adj + verb in both parts)
 Block language
• Apart from formulae of colloquial conversation, however, there is a whole
realm of usage where, because of its rudimentary communicative role,
language is structured in terms of single words and phrases, rather than in
terms of the more highly organized units of the clause.
• Language so used may be termed block language. It appears in such
functions as labels, titles, headings, notices, and advertisements. Simple
block-language messages most often consist of a noun or noun phrase or
nominal clause in isolation: no verb is needed, because all else necessary to
the understanding of the message is furnished by context. Examples are:
 Block language
• Examples:
• ENTRANCE;
• Prohibitions (No smoking; No entry)
• ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
• (Warnings; on roads); e.g. danger: falling rocks
• A GRAMMAR OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH
• On a slightly higher communicative level, block language (especially in newspaper headlines)
develops its own abbreviated clause structures:
• OIL PRICES NOW HIGHER THAN EVER (S A C.)