1 Introduction

Dong Chen （陈冬）

[email protected]

2020.5

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 Contents
2

1 Introduction
2 Geomechanics
3 Drilling Fluids
4 Cementing
5 Drilling Hydraulics
6 Drilling Bit
7 Casing
8 Directional Drilling
9 Drillstring
10 Drilling Problems
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 Books
3

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 Journals
4

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 Conferences
5

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DRILLING CONTRACTORS

http://www.iadc.org/

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 Assessment
6

Classroom performance 30%

Homework & Attendance
Examination 70%

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 Terminology
7

www.petroleumcloud.cn http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Disciplines/Drilling.aspx
 Terminology
8

http://www.petroleumcloud.cn/pages/605.html

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 Unit
9

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 Unit
10

http://www.petroleumcloud.cn/pages/601.html

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 1 Introduction
11

1.1 Foreword

1.2 History of Drilling

1.3 Well Construction Processes

1.4 Drilling Rigs

1.5 Drilling Rig Systems

1.6 Marine Drilling

1.7 Drilling Cost Analysis

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 1.1 Foreword
12

What is a petroleum well?

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 1.1 Foreword
13

A well is drilled connecting the energy source to the surface.

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 1.1 Foreword
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What is the role of drilling in

petroleum industry?

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 1.1 Foreword
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Roles of drilling in petroleum industry:

1.1.1 Explore petroleum reserves

1.1.2 Create pathway for petroleum transport to surface

1.1.3 Key technology to enhance well production rate

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 1.1.1 Explore Petroleum
16

Geologist and geophysicist predict potential reservoirs

Seismic

Drilling engineers verify it through drilling

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 1.1.2 Create Pathway
17

Reservoir Wellbore Pipeline Refinery Customer

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 1.1.3 Enhance Productivity
18

The contact area between wellbore and reservoir is

significantly increased by drilling multilateral well.

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 1 Introduction
19

1.1 Foreword

1.2 History of Drilling

1.3 Well Construction Processes

1.4 Drilling Rigs

1.5 Drilling Rig Systems

1.6 Marine Drilling

1.7 Drilling Cost Analysis

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 1.2 History of Drilling
20

Year
Oil wells are drilled in China up to 240 m deep using bits
347
attached to bamboo poles.

600 Reports of oil well drilling activities in Japan.

1264 Mining of seep oil in medieval Persia.

1500s Seep oil collected in the Carpathian Mountains of Poland is

used to light street lamps.

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 1.2 History of Drilling
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There is evidence of wells purposely drilled for production

of hydrocarbons as early as A.D. 347 in China. there are
reports of oilwell drilling activities in Japan by A.D. 600.

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 1.2 History of Drilling
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Year

1594 Oil wells are hand dug at Baku, up to 35 m deep.

1745 The first oil well drilled in Pechelbronn, France.

A 58-ft well is drilled using a spring pole in the Kanawha

1806
Valley of West Virginia by the brothers David and Joseph
Ruffner to produce brine. The well takes 18 months to drill.

Oil is produced in United States as an undesirable by-

1815
product from brine wells in Pennsylvania.

Many wells were drilled, mostly using rudimentary hand tools, in

www.petroleumcloud.cn Europe, North America, and Asia.

 1.2 History of Drilling
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In the USA the first well was drilled in 1806 by the Rufner brothers, it
was a brine well. The well was not only drilled but a wooden casing
was set.

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 1.2 History of Drilling
24

The first modern oil well is drilled in Asia, on the

1848
Aspheron Peninsula northeast of Baku.

The first oil well in North America is drilled in

1858
Oil Springs, Ontario, Canada.

1859
Edwin L. Drake opens the first commercially
successful oil well in the United States
drilled for the sole purpose of finding oil.
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 1.2 History of Drilling
25

In the nineteenth century, cable tool

rigs were in widespread use in
North America.

Cable tool rigs pounded through soil

and rock to drill the well by
repeatedly dropping a heavy iron
bit attached to a cable.

Percussion drilling was widely used by

the oil industry until the 1930s.

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 1.2 History of Drilling
26

Development of Rotary Drilling

The Modern Era

The Lucas Spindletop well reached

its final depth in 1901. It
demonstrated the viability of using
rotary drilling rigs to drill oil wells in
soft formations where cable tools
could not be effectively used except
at very shallow depths.

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 1.2 History of Drilling
27

The first truly lateral holes were drilled

1929
at Texon, Texas

1947 The first off-shore oil well is drilled

Modern

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 1 Introduction
28

1.1 Foreword

1.2 History of Drilling

1.3 Well Construction Processes

1.4 Drilling Rigs

1.5 Drilling Rig Systems

1.6 Marine Drilling

1.7 Drilling Cost Analysis

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 1.3 Well Construction Processes
29

What are the stages involved in

the well construction process?

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 1.3 Well Construction Processes
30

Stages in well construction:

 Drilling preparation

 Drilling

 Cementing

 Completion

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 1.3 Well Construction Processes
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Drilling preparation

Clear and leveled the land;

Build the roads;

Find a source of water;

Dig a reserve pit;

Build foundation;

Assemble the rig components …

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 1.3 Well Construction Processes
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Drilling

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 1.3 Well Construction Processes
33

Casing and Cementing

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 1.3 Well Construction Processes
34

Normal final casing/liner size: 4.5~7 in.

Advanced bigger-bore need:

9 5 in (244mm)
8

New Technologies

(1) Expandable casings;

(2) Managed-pressure drilling;

(3) Casing drilling

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 1.3 Well Construction Processes
35

Completion

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 1 Introduction
36

1.1 Foreword

1.2 History of Drilling

1.3 Well Construction Processes

1.4 Drilling Rigs

1.5 Drilling Rig Systems

1.6 Marine Drilling

1.7 Drilling Cost Analysis

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
37

What are the typical well types?

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
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Well types:

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
39

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
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Typical drilling rig organization

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
41

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
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Information contained in the rig specifications generally addresses

the following items:
· Derrick type
· Drawworks type
· Maximum operating depth
· Hookload capacity
· Mud pumps (number, manufacturer, horsepower)
· Engines (type, horsepower)
· Topdrive or rotary table
· Well-control equipment
· Fishing tools
· Main rig equipment information
· Drillstring and accessories
· Circulating system and mud-processing equipment
· Miscellaneous equipment
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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
43

How to classify land and

marine rotary drilling rigs?

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
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 Land Rigs
45

Portable
mast

Helitransportable

Cantilever derrick

Conventional
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 Marine Rigs (Bottom-supported)
46

Submersible
(3~6m)

Jackup Fixed Compliant Tower

(<106m) (<460m) (450~900m)
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 Marine Rigs (Floating Vessels)
47

Semisubmersible Semisubmersible
Drillship
(Anchored) (Anchorless)

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 Marine Rigs (Floating Vessels)

48

Deepwater rig Tension-leg Spar FPSO

Offshore magazine, 2002

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
49

The basic rotary-drilling process is the same for all types rigs.

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
50

What are the influencing factors

on drilling rig selection?

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 1.4 Drilling Rigs
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Factors affecting drilling rig selection

 Technical design requirements

 Rig’s manpower (i.e., experience and training)

 Track record

 Logistics

 Rig site requirements

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 1 Introduction
52

1.1 Foreword

1.2 History of Drilling

1.3 Well Construction Processes

1.4 Drilling Rigs

1.5 Drilling Rig Systems

1.6 Marine Drilling

1.7 Drilling Cost Analysis

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 1.5 Drilling Rig Systems
53

What are the typical systems

involved in a drilling rig?

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 1.5 Drilling Rig Systems
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1.5.1 Power System

1.5.2 Hoisting System

1.5.3 Circulating System

1.5.4 Rotary System

1.5.5 Well-control System

1.5.6 Well-monitoring System

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 1.5.1 Power System
55

Most rig power is consumed by

hoisting and fluid-circulating
systems.

Mechanical drive

Direct-current (DC) generator and motor

Alternating-current (AC) generator, silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)

The most widely used system on new or large marine rigs is the AC-SCR
system, also called the diesel-electric system.

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 1.5.1 Power System
56

The shaft power developed by an

engine is the product of the angular
velocity of the shaft ω and the
output torque T: P = T
The heat energy input to the engine Qi
is the product of rate of fuel
consumption wf and the heating
values H of various fuels: Qi = w f H
The overall power system efficiency is
defined as the energy output per
P
energy input: Et =
Qi
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 1.5.1 Power System
57

www.petroleumcloud.cn Noor et al. (2013) International Conference on Mechanical Engineering Research

 1.5.1 Power System
58

Example. Power and Efficiency of an Engine. A diesel

engine gives an output torque of 2359 N-m at an
engine speed of 1,200 rev/min. If the fuel
consumption rate is 120 L/hr, what is the output
power and overall efficiency of the engine?

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 1.5.1 Power System
59

Solution. The angular velocity ω is given by

 = 2 (1200 ) =7540rad / min = 126rad / s

The power output can be computed
P = T = 126  2359 = 297 kW

Since the fuel type is diesel, the density is 832 kg/m3

and the heating value H is 44.4 MJ/kg. Thus, the fuel
consumption rate wf is
w f = (120 L / hr )  ( 0.832kg / L )  (1hr / 60 min ) =1.664kg/min
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 1.5.1 Power System
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Solution. The total heat energy consumed by the

engine is given by

Qi = w f H = 1.664kg / min 44.4 MJ / kg = 73.882 MJ / min

= 1231kJ / s = 1231kw
Thus, the overall efficiency of the engine at 1,200
rev/min is given by

P 297
Et = = = 0.241 or 24.1%
Qi 1231

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 1.5 Drilling Rig Systems
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1.5.1 Power System

1.5.2 Hoisting System

1.5.3 Circulating System

1.5.4 Rotary System

1.5.5 Well-control System

1.5.6 Well-monitoring System

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
62

The hoisting system provides a means for vertical

movement of pipe in the well. The principal items in the
hoisting system are as follows:

Drawworks

Block and tackle

Derrick and substructure

Ancillary equipment, e.g. hooks

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
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Two routine drilling operations:

(1) Making a connection: adding a new joint of drill pipe;

(2) Making a trip: removing drillstring from the hole to change a

portion of the bottomhole assembly (trip out); lowering drillstring
back to the hole bottom (trip in).

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
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The drawworks is the equipment that uses the energy

from the power system to apply a force to the cable.

It reels in the drilling line on the drum to lift the pipe.

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
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The block and tackle is the link between drawworks and loads.

It is composed of crown block, traveling block, and drilling line.

Crown block Traveling block

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
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The principle function of the block and tackle is to provide a

mechanical advantage (M)

W Weight supported by the traveling block

W
M= Load imposed on the drawworks
Ff Ff

Ff

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
67

Under ideal condition, no friction exists in the pulleys (frictionless).

Therefore the tension in the drilling line is constant throughout.

W W
nF f = W Mi = = =n
Ff W / n
Input power of the block and tackle

Pi = F f v f vf Velocity of the fast line

Output power or hook power

Ph = Wvb vb Velocity of traveling block

Power efficiency
Ph Wv b (nF f )(v f / n )
E= = = =1
www.petroleumcloud.cn Pi F f v f Ff v f
 1.5.2 Hoisting System
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In reality, the power is lost due to friction.

Output power < Input power Ph  Pi Ph = bt Pi 0  bt  1

Ph Wv b Wv f / n W W
bt = = = = Ff =
Pi F f v f Ff v f Ff n  bt n

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
69

API Spec 9A/ISO 10425 (2004) covers wire rope grades and
construction: (1) Extra improved plow steel (EIPS); (2)
Improved plow steel (IPS); (3) Plow steel (PS); (4) Mild
plow steel (MPS)

The core may be a fiber rope, a plastic core, a spring

steel core, a multiple-wire strand, or an independent
wire rope core (IWRC). The IWRC is the most widely
used because it resists crushing and distortion.

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
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W
Ff =
 bt n
Used to select drilling
line size. However, a
safety factor should
be used.

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 1.5.2 Hoisting System
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The derrick provides the height necessary to

raise and lower the pipe.

Derricks can handle sections called stands,

which are composed of two, three, or four
joints of drillpipe which are between 8 and
10 m long.

The substructure provides the height required

for the blowout preventer stack on the
wellhead below the rig floor.

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 1.5 Drilling Rig Systems
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1.5.1 Power System

1.5.2 Hoisting System

1.5.3 Circulating System

1.5.4 Rotary System

1.5.5 Well-control System

1.5.6 Well-monitoring System

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
73

Mud circulating path:

Tank

Pump

Surface connections

Drill string

Bit (nozzles)

Annular space

Contaminant removal equipment

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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How to calculate total volume displaced

per complete pump cycle?

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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The volume displaced by each piston

during one complete pump cycle
is given by

 2
d L Ls
4
The pump output for a single-acting
pump having three cylinders
becomes
Volumetric efficiency of

the pump Ev Fp = (3)Ls d L2 Ev
4
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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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On the forward stroke of each piston,

the volume displaced is
 2
d L Ls
4
On the backward stroke of each
piston, the volume displaced is
 2 2
4
(d L − d r )Ls

The total volume displaced per complete pump cycle by a pump

having two cylinders is given by

Fp = (2 )Ls (2d L2 − d r2 )Ev
4
www.petroleumcloud.cn Volumetric efficiency of the pump Ev
 1.5.3 Circulating System
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Example. Duplex Pump Output. Compute the pump

output per stroke for a duplex pump having 165.1 mm
liners, 63.5 mm rods, 457.2 mm strokes, and a
volumetric efficiency of 90%.

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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Solution. The pump output for a duplex pump is:

 
Fp = ( ) s( L r ) v
− =    ( ) − ( )   0.9
2 2 2 2
2 L 2 d d E 0.4572 2 0.1651 0.0635
4 2  
= 0.032614m3 / stroke = 32.614 L / stroke

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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If the mud pump cannot gain access to the proper

volume of mud as needed, its output will be less
than expected for a particular pump rate.

The two common types of suction systems are

atmospheric and supercharged.

A more successful method of fulfilling mud-pump

suction needs is the use of centrifugal pumps as
boosters (superchargers or prechargers).

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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Centrifugal pumps are supercharging

the rig pumps, pumping fluid to
mud-mixing equipment and to the
solids-control equipment, and
performing ancillary functions such
as pumping water and cleaning tanks.

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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Improved pumping characteristics can be expected when a pulsation

dampener (surge chamber) is added to the discharge line. The extra
speed advantage is the basic reason to use a dampener, but other
advantages include the following:

· Stabilizes pressures in the suction line

· Allows the use of longer suction lines or smaller-diameter lines

· Makes suction from deeper pits possible

· Allows the use of heavier muds

· Allows the use of higher-temperature muds

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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Mud pit

➢ Hold an excess volume of drilling fluid at surface

➢ Allows time for settling of the finer rock cuttings
➢ Release of entrained gas bubbles not mechanically separated

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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⚫ Shale shaker
Which phase moves outward and downward?
⚫ Hydrocyclones Light phase? Heavy phase?

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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⚫ Shale shaker

⚫ Hydrocyclones (desilters and

desanders) remove solids in 16
to 100 μm. Light phase tends
to spiral inward and upward.
Heavy phase tend to spiral
outward and downward for
discharge through the solids
outlet.
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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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⚫ Centrifuge

Remove colloid-sized solids (5 μm) from weighted water-based muds.

The decanting centrifuge is the most commonly used type. Centrifuges
operate intermittently on a small fraction of the circulating volume,
usually 5–10%.

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 1.5.3 Circulating System
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Gas-control system (degasser)

When the amount of entrained

formation gas leaving the
settling pit becomes too great,
it can be separated using a
degasser.

Chemical-treatment system

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 1.5 Drilling Rig Systems
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1.5.1 Power System

1.5.2 Hoisting System

1.5.3 Circulating System

1.5.4 Rotary System

1.5.5 Well-control System

1.5.6 Well-monitoring System

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 1.5.4 Rotary System
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The rotary system includes all of the equipments used to

achieve bit rotation. The main parts of the rotary
system with a rotary table are the swivel, kelly, and
drillstring.

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 1.5.4 Rotary System
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The rotary swivel is the connecting point between the

circulating system and the rotary system.

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 1.5.4 Rotary System
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The kelly is the first section of pipe

Kelly
below the swivel. The outside cross
section of the kelly is hexagonal to
permit it to be gripped easily for
turning.

Torque is transmitted to the kelly

through kelly bushings, which fit
inside the master bushing of the
Kelly Bushing
rotary table.
Rotary table

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 1.5.4 Rotary System
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Modern rigs use a topdrive to replace the kelly, kelly

bushings, and rotary table.

Topdrives are suspended from

the hook and can travel up
and down the derrick. This will
allow drilling to be done with
stands of pipes, instead of
single joints, which will save
considerable time.

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 1.5.4 Rotary System
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The drillstring connects the surface equipment with the drill bit.
The drillstring is basically composed of two major portions, the
drillpipes and the bottomhole assembly (BHA).

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 1.5.4 Rotary System
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The drillpipe joints are fastened together in the

drillstring by means of tool joints.

Most of the BHA is composed of drill collars. The drill

collars are thick-walled, heavy steel tubulars used
to apply weight to the bit.

Stabilizers often are used in the drill collar string to

assist in keeping the drill collars centralized.

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 1.5.4 Rotary System
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Tri-cone Bits

PDC bits (Polycrystalline diamond compact bit)

Diamond bits

TSP bits

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 1.5 Drilling Rig Systems
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1.5.1 Power System

1.5.2 Hoisting System

1.5.3 Circulating System

1.5.4 Rotary System

1.5.5 Well-control System

1.5.6 Well-monitoring System

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 1.5.5 Well-control System
97

The well control system

prevents the uncontrolled
flow of formation fluids
from the wellbore. The flow
of formation fluids into the
well in the presence of
drilling fluid is called a kick.

What are the conditions

for well kick happening?

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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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The well control system

prevents the uncontrolled
flow of formation fluids
from the wellbore. The flow
of formation fluids into the
well in the presence of
drilling fluid is called a kick.

Conditions:
➢ ppore>pwellbore
➢ Permeable formation
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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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Failure of the control system results in an uncontrolled

flow of formation fluids is called a blowout

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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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The well-control system enables the driller to:

Detect the kick

Close the well at the surface

Circulate the well under pressure to remove the

formation fluids and increase the mud density

Move the drillstring up and down with the well closed

Divert the flow away from personnel and equipment

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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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Kick detection:

➢ Pit-volume indicator

➢ Flow indicator

Both devices can detect an

increase in the flow of mud
returning from the well

Any other detection method?

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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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The flow of fluid from the well caused by a kick is

stopped by use of well-control devices called blowout
preventers (BOP).

Multiple BOPs with different purposes

are used in a well. This arrangement
is called a BOP stack (BOPs):

➢ Ram Preventers

➢ Annular Preventers
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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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Ram preventers have two packing

elements on opposite sides that
close by moving toward each other

(seal off open hole) (seal off annular) (seal the pipe)
blind ram
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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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Annular preventers, sometimes called bag-type

preventers, stop flow from the well using a ring of
synthetic rubber that contracts around the pipe,
preventing fluid passage and sealing the annulus.

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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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Drilling spool is used to attach high-pressure flowlines.

A conduit used to pump into the annulus is called a kill line.

Conduits used to release fluid from the annulus may
include a chokeline, a diverter line, or simply a flowline.

Chokeline
Kill line

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 1.5.5 Well-control System
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BOPs arrangements
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 1.5 Drilling Rig Systems
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1.5.1 Power System

1.5.2 Hoisting System

1.5.3 Circulating System

1.5.4 Rotary System

1.5.5 Well-control System

1.5.6 Well-monitoring System

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 1.5.6 Well-monitoring System
108

What parameters are monitored

during drilling process?

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 1.5.6 Well-monitoring System
109

Parameters to be monitored:
 Well depth
 Weight on bit
 Rotary speed
 Rotary torque
 Pump pressure
 Pump rate
 Fluid-flow rate
 Flow return
 Rate of penetration
 Hookload
 Pit level
 Fluid properties (e.g., density, temperature, viscosity, gas/sand content,
salinity, solids content)
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 1 Introduction
110

1.1 Foreword

1.2 History of Drilling

1.3 Well Construction Processes

1.4 Drilling Rigs

1.5 Drilling Rig Systems

1.6 Marine Drilling

1.7 Drilling Cost Analysis

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 1.6 Marine Drilling
111

Drilling wells offshore requires special equipments to hold the

vessel on location over the borehole and to compensate for
the vertical, lateral, and tilting movements caused by wave
action against the vessel.

Anchors and cables

Dynamic positioning system

Marine riser and BOP

Heave compensators

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Some floating vessels are held on location by anchors.

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The dynamic positioning (DP) counteract the forces of wind, waves, and
maritime currents will tend to displace the vessel from its station
through large thrusters based on the sensor detection.

Thrusters

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A marine riser conducts the drilling

fluid from the ocean floor to the
drilling vessel.

Normally, in marine operations

from floating vessels, the
wellhead and BOPs are placed at
the seafloor.

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To keep the drillstring from

suffering the effects of the
vertical movement of the vessel
and to keep the weight on bit
constant, types of surface-
motion-compensating equipment
called heave compensators have
been developed.

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Offshore drilling operations differ from onshore drilling in

various aspects, including well spud-in (initiating a
well), in which the differences in equipment and
operating procedures are considerable.
Various schemes have been developed for offshore well
spud-in. To illustrate those differences, let us analyze
initial drilling operations for a shallow-water well
drilled from a jackup rig and a deepwater well drilled
from a floating DP vessel.
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In a jackup rig, the first section

may be drilled using, for
example, a 26-in. bit coupled
with a 36-in. hole opener.
This first section normally is not
long, and when concluded, a
30-in. conductor is run into
the well and cemented.

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The 30-in. conductor has an internal profile

that allows support, at mudline, for the
next casing, normally a 20-in. surface
casing.
Alternatively, the conductor could be jetted.
In the case of jetting, the initial well
section is drilled by the action of water
jets positioned at the lower end of the
conductor.
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After this first phase is

concluded, the
conductor is cut below
the rotary table, and the
first wellhead and a
diverter is installed at its
top so that the drilling
operation can resume.

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The next section is drilled using,

for example, a 26-in. bit, and
afterward a 20-in. casing will
be run and cemented.
Note that this casing has its
weight supported by the 30-
in. conductor at mudline,
avoiding unnecessary loads
to the rig.
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The 20-in. casing,

when cemented in
place, also is cut
below the rotary
table, allowing a
wellhead and BOP
to be installed on
its top.

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When drilling from a

floating vessel, normally
the wellhead and BOPs
are installed close to
seafloor and are called a
subsea system.

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A remotely operated vehicle (ROV) is used to monitor

the operation. The ROV has a camera that transmits
the view of the action to a monitoring station
located at surface on the drilling vessel.

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After conclusion of drilling,

the first casing is run
into the well with the
permanent guide base
attached to its top, and,
as the casing is placed in
position, the permanent
guide base is landed on
the temporary base.
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A second section is
drilled, also without
a BOP system.
A marine riser may be
installed in the
wellhead housing of
the previous casing.

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A diverter system is
installed at surface
to deal with the
possible hazards
associated with
drilling into shallow
gas zones.

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After drilling, the conductor

casing is lowered into the
hole with a high-pressure
subsea wellhead housing
attached to its top. The
wellhead housing internal
profile is designed to
receive subsequent casing
strings.
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The BOP stack is lowered

and latched into the top
of the wellhead, and the
marine riser then can be
deployed and latched
into the BOP.

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Modern subsea systems allow

the operator, in one trip, to
run the first large-bore
casing and its wellhead
housing and, after jetting it
in place, to immediately
start drilling the second
well section without
tripping back to surface.
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· Run conductor & wellhead housing and jet it in place.

· Release the running tool and drill ahead with the bit
and BHA previously connected.
· Retrieve drillstring and running tool to surface.
· Run the next casing with the high-pressure wellhead.
· Run the BOP with the riser already connected on its
top. Then landed on the high-pressure wellhead.
· With the BOP and riser in place, the operation to drill
the next section can be carried out.
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1.1 Foreword

1.2 History of Drilling

1.3 Well Construction Processes

1.4 Drilling Rigs

1.5 Drilling Rig Systems

1.6 Marine Drilling

1.7 Drilling Cost Analysis

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Drilling is the most visible of the many faces of the oil

industry and may represent up to 40% of the entire
exploration and development costs (Cunha 2002)
of a field.

The final cost of a well depends on many factors, but

clearly good well planning represents a major step
toward cost-efficiency.

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One of the most challenging tasks for the drilling engineer is to predict
well costs. The operator must present an authorization for
expenditure (AFE) with the expected cost of drilling.

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A very simple drilling cost formula to evaluate the efficiency of a bit run
can be written by associating the depth interval drilled during the bit
run, Δs, the rotating time during the bit run, trot, the nonrotating time
during the bit run, tcon, and the trip time, ttr.

where Cbr is the drilling cost per unit depth, Cbit is the bit cost, and Crig
is the fixed operating cost of the rig per unit time. The nonrotating
time tcon is the time to connect new pipes to the drillstring as drilling
progresses.
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Drilling costs tend to increase exponentially with depth.

When enough data are available for a certain region,
it is possible to assume a relationship between cost,
Cdc, and depth, s, as proposed in Bourgoyne (1986).

Cdc = adc exp ( bdc s )

where the constants adc and bdc depend primarily on

the well location.

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Example. Well Cost Estimation. The Fig. presents data

of depth and cost for a series of wells drilled in the
same region. Assuming all external conditions
remained the same, estimate the cost for two new
wells with depths of 13,550 ft (4130 m) and 19,500 ft
(5943 m).

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Solution. From the data, it is possible to perform a

least-squares curve fit where adc equals USD 803,210
and bdc equals 4.9×10–5 ft–1.

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Once the parameters of the curve are established, the

predicted costs are easily obtained as

Cdc = 803210exp ( 4.9 10−5  s )

For s = 13,550 ft,

Cdc = 803210exp ( 4.9 10−5 13550 ) = USD1.56million

For s = 19,500 ft,

Cdc = 803210exp ( 4.9 10−5 19500 ) = USD 2.09million

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When a number of similar wells have been drilled in a

region, prediction of future wells is simpler. The
learning curve can be mathematically represented by

Clc = Cmin + alc nwblc

where Clc is the learning curve cost of the well or

cost per foot, Cmin is the minimum cost for the ideal
trouble-free well, alc and blc are constants, and nw
represents the well number (ordered by the first well
drilled to the last) or the cumulative footage drilled.
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Example. Statistical Well Cost

Estimation. Given the table
with the costs of 20 wells
drilled in the same field
with approximately the
same final depth,
determine the estimated
costs for the next two wells
to be drilled in the field.

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Solution. Take Wells 15 through 20 and calculate the

average cost and the standard deviation. The
average well cost is USD 2.94 million and the
standard deviation is USD 40,000, only 1.4% of the
average cost of a well in the last six wells drilled.
Because there is not much variation in well cost,
we can feel relatively confident that the next two
wells will cost between USD 2.9 and 3.0 million.

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Normally, when accurate drilling-cost prediction is needed, a cost

analysis based on a detailed well plan must be made.
➢ The cost of tangible well equipment (such as casing)
➢ The cost of preparing the surface location
➢ The cost per day of the drilling operations (rig rental costs,
other equipment rentals, transportation costs, rig supervision
costs, and others).
➢ The time required to drill and complete the well is estimated
on the basis of rig-up time, drilling time, trip time, casing
placement time, formation evaluation and borehole survey
time, completion time, and trouble time.
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After gathering all information, the

drilling engineer is then equipped
to prepare the AFE. AFEs vary
significantly in format and amount
of information contained.
Normally, each company will have
its own customized AFE form. The
provision of an extra percentage
of the total predicted cost for
“Contingencies” is customary.

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In addition to predicting the time requirements for drilling and

tripping operations, time requirements for other planned
drilling operations also must be estimated:

· Wellsite preparation

· Rig movement and rigging up

· Formation evaluation and borehole surveys

· Casing placement

· Well completion

· Drilling problems

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The cost associated with wellsite preparation and moving the

rig on location depends primarily on the terrain, the distance
of the move, and the type of rig used.

The cost of formation evaluation depends on the number and

cost of the logs and tests scheduled plus rig time required to
condition the drilling fluid and run the logs and tests.

The cost of completing the well depends on the type of

completion used, and this cost estimate is often made by the
completion/production engineer.

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On many wells, a large portion of the well cost may be related

to unexpected drilling problems such as mud contamination,
lost circulation, stuck drillstring, broken drillstring, or
ruptured casing.

These unforeseen costs cannot be predicted with accuracy and,

in some cases, are not included in the original cost estimate.

Requests for additional funds then must be submitted

whenever a significant problem is encountered.

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 Questions
152

➢ What is a petroleum well?

➢ What is the role of drilling in petroleum industry?

➢ What is the difference between percussion and rotary drilling?

➢ What are the stages involved in the well construction process?

➢ What are the typical well types?

➢ How to classify land and marine rotary drilling rigs?

➢ What are the influencing factors on drilling rig selection?

➢ What are the typical systems involved in a drilling rig?

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 Questions
153

➢ What is the mud circulation path?

➢ What are the components in the rotary system?

➢ What are the functions of well control system?

➢ What parameters are monitored during drilling process?

➢ What are the special equipment required by offshore drilling?

➢ What is the relationship between drilling cost and well depth?

➢ What is the function of heave compensator?

➢ What’s the drilling difference between jackup & deepwater rig

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