Research Methodology: Key Concepts and
Applications
June 10, 2025
1 Steps of the Research Process (10 Marks)
The research process involves systematic steps to address a research problem effectively.
Below are the key steps:
1. Identify the Research Problem: Clearly define the issue or question to be
investigated. For example, studying the impact of social media on mental health.
2. Literature Review: Conduct a review of existing studies to identify gaps and
build a theoretical framework.
3. Formulate Objectives and Hypotheses: Define the purpose of the study and
propose testable hypotheses.
4. Research Design: Choose an appropriate design (e.g., experimental, descriptive)
to structure the study.
5. Data Collection: Gather data using methods like surveys, interviews, or obser-
vations.
6. Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data using statistical tools (e.g., SPSS,
t-test).
7. Interpretation and Conclusion: Draw conclusions based on the analysis and
relate findings to the hypotheses.
8. Report Writing: Document the research in a structured report, including method-
ology, results, and implications.
2 Types of Hypotheses with Table and Example (10
Marks)
Hypotheses are testable statements predicting the relationship between variables. Below
is a table outlining the main types of hypotheses, followed by an example.
Example: In a study examining the effect of study hours on exam scores: - Null
Hypothesis (H0): Study hours have no effect on exam scores. - Alternative Hypothesis
(H1): Study hours affect exam scores. - Directional Hypothesis: More study hours
increase exam scores. - Non-Directional Hypothesis: Study hours affect exam scores, but
the direction is not specified.
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Type Description
Null Hypothesis
States no relationship or effect between variables.
(H0)
Alternative Hy- States a specific relationship or effect between vari-
pothesis (H1) ables.
Directional Hy- Predicts the direction of the relationship (e.g., in-
pothesis crease or decrease).
Non-Directional Predicts a relationship but does not specify the
Hypothesis direction.
Table 1: Types of Hypotheses
3 Research Design and Its Types (10 Marks)
A research design provides a framework for conducting a study. The main types include:
• Descriptive: Describes characteristics of a population or phenomenon (e.g., a
survey on student satisfaction).
• Experimental: Tests cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating variables (e.g.,
testing a new teaching method).
• Correlational: Examines relationships between variables without manipulation
(e.g., correlation between stress and productivity).
• Exploratory: Investigates a problem with limited prior research to generate hy-
potheses.
• Explanatory: Explains why certain phenomena occur by identifying causal fac-
tors.
4 Sampling Techniques (10 Marks)
Sampling involves selecting a subset of a population for study. Common techniques
include:
• Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance of selection (e.g., se-
lecting students randomly for a survey).
• Stratified Sampling: Divides the population into strata and samples proportion-
ally from each (e.g., sampling based on age groups).
• Cluster Sampling: Divides the population into clusters and randomly selects
entire clusters (e.g., selecting schools for a study).
• Systematic Sampling: Selects every nth individual from a list (e.g., every 10th
employee in a company).
• Convenience Sampling: Selects easily accessible individuals (e.g., surveying peo-
ple in a mall).
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5 Data Collection Methods (10 Marks)
Data collection methods vary based on the research design:
• Surveys/Questionnaires: Collect data through structured questions (e.g., online
surveys on customer satisfaction).
• Interviews: Gather in-depth insights through direct interaction (e.g., face-to-face
interviews with experts).
• Observations: Record behaviors in natural settings (e.g., observing classroom
interactions).
• Experiments: Collect data by manipulating variables (e.g., testing a drugs effi-
cacy).
• Secondary Data: Use existing data from reports, databases, or literature.
6 SPSS, t-test, and ANOVA (10 Marks)
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) is a software tool for statistical analysis.
- t-test: Compares means of two groups to determine if differences are significant (e.g.,
comparing test scores of two classes). - ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Compares
means of three or more groups (e.g., comparing performance across multiple teaching
methods). In SPSS, data is entered into a spreadsheet, and tests like t-tests or ANOVA
can be run via the "Analyze" menu to obtain results such as p-values and F-statistics,
which help determine statistical significance.
7 APA Style and Plagiarism (10 Marks)
APA (American Psychological Association) style is a citation format used in research: -
In-text Citation: (Author, Year), e.g., (Smith, 2020). - Reference List: Author, A.
(Year). Title. Publisher. Plagiarism involves using someone elses work without proper
attribution. To avoid it: - Cite all sources using APA style. - Paraphrase ideas and give
credit to the original author. - Use plagiarism detection tools to ensure originality.
8 TRIPS and IPR (10 Marks)
IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) protects creations like patents, copyrights, and trade-
marks. TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) is a WTO agree-
ment setting global standards for IPR: - Ensures minimum protection levels for patents,
copyrights, and trademarks. - Balances rights of creators with public access (e.g., com-
pulsory licensing for medicines). For example, a pharmaceutical company may patent a
new drug under TRIPS, but generic versions can be produced under specific conditions
to ensure affordability.
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9 Writing a Good Research Proposal (10 Marks)
A research proposal outlines the plan for a study. Key components include:
• Title: Clear and concise (e.g., "Impact of Technology on Education").
• Introduction: State the problem, objectives, and significance.
• Literature Review: Summarize existing research and identify gaps.
• Methodology: Describe the research design, sampling, and data collection meth-
ods.
• Timeline and Budget: Provide a schedule and estimated costs.
• Expected Outcomes: Highlight anticipated findings and their impact.
10 Real-World Application and Funding Agencies (10
Marks)
Research has practical applications, such as improving healthcare or technology. For ex-
ample, research on renewable energy can lead to sustainable solutions. Funding Agen-
cies support research: - Government bodies (e.g., National Science Foundation). - Private
organizations (e.g., Bill Melinda Gates Foundation). - Universities and international
agencies (e.g., UNESCO). Researchers must align proposals with the agencys goals to
secure funding.
