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6. Beams

6.1. Conditions of equilibrium

Part of structural design, including most of the simpler problems, is
performed with the aid of statics alone. Structures which can be solved
purely by applying the conditions of static equilibrium are called statically
determinate or isostatic structures. Those which cannot be solved by statics
alone, are called statically indeterminate or hyperstatic structures.
Forces can be resolved into two components at right angles. In practice,
it is convenient to choose the horizontal and vertical as the two directions.
Verticality is, by definition, the direction of gravitational forces, and the
majority of forces acting on the structure, i.e. dead load and imposed load,
act vertically. Most of the remaining forces act horizontally, i.e. wind
forces, water and soil pressure, all acting on a vertical plane.
To determine whether or not a structure is in equilibrium, the forces acting
upon it must be resolved both vertically and horizontally. If the vertical
components of the forces do not balance, the residual vertical force will cause
the structure to move along a vertical path with accelerating speed. If the hori-
zontal components of the force do not balance the structure will accelerate
along a horizontal path in the direction of the residual horizontal force.
But while the equilibrium of vertical and horizontal forces ensure that a
structure does not move bodily, it does not determine whether or not the
structure would rotate under the action of the same system of vertical and
horizontal forces. For example, the structure shown in Fig. 6.1 satisfies the
equilibrium of vertical and horizontal forces, but it will obviously rotate
about a pivot O, because of a lack of equilibrium of moments.
Consequently, three conditions need to be fulfilled for a planar body
under a system of coplanar forces to remain in equilibrium:
The algebraic sum of all vertical forces is zero (SV = 0)
The algebraic sum of all horizontal forces is zero (SH = 0)
The algebraic sum of all moments about some axis is zero (SM = 0)

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62 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

W
W

W
W
Fig. 6.1.

Note: For those who like to use mnemonic signs and phrases:
1. all up = all down
2. all in = all out
3. taking moments

6.2. Shear force

The shear force at any section of a beam is the resultant vertical force
acting at the section due to the action of all external forces normal to the
longitudinal axis of the beam, on either the left or right of the section.
It is usual to consider the shear force positive if the resultant forces
tending to shear the beam on each side of a section form a clockwise couple;
if an anticlockwise couple is formed, the shear force is negative.
A shear force diagram shows graphically the variation of shear force
along the length of a beam. Usually, positive shear forces are drawn above
the base line, and negative shear forces below it.
The shear force diagram (SFD) for a statically determinate beam may be
drawn as follows:
• Find beam reactions by taking moments about one reaction.
• Start at either support and calculate the shear force at each point
load. Plot these values on the diagram and join the points with
straight lines.
Points to remember when drawing shear force diagrams are:
• When a beam carries only concentrated point loads, the shear force is
constant between these point loads.

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Beams 63

• When a beam carries a distributed load, the shear force is not

constant, and the shear force varies at a rate proportional to the load
per unit length of the beam.
• The maximum shear force for a simply supported beam or cantilever
is always at a support.
Note: A simply-supported beam is a beam which has only two supports on
which it merely rests, i.e. the ends are not rigidly constrained at these points
but can rotate freely when loads are applied.
A cantilever is a beam that is supported at one end only. This end must be
‘built-in’, either by actually building a short length into concrete etc. or
securely fixing it to a rigid structure.
SFDs for some common types of beams are given in Appendix A.

6.3. Bending moment

The bending moment at any section of a beam is the resultant moment,
about that section, of all the external forces acting either to the left or right
of the section.
It is usual to consider a sagging moment as positive and a hogging
moment as negative.
A bending moment diagram (BMD) shows graphically the distribution
of bending moment along the length of a beam. Usually, positive bending
moments are drawn above the base line and negative moments below it.
However, some books and BS 5950 now introduce the convention that the
bending moments are drawn, even for beams, below the base line on the
tension side.
Note: As far as the authors are concerned, it does not matter whether the
bending moment is drawn above or below the base line, provided the
engineer is consistent and knows what he is doing.
The BMD for a statically determinate beam may be drawn as follows:
• Find beam reactions.
• Start at either end of a beam, or in the case of a cantilever start at the
free end, and calculate the bending moment at each load point. Plot
these values on the diagram and join the points with straight lines.
• In the case of distributed loads, bending moments are calculated at a
number of points and the values joined by a smooth curve. Under a
uniformly distributed load, the bending moment diagram is parabolic.
A point to remember when drawing the BMDs is that the bending moment
is a maximum when the shear force is zero. Therefore, if a beam is loaded

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64 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

with point loads only, the maximum moment occurs at a point load, i.e.
where the shear force diagram crosses the base line.
BMDs for some common types of beams are given in Appendix A.

6.4. Theory of simple bending

Having calculated the bending moment at any section of a beam, the next
step in the design of beams is to determine the adequacy of the bending
stresses of the section. This is done by applying the theory of simple
bending.
However, the deduction of the correct analytical method was far from
simple, since the distribution of stress and strain in beams is not uniform,
and it took several centuries to obtain the correct solution.
Leonardo da Vinci first tackled the problem in the fifteenth century, but
it was Galileo Galilei who proposed a solution in 1638, though this was
incorrect.
Jacob Bernoulli (1654 – 1705) introduced the assumption that under a
uniform bending moment, plane sections remain plane after bending.
Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736 – 1800) gave the first correct solu-
tion to the problem in 1773, when he obtained the true relationship
between the applied load, the bending moment, moment of resistance,
and shear force.
However, it was Louis Marie Navier’s simpler method, published in
1826, that has become generally accepted. In this, Bernoulli’s assumption is
followed, i.e. plane sections remain plane after bending. Under the action of
a uniform moment, M, two originally straight and parallel planes AB and
CD remain straight, but rotate around a common centre of curvature, O (see
Fig. 6.2). The upper fibres, nearer to O, are in compression, whilst the lower
fibres, furthest from O, are in tension. There is an intermediate layer, which
will neither be compressed nor stretched. This layer, NS, which does not
alter in length, is called the neutral surface, and its intersection with a trans-
verse section is called the neutral axis (NA). The bending stress at the
neutral axis is then always zero. Fibres further away from the NA have a
higher stress than those nearer to the NA.
In deriving the formula for simple bending, the following assumptions
are made:
• The beam is straight before bending and uniform in section.
• Plane transverse sections remain plane after bending.
• The material is homogeneous and remains elastic, i.e. obeys Hooke’s
Law.
• The Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus is assumed to have
the same value in compression as in tension.

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Beams 65

• Longitudinal layers of the material are free from interaction among

each other, and consequently act as if they were separated from adja-
cent layers.
• Longitudinal layers of the beam bend into circular arcs around a
centre of curvature, and the radius of curvature is large compared
with the sectional dimensions and the length of the beam.
• The transverse section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis
through its centroid in the plane of bending, i.e. about axis Y–Y in
Fig. 6.2.
In order to simplify the derivation of the formula for simple bending, let us
assume that the neutral axis passes halfway through the beam (see Fig. 6.2).

A C

N d
y
d

B
Elevation

Fig. 6.2.

Now draw a line EF through S parallel to AB. CE represents the change of

length of the extreme fibre in compression and FD represents the change of
length of the extreme fibre in tension.

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66 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

There is no change of length of the neutral surface NS. Let e be the

change of length in tension over the original length:
FD FD
e= = (6.I)
BF NS
Since BF = NS
Let R be the radius of curvature, measured to the neutral surface, and y be
the distance from the neutral surface to the extreme fibres of the beam, in
this case to the underside of the beam.
The sides of the triangle FSD and NOS are parallel and therefore:
FD SF
= (6.II)
NS ON
FD SF y
Since e = and = , equation (6.II) becomes
NS ON R
y
e= (6.III)
R
Since f = E ´ e (6.IV)
Substituting equation (6.III) into equation (6.IV):
Ey
f = (6.V)
R
Equation (6.V) states that the stress varies directly as the distance y, as
shown in Fig. 6.2.
Rearranging equation (6.V):
f E
= (6.VI)
y R
The force acting on an infinitesimally small area (dA) at a distance y from
the neutral axis is:
dF = f ´ dA (6.VII)
The moment of the force about the neutral axis is:
Ey
dM = y × dF = yf × dA = y × dA
R (6.VIII)
Ey 2
or dM = × dA
R

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Beams 67

The total moment of resistance, M, of the section is the sum of all the infini-
tesimally small elements, dM, which is expressed mathematically in the
following form:
Ey 2
M = ò R
× dA (6.IX)

The Modulus of Elasticity (E) is constant, and the radius of curvature (R) is
independent of the depth, y, therefore E and R can be taken outside the inte-
gral sign:

M = E òy
2
× dA (6.X)
R

ò y × dA is called the second moment of area and is denoted by I. This is a

2

purely geometric property of the section and is independent of the type of

material used. I is frequently called the moment of inertia, since the same I
occurs in dynamic calculations, but strictly speaking the term second
moment of area is the more correct one. However, both terms are equally
acceptable in practice.
Equation (6.X) now becomes:

M = E ´I (6.XI)
R
Rearranging equation (6.XI), we get:
M = E (6.XII)
I R
The formula for simple bending as presented by Navier’s theorem can now
be given its usual form, by combining equations (6.VI) and (6.XII).
f
= E = M (6.XIII)
y R I
where:
f = the stress in any layer
y = the distance of the layer under stress from the Neutral Axis
E = the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus
R = the local radius of curvature of the beam
M = the maximum bending moment, which must be equal to or less than
the moment of resistance of the beam section
I = the second moment of area or the moment of inertia of the cross-
section of the beam.

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68 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

The formula for simple bending, i.e. equation (6.XIII), is an important one
and is worth committing to memory; it may be remembered by combining
the symbols into a single mnemonic word ‘fyermi’, with the odd letters
(fem) forming the numerators of the equation.
The important part of this formula for the beam design is:
f M
= (6.XIV)
y I
The formula is applied to the outside layer, usually referred to as the
extreme fibre, where f and y have their maximum values. A slight rearrange-
ment of equation (6.XIV) will give:
M I
= (6.XV)
f y
The ratio I/y in which both I and y represent geometrical properties of the
beam section, is called the Section Modulus or the Elastic Modulus of the
Section and is usually denoted by Z. Tables of properties of the principal
steel sections in use appear in Appendices B, C and D at the end of this
book; more detailed tables may be found in Volume 1 of the guide to
BS 5950.
With the introduction of the section modulus (Z), equation (6.XV)
becomes:
M
= Z or M = f Z (6.XVI)
f
So, it can be seen, that if the necessary value of Z is known, a suitable
section to resist the maximum bending moment may be selected from the
tables.
When a beam is subjected to bending, the bending stresses vary from
zero at the centre to a maximum at the extreme fibres. Most of the cross-
sectional area of the material of an I-beam is located in its flanges, the most
highly stressed zones, which are further from the NA. Therefore, the I-beam
is better able to resist bending than a rectangular beam.
When an I-section is used as a beam, it is assumed, conservatively, that
its flanges resist the bending moment, while its web is resisting the shear
force.

6.5. Ultimate load capacity

The above explanation describes the behaviour of a beam within elastic
limits, i.e. until yield is reached at the extreme fibres. It has been found that
the attainment of yield at extreme fibres need not represent the ultimate load

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Beams 69

capacity of the section. An examination of Figs. 2.1 and 2.2 shows that
when the yield has been reached, the material will tend to strain at constant
stress. During this straining, the section will carry further load until the
stress across the whole section has reached yield. At this point, there will be
an increase in deflection with little or no increase in load; this point in the
loading pattern represents failure.
This behaviour of the beam section has been the basis of plastic design
(see Chapter 5). It also provides a method of determining the ultimate
capacity of the section.
In considering limit states, especially that of strength, failure will be
considered when the structure reaches the load at which deflections
increase with no change of load. Clearly then, the ultimate capacity of a
beam will be reached when plasticity has taken place over the whole
section. This leads to the fundamental design consideration that the plastic
moment capacity is the limiting value at failure. In order to ensure that there
is no permanent straining on the extreme fibre, which could cause either a
bent beam appearance or affect finishes, the maximum moment is limited to
the elastic value at working loads.
This limitation is a serviceability control because it will not relate to the
failure of the structure. The maximum moment is limited to 1.2 times the
elastic moment capacity, based on the elastic section modulus for rolled
sections for simply supported beams and cantilevers. The choice of 1.2 is
based on the lowest factor of safety used in normal design.

6.6. Simple beam design

When designing a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed
load (UDL), it is necessary to keep the ultimate capacity greater than the
factored applied load and the deflection within the limiting values. The
procedure followed in checking the adequacy of the beam is:
• Ultimate moment capacity. This is calculated from the plastic
modulus of the section (S) and the design strength (py). It must not
exceed the applied moment. (If the section is not a rolled section
there may be other considerations that also need be taken into
account.)
• Shear capacity. This is the product of the shear strength (0.6py) times
the shear area, i.e. Dt (depth of section by web thickness).
• Deflection. The elastic deflection of the beam using the unfactored
imposed load is calculated in this check. This should not exceed
span/360 if there are brittle finishes, such as plaster, or span/200 in
other cases. There are, however, cases where other values are more
appropriate; it is the engineer’s responsibility to ensure that such situ-

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70 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

ations are recognised. (Deflection formulae for some common types

of beam loading are given in Appendix A.)
• Lateral torsional buckling. This form of failure, i.e. the beam
deflecting sideways and twisting under vertical load, may be
prevented by tying to the compression flange in situ or pre cast
concrete floors.
• Web buckling. The web of an I-beam may be considered as a strut
which will buckle at a critical load. This will occur at points of
concentrated load or at supports.
• Web crushing or bearing. The web of an I-beam may be crushed in
bearing at its junction with the flange. This will occur at points of
concentrated load or at supports.
In the elementary Example 6.6.1, it will be assumed that bearing and buck-
ling of the web will not be critical. It will be found from experience that
these modes of failure will generally occur only when a very short span
carries a heavy load or where a heavy concentrated point load occurs adja-
cent to a support.
Step by step calculations in simple beam design are:

Step 1 Determine the loading conditions and factored loads

Step 2 Sketch the beam and loading

Step 3 Compute the maximum bending moment

Step 4 Find the required plastic modulus
Step 5 Select a suitable section
Step 6 Check for beam weight
Step 7 Compute the maximum shear force

Step 8 Find the maximum average shear stress

Step 9 Find the imposed load deflection

Step 10 Find the maximum allowed deflection

Step 11 Ensure restraint is provided to the compression flange
Step 12 Check for web buckling at the supports or point loads
Step 13 Check for web bearing at supports or point loads

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Beams 71

Steps 1 to 6 inclusive refer to bending moment capacity (flanges).

Steps 7 and 8 refer to shear capacity (web).
Steps 9 and 10 refer to excessive deflection.
Step 11 refers to lateral torsional buckling.
Steps 12 and 13 apply when a load or reaction is applied to the flange of a section.

Example 6.6.1. A simply supported beam, of 5 m span, carries a reinforced

concrete floor capable of providing lateral restraint to the top compression
flange. The uniformly distributed load is made up of 20 kN/m imposed load
plus 20 kN/m dead load. Choose a suitable I-section beam using S 275 steel.
It may be assumed that the section is held on web cleats and that web
bearing and buckling are not critical.

SOLUTION

Step 1 The factored loads are:

Imposed load = 20 ´ 1.6 = 32.0 kN/m
Dead load = 20 ´ 1.4 = 28.0 kN/m
Total load = 60.0 kN/m
Step 2
60 kN/m

5m

WL 2
Step 3 Maximum bending moment =
8
60 ´ 5 2
=
8
= 187.5 kNm
Step 4 Plastic modulus required = M/py
187.5 ´ 10 3
= 682 cm 3
275
\ S x (required) = 682 cm 3

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72 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Step 5 The choice is between the following sections:

305 ´ 127 ´ 48 UB (Sx = 711 cm3)
305 ´ 165 ´ 46 UB (Sx = 720 cm3), and
356 ´ 171 ´ 45 UB (Sx = 775 cm3)
The deeper beam is lighter and more efficient in carrying the
bending moment and would normally be the first choice. It is
important, however, to remember that the engineer’s choice
may also be affected by the available space. In many struc-
tures there is a tight limit on the headroom and the storey
height, which may dictate the adoption of a shallower beam
section.
Step 6 The weight of the beam is approximately 0.450 kN/m.
New trial factored load
= 60 + (0.45 ´ 1.4) = 60.63 kN/m
60.63 ´ 5 2
Maximum BM = = 189.5 kNm
8
189.5 ´ 10 3
Sx(required) = = 689 cm 3
275
Sx(required) is less than Sx(provided), therefore the chosen
UB is satisfactory.
Step 7 60.63 ´ 5
Maximum shear force = = 15160
. kN
2
Step 8
. ´ 10 3
1516
Average shear stress = . N/mm2
= 616
351.4 ´ 7.0
This shear stress is well within the allowable
(0.6 ´ 275) = 165 N/mm2.
In practice, shear stress is seldom critical. It may, however,
become so when a very short span carries a heavy load, or
when carrying a heavy concentrated point load near a
support.

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Beams 73

Step 9 The assessment of the structure’s behaviour for deflection is

a matter of engineering judgement. Rules covering deflec-
tion in some common situations are given in §2.5.2 but it
points out that these limits may be varied at the engineer’s
discretion to fit circumstances. For this example, it will be
assumed that the maximum deflection for the imposed load
is span/360 at working load.
3
Deflection d = 5 ´ WL
384 EI
( 20 ´ 5 ´ 1000) ´ ( 5 000)
3

= 5 ´
384 205 000 ´ 120 700 000
= 6.58 mm
Step 10 Recommended maximum deflection:
5 000
= 13.88 mm
360
Therefore the deflection of the beam is well within the
allowable.
Step 11 Restraint is provided by the floor and no further check is
required.

Steps 12 The beam is assumed to be supported on web cleats; web

and 13 bearing and buckling are not, therefore, design criteria.

Example 6.6.2. A simply-supported beam, of 7 m span, carries a reinforced

concrete floor capable of providing lateral restraint to the top compression
flange. The total UDL is made up of 100 kN dead load, including self-weight
plus 150 kN imposed load. In addition the beam carries a point load (PL) at
midspan made up of 50 kN dead load and 50 kN imposed load. Choose a
suitable Universal Beam using S 275 steel. (Also carry out the web buckling
and web bearing checks, assuming a stiff bearing length of 75 mm.)

SOLUTION

Step 1 Load factors gf :

DL = 1.4 (§2.4.1)
IL = 1.6

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74 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Factored loads:
UDL
(100 ´ 1.4) + (150 ´ 16. )
140 + 240 = 380 kN
PL
( 50 ´ 1.4) + ( 50 ´ 16. )
70 + 80 = 150 kN
Step 2 70 kN (DL) = 150 kN
80 kN (IL)
140 kN (DL)
= 380kN
240 kN (IL)

3.5 m 3.5 m

7m

Note: All loads are factored

Step 3 Maximum BM:
380 ´ 7 150 ´ 7
Mx = + = 595 kNm
8 4
Step 4 Sx (required) = Mx /p y
595 ´ 10 3
= 2 164.0 cm 3
275
Step 5 Choose a 533 ´ 210 ´ 92 UB (Sx = 2 360 cm3)
Section properties:
D = 533.1 mm, B = 209.3 mm

d = 476.5 mm, b = 1 B = 104.7 mm

2
4
T = 15.6 mm Ix = 55 230 cm
3
t = 10.1 mm Zx = 2072 cm

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Beams 75

Check design strength py:

T = 15.6 < 16 mm
\ py = 275 N/mm2
Check outstanding element of compression flange:
b 104.7
= = 6.7 < 9 e
T 15.6
(Table 11)
Check web with NA mid-depth:
d 476.5
= = 46.7 < 80 e
t 10.2
Since py = 275 N/mm2, e = 1.0
Section is plastic. Note that a compact section would be sufficient
as there is no plastic redistribution of moment.

Step 6 Sx will still be satisfactory taking self-weight into consideration

Step 7 Factored shear force:
380 + 150)
(
Fv (at supports) = = 265 kN
2
Step 8 Shear area:
Av = tD = 10.1 ´ 533.1 = 5 384 mm2
Shear capacity:
Pv = 0.6 py Av
0.6 ´ 275 ´ 5 384
=
10 3
= 888 kN > Fv

\ the value is satisfactory.

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76 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Check moment capacity Mc:

Factored shear force Fv (at maximum moment) = 75 kN.
Since Fv = 75 < 0.6 Pv, shear force is ‘low’.
Mc = py Sx = 275 ´ 2 366/103 = 651 kNm
Note: To avoid irreversible deformation under serviceability
loads, the value of Mc should be limited to 1 ´ 2p yZ for simply-
supported beams (§4.2.5).
Check:
1.2 py Zx = 1.2 ´ 275 ´ 2 072/103 = 651 kNm
The lesser of the two values for Mc is 651 kNm.
Since Mc = 651 kNm > Mx = 595 kNm
the value is satisfactory.
Step 9 Serviceability loads (unfactored imposed loads):
P = 50 kN W = 150 kN

Actual deflection, d = L é P + 5W ù
3

EI êë 48 384 úû

=
(7 ´ 1 000) 3 é 50
+
5 ´ 150 ù
ê
205 000 ´ 55 230 ´ 10 ë 48 384 úû
= 9.10 mm

Step 10 Allowable deflection = L

360
7 000
=
360
= 19 mm
.·. deflection is satisfactory.

Step 11 The check for lateral torsional buckling is satisfied, since the
reinforced concrete floor provided lateral restraint to the
compression flange.

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Beams 77

Step 12 Check for web bearing:

Bearing capacity (Pbw) = (b1 + nk) tpyw (§4.5.2.1)
Where:
pyw = design strength of web = 275 N/mm2
b1 = stiff bearing length = 75 mm
n = 2 as the stiff bearing is at the end of the beam
k = T + r = flange thickness + root radius = 15.6 + 12.7
= 28.3 mm.
Bearing capacity:
(75 + 2 ´ 28.3) ´ 101
. ´ 275
(Pbw ) = = 366 kN
1000
366 kN > 265 kN
\ the value is satisfactory.

Step 13 Check for web buckling:

Buckling resistance:
ae + 0.7d 25et
Px = ´ ´ Pbw (§4.5.3.1)
1.4d (b1 + nk )d

Where:
stiff bearing length, b1 = 75 mm
ae = distance to load or reaction to the nearer end of the
member, in this case 37.5 mm
e = square root of ratio of stresses
= 275 py = 275 275 = 10 .

d = depth of the section web

t = thickness of web
b1 = stiff bearing length
n = 2 as the support is at the end of the beam
k = thickness of flange (+ root radius for a rolled section)
Pbw = web bearing capacity as given above
37.5 + (0.7 ´ 476.5) 25 ´ 1 ´ 101
.
Px = ´ ´ 366
1.4 ´ 476.5 (75 + 2 ´ 28.3) ´ 476.5
= 206 kN
Px = 206 kN < 265 kN
\ stiffeners will be required.

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78 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Design of stiffeners
The stiffeners are normally welded one each side of the web as shown in
Fig. 6.3.
Max. 15t

Plan showing stiffeners

Fig. 6.3.

Part of the web, not exceeding fifteen times its thickness, may also be
included in the design. Stiffener thickness should be at least 6 mm; for a
heavy section thicker plate should be employed. Stiffeners are normally
welded to the web and compression flange; if they are welded to the tension
flange then care must be exercised to ensure that there is no risk of brittle
fracture or fatigue. At the end of the beam this is not normally a problem
because the moment is zero and there is no tension stress, unless the beam is
continuous.
Assume that two stiffeners 6 mm ´ 75 mm are welded as shown in the
plan (see Fig. 6.3), then the buckling resistance may be determined as
follows:
Area of the stiffeners and attached web =
2 ´ 6 ´ 75 + (101
. ´ 15 + 6) ´ 101
. = 900 + 1591
= 2 491 mm 2
= 24.91 cm 2

.3 ´6
1601
I of the stiffeners = = 205 cm 4
12 ´ 10 000
Radius of gyration (r) of the stiffeners =
I = 205 = 2.87 cm
A 24.91
It is assumed that the flanges are restrained against rotation so the length is
taken as 0.7 ´ the depth of the web, d.
0.7 ´ 476.5
The value of the slenderness ratio, l = = 116
.
2.87 ´ 10

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Beams 79

The value of pc = 275 N/mm2, taken from Table 24(c).

The buckling resistance of the web stiffeners
275 ´ 2 491
= = 685 kN
10 3
It will often be found that once stiffeners are provided then they will, gener-
ally, be more than adequate for the requirements.

6.7. Local buckling

All types of plate elements under compression associated with axial force,
bending or shear will carry a certain load and then deform out of shape and
buckle with a consequent loss in strength. This behaviour has been recog-
nised over a number of years in certain design areas, notably cold-formed
steel sections and aluminium. There are occasions where similar behaviour
is observed in hot-finished sections, particularly with thin flanges and webs
where the d/t ratio is high. In such cases the designer must allow for the
reduction in strength.
The rules in BS 5950 are framed in such a way that the engineer can
assess the carrying capacity in various situations and determine where local
buckling can occur. In order to carry out this task sections have been
grouped into four classes, see §3.5.2:
• Class 1. Plastic cross-sections are those in which all elements
subject to compression have plastic hinge rotation capacity and
these will comply with the values given in Tables 11 and 12 for
plastic elements. A plastic hinge can be developed with sufficient
rotation capacity to allow redistribution of moments within the
structure.
Only class 1 sections may be used for plastic analysis and design.
• Class 2. Compact cross-sections are those in which all elements
subject to compression comply with the values given in Tables 11 and
12 for compact elements. The full plastic moment capacity can be
developed but local buckling may prevent development of a plastic
hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to permit plastic analysis and
design.
Class 2 sections can be used without restriction except for plastic ana-
lysis and design.
• Class 3. Semi-compact sections are those in which all elements
subject to compression comply with the values given in Tables 11
and 12 for semi-compact elements. The stress at the extreme fibres
can reach the design strength but local buckling may prevent the
development of the full plastic moment.

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80 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Class 1
Mp (plastic moment)

Me (elastic moment)

Class 2
Class 3
Moment

Class 4

Rotation
Fig. 6.4.

• Class 4. Slender sections are those that contain slender elements

subject to compression due to moment or axial load.
Local buckling may prevent the stress in a slender section from reaching the
design strength.
Design of class 4 sections is considered in §3.6.
The above definitions, based on BS 5950 (§3.5.2), give a basic descrip-
tion of the various types of section, and Tables 11 and 12 give the limiting
values. An element is generally taken as the web or flange of the section
although it may be any other plate in a member, i.e. a stiffener (which is
governed by separate rules).
The practical effect of this may be seen in Fig. 6.4 where moment/rota-
tion curves are drawn for sections of each classification, assuming the
flanges are the critical feature.
From this, it will be seen that plastic sections (class 1) have a long plateau
where rotation takes place at or just above the theoretical value of Mp
(plastic moment capacity). Compact sections (class 2) will reach the value
of Mp but will then start to lose strength if an attempt to rotate is made.
Semi-compact sections (class 3) will start to buckle and lose strength once
yield has been reached on the extreme fibres (elastic limit). Class 4 sections
(slender cross-sections) will buckle locally before their elastic capacity is
reached, forming the type of failure exhibited by cold-formed sections.
Part 1 of BS 5950 gives estimates of the capacity of this class of section
similar to the detailed methods given in Part 5, which covers cold-formed
sections.
In practical design terms, it will be necessary for engineers to keep a
watch on their choice of sections to ensure that local buckling is not a design
problem or that, if this does happen, due account is taken. As a general
guide, local buckling will not be critical in the following cases:

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Beams 81

• Universal beams and columns, joists, channels and hollow sections

in simple bending.
• Stanchions using universal column sections.
• All members where tension dominates the design.
It will be seen from this list that many of the common structures may be
designed without recourse to the local buckling rules. Plate girders and
other fabricated sections must always be checked to ensure that the limits
are not exceeded. Rolled sections which need checking include angles and
universal beams when used as struts carrying dominant compression forces.
Design of various section classes depends on the behaviour in local
buckling. Plastic and compact sections need no further checking or adjust-
ment to their load capacities and may be taken to their full value. The sole
limitations are that only plastic sections may be used at hinge locations in
plastic analysis and design. However, there are restrictions on the calcu-
lated capacity of semi-compact and slender cross-sections.
BS 5950 has now adopted a limiting area reduction for slender (class 4)
cross-sections in line with those adopted in the cold-formed section parts
and the Eurocodes.

6.8. Laterally unrestrained beams

A beam, with no lateral restraint, subjected to loading, may move sideways
and twist before failing at a load below that expected by simple bending
theory. This mode of behaviour has been termed lateral torsional buckling
because there is both lateral movement and twisting (see Fig. 6.5).

Fig. 6.5.

The design process of BS 5950 (§4.3) makes use of a number of section

properties to enable the derivation of the capacity of a section to lateral
torsional buckling. These properties are:
ry = radius of gyration about the vertical axis.
u = a property related to the torsional strength of the section, buckling
parameter.

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82 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

BS 5950 Table 18 Equivalent uniform moment factor mLT for lateral-torsional buckling

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Beams 83

x = a property related to the warping strength of the section, torsional

index.
bw = the ratio between the effective plastic modulus and the actual plastic
modulus is 1.0 for class 1 and 2 sections. To be determined from
§4.3.6.9 for class 3 and class 4 sections.
Sx = the plastic modulus of the section.
It should be noted that hollow sections and beam shapes, bending about
the weak axis, will not normally be subjected to this phenomenon and may
be designed as restrained sections. Table 15 gives the limiting values for the
slenderness ratio of rectangular sections where they are sufficiently stable
to ensure that there is no lateral torsional buckling. Also all sections whose
span is less than the critical length (lLT < lLO) will not be subject to this
mode of failure.
The checking process, using BS 5950, on a section, selected by expe-
rience, and following on from the design of restrained beams, is as
follows:

Step 14 Calculate the value of l (LE/ry)

Step 15 Adjust the value for the torsional and warping strength of the
section.
The adjustment is carried out by calculating lLT, the equiva-
lent slenderness, §4.3.6.7 where:
lLT = uvl bw
The value of u is taken directly from the section properties
tables.
The value of slenderness factor, v, is obtained from Table 19
using the central column (flange ratio being 0.5) for equal flange
sections.
Before this table can be used the value of l/x must be deter-
mined, where x is another property of the section, which may be
obtained from tables.
The value of bw is taken as 1.0 for class 1 and 2 cross-sections
and see §4.3.6.9 for class 3 and 4 sections.
Step 16 The bending strength, pb (in N/mm2), may then be taken from
Table 16 or 17 using the calculated value of lLT.
Step 17 The buckling resistance moment, Mb, is then equal to Sx pb (i.e.
Mb = Sx pb) where Sx is the plastic modulus of the section about
the major axis.

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84 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

This process enables the lateral torsional capacity of the section to be

derived, but it takes no account of the shape of the bending moment diagram on
the beam (moment gradient effect), e.g. different moments between restraints.
For this, an equivalent uniform moment, mLT M, is calculated, and used
to reduced the moment in a check against the moment capacity.

Equivalent uniform moment

The equivalent uniform moment factor (mLT) is calculated depending on the
circumstances, using BS 5950 Table 18.
If the moment diagram is linear between the points of restraint then
the value of b is determined from the ratio of the moments at each end of
the part of the beam. This is the ratio of the smaller end moment divided
by the larger. It is important that the sign is correct. This will be positive
if the moments produce tension on the same side of the member
throughout its length. If there is a reversal of stress (double curvature
bending) then the sign for b will be negative. Thus the value of b will be
between ±1.
After calculating mLT, the buckling resistance moment is multiplied by
mLT to give the maximum moment resistance for lateral torsional buckling,
or the actual maximum moment on the segment is reduced by mLT. It should
be noted that the value of mLT may be relatively small; it is, therefore, essen-
tial that the section is fully checked as a restrained beam.

Example 6.8.1. As an example of an unrestrained beam, example 6.6.1 will

be reworked assuming that the floor is incapable of providing restraint to
the compression flange. The loading sketch and the maximum bending
moment are all shown in example 6.6.1. This example may, therefore, start
at Step 4, assuming a distributed load of 60 kN/m on a 5 m span giving a
maximum moment of 187.50 kNm.

SOLUTION

Step 4 For the purposes of this example, it will be assumed that the beam
is torsionally restrained and the compression flange is laterally
restrained but free to rotate on plan at the supports. The effective
length (LE) in these circumstances is equal to 1.0L (BS 5950,
Table 13). There are no intermediate restraints, so
LE = 5 000 mm.

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Beams 85

Step 14 The code gives no direct rules which may be used to calculate the
section size when designing unrestrained beams. A satisfactory
section seems to be a 457 ´ 191 ´ 67 UB. This will now be
checked in detail.
ry = 412
. cm
LE 5 000
l= = .
= 1210
ry . ´ 10
412
Step 15 x = 37.9
l 121
= = 319
.
x 37.9
v = 0.91 from Table 19
u = 0.872 from section books
mLT = 0.925 from Table 18
bw = 1.0 for a class 1 or 2 cross-section
lLT = uvl bw = 0.872 ´ 0.91 ´ 121 ´ 10 . = 96
Step 16 From Table 16, pb = 133 N/mm2
Step 17 Sx = 1 471 cm3
133 ´ 1 471
Moment capacity = = 195.5 kNm
10 3
This moment has now to be divided by mLT to give the buckling
resistance moment, allowing for the moment gradient, giving:
195.5
= 211 kNm, compared with the maximum moment of
0.925
187.5 kNm.
Alternatively, the maximum moment may be reduced by mLT.
This gives 187.5 ´ 0.925 = 173.4, compared with the moment
capacity of 195.5.
The section is therefore satisfactory.
Step 18 The beam should be checked as a restrained beam for all the
requirements as described in the text in Section 6.6.

6.9. Compound (plated) beams

6.9.1. Introduction
It is sometimes essential to increase the bending capacity or stiffness of a
section by welding plates to the flanges. Such compound (plated) beams extend
the range of the standard sections, especially when a shallow beam is required
to gain headroom. The benefit of compounding is best shown by an example.

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86 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Example 6.9.1. Steel beams having a clear span of 9.35 m are resting on
150 mm wide end bearings. The beams are spaced 3 m apart and carry a
dead load of 5 kN/m2, including an allowance for the weight of the section,
and an imposed load of 15 kN/m2. The maximum depth of the beam section
is limited to 600 mm. Material to be used is of grade S 275 steel.

SOLUTION
Factoring the loads:
Dead load = 5 ´ 1.4 = 7 kN m 2
Imposed load = 15 ´ 1.6 = 24 kN m 2
DL per metre = 7 ´3 = 21 kN m
IL per metre = 24 ´ 3 = 72 kN m
Total load = 93 kN m
The effective span is taken as the clear span plus half of the end bearing
at each support.
Effective span = 9.35 + 2 ´ 0.5 ´ 0150
. = 9.50 m
93 ´ 9.5
Reactions = = 442.0 kN
2
93 ´ 9.5 2
Moment = = 1049.0 kN
8
1049 ´ 10 6
S required = = 3 958.5 cm 3
265 ´ 10 3
The section with the largest plastic modulus under 600 mm deep is a
533 ´ 210 ´ 122 UB. The plastic modulus of this section is 3 196 cm3 and
clearly this is too small. It should also be
150
noted that the flange thickness is greater 20
than 16 mm, therefore, the maximum
design strength is 265 N/mm2.
536.7

The section must be strengthened with

plates to provide the additional modulus
278

and possibly stiffness.

The following will be required of the CL
section:
210.5
(a) A shear force of 442 kN requires a
web area of
442 ´ 10 3
= 2 780 mm 2 .
0.6 ´ 265

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Beams 87

(b) A plastic modulus of 3 958.5 cm3, assuming a material thickness

between 16 mm and 63 mm.
(c) A stiffness to ensure that there are no deflection problems. The
maximum deflection being taken in this example is span/360.
9 500
Maximum deflection = = 26.4 mm
360
The second moment of area (I) of the required beam section capable of
satisfying the deflection requirement, based on unfactored imposed load,
must be at least equal to:
3
5 (3 ´ 15 ´ 9.5 ´ 1000) ´ (9 500)
I = 4
= 88184 cm 4
384 205 000 ´ 26.4 ´ 10
Try a 533 ´ 210 ´ 101 UB with plates.

(a) Shear check

0.6 ´ 265 ´ 536.7 ´ 10.8
Shear capacity of section = = 922 kN
1000

The maximum shear force is 442, which is less than 0.6 ´ shear
capacity, i.e. 0.6 ´ 922 = 553 kN
\ Section is satisfactory and there is no reduction in moment capacity.

(b) Plastic modulus check

The minimum plastic modulus required is 3 958.5 cm3. The UB provides
2 612 cm3.
Therefore the two equal plates must provide the remainder, 1 346.5 cm3.
Assume thickness of the plates to be 20 mm, giving a total depth of
577 mm or 57.67 cm.
Depth of UB between plates = 53.67 cm
Distance between centre to centre of plates = 53.67 + 2 = 55.67 cm
1338.5
Area required of plates = = 24.0 cm 2
55.67
Provide 150 ´ 20 mm plates, having an area of 30 cm2.
The plastic modulus may be calculated by adding the moduli of the UB
and the plates together.
Sx for the compound section = 2 612 + 2 ´ 15 ´ (53.67 + 2) = 4 282 cm3
Compound section is satisfactory for moment capacity.

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88 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

(c) Deflection check

Minimum I required = 88 184 cm 4
I provided by UB = 61 520 cm 4
\ I required by plates = 26 664 cm 4
I provided by 150 ´ 20 mm plates = 2 ´ (Ig +Ah 2 ), using the parallel axis
theorem, Ig is normally small, see note below.
(150 ´ 20) ´ 278 2
I = 2´ 4
= 46 370 cm 4
10
The 150 ´ 20 mm plates are satisfactory.
Total I provided = 61 520 + 46 040 = 107 560 cm4
Note: The second moment of area or moment of inertia of the plates (Ig)
about their own axis is usually very small and may be neglected unless a
very accurate result is required. In this case the value for the 150 ´ 20 mm
plates would be:
2 ´ 150 ´ 20 3
= 20 cm 4
12 ´ 10 000

6.9.2 Curtailment of flange plates

The bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam carrying a UDL
varies parabolically throughout the length of the beam (Fig. 6.6(a)). It
would then be ideal if I were to vary, making the flanges thicker towards the
centre of the beam. But for practical reasons this is not possible and the total
resistance moment of a beam of uniform section is shown in Fig. 6.6(b). In
plated beams, the flange plates can be curtailed near the supports of the
beam resulting in some steel saving. The effect of curtailment is shown in
Fig. 6.6(c).

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 6.6.

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Beams 89

The appropriate points, usually termed theoretical cut-off points, may be

found in two ways:
(a) by the algebraic method
(b) by a geometrical construction

Example 6.9.2. Find the theoretical cut-off points for the plates computed in
example 6.9.1.

SOLUTION

(a) Algebraic method

The bending moment carried by the 533 ´ 210 ´ 101 UB is
2 612 ´ 265
= 692 kNm
10 3
The distance from the support to the point where the bending moment
ordinate has this value must now be found.
At any point, distance x from the support:
2
Mx = Rx - wx (see Fig. 6.7(a))
2
Where:
Mx = 692 kNm, for the resistance of the beam
R = 442.0 kN
w = 93 kN/m.
Substituting:

692 = 442 x - 93 x 2
2
Dividing both sides by 93/2:
14.88 = 9.50x – x 2
Rearranging:
x 2 – 9.50x + 14.88 = 0

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90 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Solving the equation

9.5 ± 9.5 2 - ( 4 ´ 14.88) 9.5 ± 5.5

x = = = 7.5 m or 2.0 m
2 2
So, the theoretical cut-off points are 2.0 m from either end.

(b) Geometrical construction

The moment capacity of the UB and each of the plates can be superimposed
on the bending moment diagram of the compound beam.
The theoretical cut-off points may be taken as the points where the
moment capacity of the UB intersects the curve of the bending moment
diagram (see Fig. 6.7(b)).
w

x
(a)
Moment
capacity Theoretical cut-off points
of UB
1 049 k Nm
694 kNm

2 000 2 000

9 500

(b)
Fig. 6.7.

The plates must extend beyond the point where they are no longer
needed in theory to enable the stresses to be transferred into them.
No precise rules are given in BS 5950. However, it would seem prudent
to extend the plates far enough to generate the stresses that would be in the
plate when considered as part of the compound section.
In this example, the moment at the theoretical cut-off point is 694 kNm,
694 ´ 287 ´ 10 6
giving a stress in the top of the plates of = 185 N/mm2.
107 560 ´ 10 4
At the top of the flange the stress is:

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Beams 91

694 ´ 267 ´ 10 6
= 172 N/mm2
107 560 ´ 10 4

185 + 172
Average stress in the plate = = 178.5 N/mm2
2
Force in the plate = 178.5 ´ 15 ´ 20 = 535.5 kN
10 3
Assume an 8 mm fillet weld with a capacity of 1.2 kN/mm (see Fig. 9.23).
Length of weld to develop the force in the plate =
é 535.5 ù
ê(1.2 ´ 2 ) ú + ( 2 ´ 8) = 239.0 mm
ë û
The distance from the support to the practical cut-off point is therefore
2.00 – 0.239, say 1.75 m.

6.10. Plate girders

In steel beam design, cases occur when the loads or spans are too large for
universal sections or the allowable depth restricts the use of universal
sections. In these cases, beams are fabricated by joining plates together.
Historically, before welding became the normal method of joining plates,
they were connected using rolled angles riveted to the plates as shown in
Fig. 6.8(a). Modern methods involve welding the web to the flanges with
fillet or butt welds (Fig. 6.8(b)).

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.8.

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92 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

BS 5950 gives basic design methods as follows:

A If the depth of the web divided by the thickness is less than 62e then
the section may be designed in accordance with the rules for rolled
sections, providing any bending stress changes are used.
B If the shear is less than 0.6 of the shear resistance of the web then the
moment capacity may be determined as though it were a simple
beam.
C If the shear is higher than this then the section may be designed by
taking all the shear on the web and all the bending on the flanges,
with each flange taking a uniform stress not exceeding py. This
method may also be conservatively used for the first two conditions.
D A more complex method given in BS 5950: Annex H may be used,
subject to certain restrictions.
When the engineer is not constrained by other factors, the span to depth
ratio, for economical design, will normally vary from 10:1 to 20:1, but if
very heavy loads are to be carried on short spans this may fall to 8:1. (When
designing bridge girders, where the moments are high compared to the
shear, a guide to the section proportions is to make the flanges equal in area
to the web. The resulting section will probably be deeper than would be
acceptable in building construction.) The attention of the reader is drawn to
some of the recent developments in the portal frame market. In this area a
number of firms are producing frames from thin plate. These are being
welded up with small single-sided welds; the frames are tapered following
the shape of the bending moment diagram. In designing such frames, the
engineer may consider the sections as slender cross-section plate girders.

Web design
In the rules for web design, two routes are adopted depending on the d/t
(depth/thickness) ratio of the web. If this is less than 62e (where
e = 275 py ) then the web strength is given as 0.6 py dt.
If the depth to thickness ratio is greater than this then the web must be
designed using the rules in §4.4.5.
The behaviour of the web during loading to failure may be considered in
three stages:
A Elastic range. During this stage the web panel remains elastic and
flat. The stresses in the section are entirely elastic and may be calcu-
lated using the classic methods given in standard textbooks on the
subject. The only requirement for the stiffeners is that they keep the
web flat.

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Beams 93

B Post-buckling range. When the load reaches the elastic limit, the
compressive shear stresses cause the web plate to buckle leaving the
tension stresses to carry the load. At the same time, the stiffeners
begin to act as struts in addition to their function of keeping the web
plate flat. The tension field is starting to take effect, as shown in
Fig. 6.9.

Fig. 6.9.

During this stage, it is assumed in the code rules that the forces devel-
oped in forming the tension field are resisted by the stiffeners and end
posts.
C Failure of the end posts and flanges. As the ultimate load is reached,
the end posts and flanges, at the ends of the member where the shear
is the highest, start to fail by forming plastic hinges (see Fig. 6.10).
This final stage of failure will frequently take place at a load very
much higher than the elastic critical value. There will be gross distor-
tions of the web and either or both the end posts and flanges.

Fig. 6.10.

Following this simple look at the basic concept of web behaviour, a

study can now be made of the methods employed in the code.

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94 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

(1) Elastic critical stress

The shear buckling resistance, Vb, of a web may be taken, §4.4.5.2, as the
simple shear buckling resistance, Vb, given by:
Vb = Vw = dtqw
where:
d is the depth of the web
t is the web thickness
qw is the shear buckling strength.
The value of qw is obtained from Table 21 of the code. This table takes into
account the depth of the web and the spacing of the stiffeners at the point on
the span being considered.
Providing this method is employed, there is no requirement for the use of
stiffeners to resist tension field action.

(2) Method not using the effect of the flanges

If the flanges are fully stressed in bending, then the shear resistance is still
taken as Vb.

(3) Flange dependent shear strength

If the flange plates are not fully stressed in bending, the case frequently met
at the support of a beam, then the contribution of the flange strength towards
the resistance to shear may be considered, see §4.4.5.3.

Example 6.10.1. A simply-supported welded plate girder for heavy power

installation, consisting of two 500 ´ 25 mm flange plates and a
1 200 ´ 16 mm web plate, is required to carry a factored UDL of 3 500 kN
over a span of 7 500 mm. It may be assumed that the compression flange is
fully restrained. All plates are of grade S 275 steel.
Find (1) average flange stress and compare it with the design stress; (2)
average shear stress; (3) see if stiffeners are required.

SOLUTION
The compression flange is assumed to have adequate lateral restraint as
required by §4.2.2. A cross-section of the girder is shown in Fig. 6.11.
1. If the flanges only are assumed to carry the bending moment, a
conservative assumption, then the solution is as follows:
M = 3 500 ´ 7.5/8 = 3 281.0 kNm

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Beams 95

500

F
CL

25

h =1 225

d =1 200
NA

16

F 25
C
L

Fig. 6.11.

3 281 ´ 10 3
Flange force = M/h = 2 678.0 kN
1225
.
In this case, a local buckling check must be made. As the strength of the
flange has been calculated using elastic methods the b/t for a semi-compact
section is appropriate.
For a welded section b/t is 13e (Table 11) where e = 275 py
As the design strength py is 265 N/mm2 (plate thickness greater than
16 mm), e becomes 1.02, thus giving a limiting value for b/t of 13.3.
(500 - 16)
The actual b/t = = 9.7
(2 ´ 25)

This is, therefore, satisfactory and no reduction is required for local buckling.
2. Shear stress
3 500
The maximum reaction = = 1 750 kN
2
(This is also the maximum shear force.)
1 750 ´ 10 3
Average shear stress = = 91 N/mm2
(1200 ´ 16)

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96 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

3. Check on stiffener requirements

1200
d/t of the web = = 75
16
qw (shear strength) =148 N/mm2 for this d/t ratio with no stiffeners
(a/d = ) (Table 21)
In the case of the chosen section, the flanges are adequate and no stiffeners
are required for the web.
If, in this example, a 12 mm thick web plate was used in place of 16 mm
then the ratio of d/t = 1200 12 = 100.
The average shear stress would then be:

1750 ´ 10 3 = 121 N/mm2

(1200 ´ 12 )
Stiffeners are now required to give an a/d ratio = 2.5 (Table 21) at a qw of
123 N/mm2.
1200
Stiffener spacing = 2.5 ´ = 3.0 m
1000
Both these solutions are safe. The choice facing the engineer is between
economy of material using a thin plate with stiffeners at a high labour cost
or a thick plate and very little labour.
If an 8 mm plate is used, the solution becomes unsafe because the average
shear stress is now 1 750 ´ 10 3 (1200 ´ 8) = 182 N/mm2. This is higher
than the allowable shear strength of 165 N/mm2, the maximum allowable for
any d/t or a/d ratio in grade S 275 steel, even with the use of stiffeners.

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