Geography

Lithosphere
➢ Earth and Solar system
➢ Longitude and Latitude
➢ Motion of Earth
➢ Interior structure of Earth
➢ Rocks of Earth
➢ Earthquake and Volcanoes
Atmosphere
➢ Vertical & horizontal division of Pressure
belts on the Earth
➢ Atmosphere
➢ Winds and Rainfall
Biosphere
➢ Biomes on the earth
Hydrosphere
➢ Ocean
➢ Oceanic current
What Is the Big Bang?

It is the idea that the universe began as just a single point, then
expanded and stretched to grow as large as it is right now—and it is
still stretching!
 Earth and Solar System
Solar System

• The solar system is made up of the Sun, eight planets,

satellites, and other celestial bodies.
• The solar system is made up of the sun and everything that
orbits around it, including planets,
moons, asteroids, comets and meteoroids.
• The order of the planets in the solar system, starting
nearest the sun and working outward is the following:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune.

The Sun

• The sun is in the center of the solar system.

• It is huge and made up of extremely hot gases.
• It provides the pulling force that binds the solar system.
 •

Planets

• There are eight planets in our solar system.

• In order of their distance from the sun, they are:
1. Mercury
2. Venus
3. Earth
4. Mars
5. Jupiter
6. Saturn
7. Uranus and
8. Neptune

Types of planets
• The inner four planets closest to the sun — Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars — are often called the "terrestrial
planets" because their surfaces are rocky. Pluto also has a
rocky, albeit frozen, surface but has never been grouped with
the four terrestrials.
 • The four large outer worlds — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune — are sometimes called the Jovian or "Jupiter-like"
planets because of their enormous size relative to the
terrestrial planets. They're also mostly made of gases like
hydrogen, helium and ammonia rather than of rocky surfaces,
although astronomers believe some or all of them may have
solid cores.

Inner Planets

• These planets are very close to the sun.

• They are made up of rocks.

• Inner Planets are:

• MERCURY- One orbit around sun – 88 days, One spin on axis – 59 days.

• VENUS – One orbit around the sun – 255 days. One spin on axis – 243
days

• EARTH – One orbit around the sun – 365 days. One spin on axis – 1 day
Number of moons – 1

• MARS – One orbit around the sun – 687 days. One spin on axis – 1 day,
number of moons – 02

Outer Planets

• Very far from the sun are huge planets made up of gases and liquids

• JUPITER – One orbit around the sun – 11 years, 11 months about 12

years. One spin on axis – 9 hours, 56 minutes, number of moons – 16
 • SATURN – One orbit around sun – 29 years, 5 months. One spin on axis
– 10 hours 40 minutes, number of moons – about 18.

• URANUS – One orbit around the sun – 84 years. One spin around an
axis – 17 hours 14 minutes, number of moons – about 17.

• NEPTUNE – One orbit around the sun – 164 years. One spin on axis-16
hours 7 minutes, number of moons – 8

Name all the planets along with their moons

Planets / Number of Name of the moons

Moons Moons

Mercury Zero Mercury has no moons

Venus Zero Venus has no moons

Earth One We have one moon

Mars Two Their names are Phobos and Deimos

Jupiter Approximately Europa, and Callisto are two moons. Jupiter also has the biggest
79
moon in our solar system, Ganymede.

Saturn 52 Saturn’s moons have great names like Mimas, Enceladus, and

Tethys. One of these moons, named Titan, even has its own
atmosphere, which is very unusual for a moon.

Uranus 27 Uranus has five major moons: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and
Oberon.
Neptune 14 Some of the moons are Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea, Larissa,
Hippocamp, and Proteus.
Asteroids

• Asteroids are numerous tiny bodies that also move around the Sun apart from
the stars, planets, and satellites.
• They are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

Meteoroids

• Meteoroids are small pieces of rocks that move around the sun.
 Plate tectonics theory

The system of ideas behind plate tectonics theory suggests

that Earth's outer shell (lithosphere) is divided into several
plates that glide over the Earth's rocky inner layer above the
soft core (mantle).

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major

landforms are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean
movements. The theory, which solidified in the 1960s,
transformed the earth sciences by explaining many
phenomena, including mountain building events, volcanoes,
and earthquakes.

In plate tectonics, Earth’s outermost layer, or lithosphere—

made up of the crust and upper mantle—is broken into large
rocky plates. These plates lie on top of a partially molten layer
of rock called the asthenosphere. Due to the convection of
the asthenosphere and lithosphere, the plates move relative to
each other at different rates, from two to 15 centimeters (one to
six inches) per year. This interaction of tectonic plates is
responsible for many different geological formations such as
the Himalaya mountain range in Asia, the East African Rift,
and the San Andreas Fault in California, United States.
Theory of Continental Drift

The continental drift hypothesis refers to the theory where at one

point in time, all of the continents were joined together in one
large
 Earth
Geologic time scale
The geologic time scale, or geological time scale, (GTS) is a
representation of time based on the rock record of Earth. It is a
system of chronological dating that uses chronostratigraphy (the
process of relating strata to time) and geochronology (scientific
branch of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks). It
is used primarily by Earth
scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists,
and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships
of events in geologic history. The time scale has been
developed through the study of rock layers and the
observation of their relationships and identifying features
such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils.
• Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the
only astronomical object known to harbor life. While
large amounts of water can be found throughout the Solar
System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71%
of Earth's surface is made up of the ocean, dwarfing Earth's
polar ice, lakes and rivers. The remaining 29% of Earth's
surface is land, consisting of continents and islands. Earth's
surface layer is formed of several slowly moving tectonic
 plates, interacting to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes and
earthquakes. Earth's liquid outer core generates the magnetic
field that shapes Earth's magnetosphere, deflecting
destructive solar winds.

• Earth's atmosphere consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen.

More solar energy is received by tropical regions than polar
regions and is redistributed by atmospheric and ocean
circulation. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere
and forms clouds that cover most of the planet. Greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere like carbon dioxide (CO2) trap a part
of the energy from the Sun close to the surface. A region's
climate is governed by latitude, but also by elevation and
proximity to moderating oceans. Severe weather, such as
tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, and heatwaves, occurs in
most areas and greatly impacts life.

• Earth is an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 km.

It is the densest planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky
planets, it is the largest and most massive. Earth is about
eight light minutes away from the Sun and orbits it, taking a
year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution. Earth
rotates around its own axis in a day. Earth's axis of rotation is
tilted with respect to its orbital plane with the Sun, producing
seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite,
 the Moon, which orbits Earth at 380,000 km (1.3 light
seconds) and is roughly a quarter as wide as Earth. The Moon
always faces the Earth with the same side through tidal
locking and causes tides, stabilizes Earth's axis and gradually
slows its rotation.

• Earth formed over 4.5 billion years ago. During the first billion
years of Earth's history, the ocean formed and then life
developed within it. Life spread globally and began to affect
Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to Earth's Great
Oxidation Event two billion years ago. Humans emerged
300,000 years ago, and have reached a population of almost 8
billion today. Humans depend on Earth's biosphere and
natural resources for their survival, but have increasingly
impacted Earth's environment. Today, humanity's impact on
Earth's climate, soils, waters and ecosystems
is unsustainable, threatening people's lives and causing
widespread extinction of other life.
Motions of the Earth Notes
Rotation

• Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis.

The spinning of the Earth around its own axis causes day
and night.
Revolution

• Revolution is the movement of the earth around the sun in a

fixed path or orbit

• The circle of illumination is the circle that divides the day from
night on the globe.

• It takes 365¼ days (one year) for the earth to revolve around
the sun.

• Six hours saved every year are added to make one day (24
hours) over a span of four years. This surplus day is added to
the month of February. Thus every fourth year we have leap
year with 366 days.
 • Earth goes around the sun in an elliptical orbit. Note that
throughout its orbit, the earth is inclined in the same
direction.

Seasons

• A year is usually divided into summer, winter, spring and

autumn seasons.

• Seasons change due to the change in the position of the earth

around the sun.

• Summer Solstice: The longest day and the shortest night. It

occurs on 21st June in the northern hemisphere.

On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun.

The rays of the sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. Therefore,
these areas experience more heat. The areas near the poles receive
less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting. The North Pole is
inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle
experience continuous daylight for about 6 months.

Winter Solstice

• The nights are longer than the days. It occurs On 22nd

December.

On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of

the sun as the South Pole tilts towards it. As the sun’s rays fall
vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S), a larger portion of the
Southern Hemisphere gets light.

Equinox
 • The whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights. It
occurs on 21st March and September 23rd.

On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on
the equator. At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards
the sun.

Interior Structure of earth

Crust
• It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40
kms thick.
• It is brittle in nature.
• Nearly 1% of the earth’s volumeand 0.5% of earth’s mass are
made of the crust.
• The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental
areas are different. Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as
compared to the continental crust (about 30kms).
• Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and
Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is often termed as SIAL (Sometimes
 SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the region comprising
the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
• The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
• The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crust is termed
as the Conrad Discontinuity.

Mantle

• The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the

mantle.
• The discontinuity between the crust and mantle is called as
the Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
• The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
• Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s
mass is occupied by the mantle.
• The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and
Magnesiumand hence it is also termed as SIMA.
• The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies
from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
• The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust
constitute the Lithosphere.
• The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous,
mechanically weak and ductile, deforming region of the upper
mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
• The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the
layer over which the lithospheric plates/ continental plates
move (plate tectonics).

Core
• It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
• The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s
Discontinuity.
• It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it
is also called as NIFE.
• The core constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volumeand
32.5% of earth’s mass.
• The core is the densest layer of the earth with its density
ranges between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
• The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the
outer core.
• The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the
liquid state (or semi-liquid).
• The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is
called as Lehmann Discontinuity.
Rocks
Rocks are mineral aggregates with a combination of properties of all
the mineral traces. Any unique combination of chemical
composition, mineralogy, grain size, texture, or other distinguishing
characteristics can describe rock types. Additionally, different
classification systems exist for each major type of rock. There are
different types of rocks existing in nature.

Types of Rocks

There are three types of rocks:

• Igneous Rocks

• Sedimentary Rocks

• Metamorphic Rocks
 •

Igneous Rock

Igneous rock is one of the three main rock types. Igneous rock is
formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or
lava. Igneous rock may form with or without crystallization, either
below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as
extrusive (volcanic) rocks.

This magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in

either a planet’s mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by
one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a
decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.
Sedimentary Rock

The sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and

subsequent cementation of that material within bodies of water
and at the surface of the earth. The process that causes various
organic materials and minerals to settle in a place is termed as
sedimentation.

The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are

called sediment. Before being deposited, the sediment was formed
by weathering and erosion from the source area and then
transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass
movement or glaciers, which are called agents of denudation.
Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water
solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension.
Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock

types, in a process called metamorphism, which means “change in
form”. The original rock is subjected to heat with temperatures
greater than 150 to 200°C and pressure around 1500 bars, causing
profound physical and/or chemical change.
 Earthquake
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the earth due to the
sudden release of energy in the earth’s crust. As a result, seismic
waves (also known as S waves) are created. The seismic activities in
an area determine the type and intensity of the earthquake.
Types of Earthquakes

• Tectonic earthquakes: The most common form of

earthquakes, is caused by the movement of loose fragmented
pieces of land on earth’s crust knowns as tectonic plates.

• Volcanic earthquake: The less prevalent compared to the

tectonic variety, these earthquakes happen before or after the
 eruption of a volcano. It is caused when magma leaving the
volcano is filled by rocks being pushed to the surface.

• Collapse earthquake: This earthquake occurs in underground

mines. The main cause is pressure generated within the rocks.

• Explosion earthquakes: The occurrence of this type of

earthquake is artificial. High-density explosion such as
nuclear explosions is the primary cause.

Causes of Earthquakes

• It is caused due to the tectonic movements of the earth.

• The energy release produces waves that travel in all directions.

• The point where energy is released is called the focus or

hypocentre. It is generally located at a depth of 60 km.

• This causes a release of energy, and the energy waves travel in

all directions.

• The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an

earthquake or hypocentre.

• The point on the surface of the earth which is vertically above

the focus is called the epicentre. It is the first place to
experience the waves.
What are Seismic Waves?
The waves which are generated during an earthquake are known as
seismic waves. They are classified into 3 types:
1. Primary or Longitudinal waves are also known as P-
Waves: These are longitudinal waves analogous to the sound
waves.
2. Secondary or Transverse Waves are also known as S-
Waves: These are transversal waves analogous to the light waves.
3. Surface or Long-period Waves are also known as L-
Waves: They originate when ‘P’ wave hits the surface.
What is Seismograph?
The instrument which is sensitive to the seismic waves and helps to
measure the intensity of the earthquake is called Seismograph.
There are different scales that are used to measure the intensity of
earthquakes namely: Rossi-Forel Scale, Mercalli Scale, and
Richter Scale.

Further, let us tell you that the lines joining the regions of same
seismic intensity are called Isoseismal lines and the lines joining
the places which experience the tremors of the earthquake at the
same time are known as Homoseismal lines.
List of Earthquake (Seismic) Zones in India
Based on the past seismic history, Bureau of Indian Standards
grouped the country into four seismic zones namely Zone-II, Zone-
III, Zone-IV and Zone-V. Of all these four zones, Zone-V is the most
seismic active region whereas Zone-II is the least.

Seismic Zone Intensity on M.M Scale

Zone-II (Low-Intensity Zone) 6 (or less)

Zone-III (Moderate Intensity Zone) 7

Zone-IV (Severe Intensity Zone) 8

Zone-V (Very Severe Intensity

9 (and above)
Zone)

Regions that fall under the Earthquake (seismic) Zones in India

Zone-V covers entire northeastern India, some parts of Jammu and
Kashmir, some parts of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, some parts of North Bihar and Andaman
& Nicobar Islands.
Zone-IV covers remaining parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh and
Himachal Pradesh, Union Territory of Delhi, Sikkim, northern
parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, parts of Gujarat
and small portions of Maharashtra near the west coast and
Rajasthan.
Zone-III comprises of Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep islands, remaining
parts of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal, parts of Punjab,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
Zone-II covers remaining parts of the country.
Volcanoes
A volcano is a landform, a mountain, where molten rocks erupt
through the surface of the planet. The volcano mountain opens
downwards to a pool of molten rocks underneath the surface of the
earth.

Pressure builds up in the earth’s crust and this is the reason why
eruptions occur. Gases and igneous rocks shoot up and splash over
or fill the air with lava fragments. The volcano eruption can cause
hot ash, lateral blasts and lava flow, mudslides, and more.
Formation of Volcanoes:

A volcano mountain is formed by the surface eruption of magma

from within the earth’s upper mantle. The magma that erupts to the
surface and forms a lava flow that deposits ash. As the volcano
continues to erupt, a new layer of lava is added to the surface
accumulating to form a mountain.
Different Stages of Volcanoes:

They tend to be conical although there are a variety of forms,

depending upon:

• The nature of the material erupted

• The type of eruption

• The amount of change since the eruption

Volcanoes are categorized into three main categories:

• Active Volcanoes: A volcano will be classified as an active

volcano if at the present time it is expected to erupt or is
erupting already.

• Dormant Volcanoes: The classification of volcanoes which is

called dormant would be a volcano that is not erupting or
predicted to erupt in the near future.

• Extinct Volcanoes: An extinct volcano is a volcano that no

one expects will ever have another eruption.
Types of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature of eruption and the
form developed at the surface.

Reason Behind the Eruption of Volcanoes:

The volcano eruption begins with the formation of magma in the

lower section of the earth’s crust. The earth’s crust is made up of
massive slabs called plates, which fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.
The friction during the movement of plates causes earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.

List of active volcanoes in the world

There are active volcanoes in every part of the world. There are
about 1,500 active volcanoes, many in the region of the Pacific
Ocean. The Pacific “Ring of Fire” is an arc around the Pacific Ocean
where there are 400+ volcanoes. Apart from Pacific Ring of Fire,
active volcanoes are also found in Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic
Ocean and other places.

• Barren Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India

• Erta Ale, Ethiopia
• Fuego, Guatemala
• Heard Island and McDonald Islands in Antarctica
• Kilauea, Hawaii
• Lakagigar in Iceland
• La Palma in the Canary Islands
• Loihi, Hawaii
• Mount Erebus in Antarctica
• Mount Etna in Italy
• Nisyros in Greece
• Soufrière Hills on the Caribbean island of Montserrat
• Stromboli in Italy
• Teide in Spain (Canary Islands)
• Vesuvius in Italy

List of dormant volcanoes

Dormant volcanos are the volcanoes that are quiet, but might
possibly erupt again.

• Mauna Kea in Hawaii, the United States

• Mount Edziza in Canada
• Western Victorian Volcanic Plains in Australia
• Trou aux Cerfs in Mauritius
• Mount Hood in Oregon, the United States

List of extinct volcanoes

Extinct volcanoes includes volcanoes which scientists consider

unlikely to erupt again. A volcano which has not erupted in the past
10,000 years is often listed as extinct.

• Ben Nevis, United Kingdom.

• Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain in the northern Pacific Ocean
• Huascarán in Peru
• Kyushu-Palau Ridge in the Philippine Sea
• Mount Buninyong in Australia
• The Nut in Australia
• Tamu Massif in the Northwest Pacific Ocean
• Waw an-Namus in Lybia
• Edinburgh Castle in Scotland
• Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania
Longitudes and Latitudes
 • Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary lines used to
determine the location of a place on earth.
• The shape of the earth is ‘Geoid’. And the location of a place
on the earth can be mentioned in terms of latitudes and
longitudes.
• Example: The location of New Delhi is 28° N, 77° E.

Latitude
• Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s
surface, measured in degrees from the center of the earth.
• As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear
distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is a little longer
than that at the equator.
 • For example at the equator (0°) it is 68.704 miles, at 45° it is
69.054 miles and at the poles it is 69.407 miles. The average
is taken as 69 miles (111km).
• 1 mile = 1.607 km.

Important parallels of latitudes

• Besides the equator (0°), the north pole (90°N) and the south
pole (90° S), there are four important parallels of latitudes–
• Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the northern hemisphere.
• Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the southern hemisphere.
• Arctic circle at 66½° north of the equator.
• Antarctic circle at 66½° south of the equator.

Longitude
• Longitude is an angular distance, measured in degrees along
the equator east or west of the Prime (or First) Meridian.
 • On the globe longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that
run from pole to pole passing through the equator. Such lines
are also called
• Unlike the equator which is centrally placed between the
poles, any meridian could have been taken to begin the
numbering of longitude. It was finally decided in 1884, by
international agreement, to choose as the zero meridian the
one which passes through the Royal Astronomical
Observatory at Greenwich, near London.
• This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which all other
meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to 180°.
• As the parallels of latitude become shorter poleward, so the
meridians of longitude, which converge at the poles, enclose a
narrower space.
• They have one very important function, they determine local
time in relation to G.M.T. or Greenwich Mean Time, which
is sometimes referred to as World Time.

Longitude and Time

• Since the earth makes one complete revolution of 360° in one

day or 24 hours, it passes through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4
minutes.
• The earth rotates from west to east, so every 15° we go
eastwards, local time is advanced by 1 hour. Conversely, if we
go westwards, local time is retarded by 1 hour.
• We may thus conclude that places east of Greenwich see the
sun earlier and gain time, whereas places west of
Greenwich see the sun later and lose time.
• If we know G.M.T., to find local time, we merely have to add or
subtract the difference in the number of hours from the given
longitude.
 Atmosphere
• An atmosphere is a layer of gas or layers of gases that
envelope a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the
planetary body

• The atmosphere of Earth is

composedof nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%), carbo
n dioxide (0.04%) and trace gases
Horizontal division of Atmosphere
 Winds
What is wind?

The moving air which is caused due to the differences in air

pressure in the atmosphere is called wind. Wind flows from high
air pressure to low air pressure areas which balances the
disparities in air pressure. The pressure difference is directly
proportional to the speed of wind which means the more significant
the pressure difference of windows the faster the wind flows.

Types of Wind
There are three main types of wind, mentioned in the table below:

Types of Wind

S.No Type
1. Permanent Winds

2. Seasonal Winds

3. Local Winds

Type of Wind – Permanent Winds

The winds that blow constantly throughout the year are

called Permanent Winds. They also blow constantly in a
particular direction. There are types of permanent winds:

1. Trade Winds – These are permanent winds flowing

from east-to-west. It flows in the Earth’s equatorial
region (between 30°N and 30°S latitudes). These winds
are known as tropical easterlies which blow from the
right of the northern hemisphere to the left of the
southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect and
Ferrel’s law. The wind starts from the subtropical
high-pressure areas towards the low-pressure
equatorial belt. In the Northern hemisphere, the trade
wind flows as northeastern trades and in the southern
hemisphere, the blow s South Eastern trades.
2. Westerlies – These are prevailing winds that flow from
the west towards the east. It flows in the Earth’s
middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude.
This type of wind is known as shrieking sixties, furious
fifties, and boring forties. The flow of these types of
wind goes from subtropical high-pressure belts to
subpolar low-pressure belts. The Westerlies that were
from the southern hemisphere are more strong and
more constant than the Westerlies that flow from the
northern hemisphere.
 3. Polar Easterlies- This type of wind is cold and
permanently dry. The flow of this type of wind goes
from North East to the Southwest direction in the
Northern hemisphere and the southeast to the
Northwest in the southern hemisphere. The pressure
flow in the eastern goes from high-pressure polar
areas to the sub-polar lows.

2. Seasonal Winds
The winds that change their direction with onsets of
different seasons.These are hence called as Seasonal
Winds.

1. Monsoon Winds

A monsoon is a type of seasonal wind in low-latitude

climates that seasonally changes direction between winter
and summer. Monsoon is prevalent in India. The monsoon
winds reverse their direction periodically between summer
and winter and they generally flow in low latitude climates.
The flow of monsoon wind goes from the land in winter and
from water to land in summer. This unusual flow of wind
results in severe changes in temperature, climate, and
precipitation of the area. The temperature differences of the
monsoon winds are caused by the Indian Ocean, Arabian
Ocean, Bay of Bengal, and the Himalayan walls forming the
basis of the monsoon.

2. Land Breeze – It is a wind that flows from the land towards the
sea. It flows often at night. Sea Breeze – It is a wind that blows
towards land from the direction of a large water body. Sea breeze
develops due to differences in air pressure created by the differing
heat capacities of water and dry land.

3 Anabatic Winds – (Valley breeze) These Winds are upslope

winds driven by warmer surface temperatures on a mountain slope
than the surrounding air column. Katabatic Winds – (Mountain
breeze) Katabatic winds are downslope winds created when the
mountain surface is colder than the surrounding air and creates a
downslope wind.
Local Winds

List of Names of Local Winds of the World

Name Region

Abrolhos Brazil

Alisio Carribean

Alize Central Africa and the Caribbean

Barguzin wind Russia

Berg South Africa

Harmattan Central Africa

Ghibli Libya

Loo India, Pakistan

Pampero Argentina, Uruguay

Föhn or foehn Alps, North Italy

Chinook Rocky Mountains

Roaring Forties Southern Hemisphere

Southerly Buster Sydney

Name Nature of wind Place

Chinook (Snow eaters) Hot, dry wind The Rockies mountains
Foehn Hot, dry wind The Alps
Khamsin Hot, dry wind Egypt
Siroco Hot, moist wind Sahara to the Mediterranean Sea
Solano Hot, moist wind Sahara to the Iberian Peninsula
Harmattan (Guinea Doctor) Hot, dry wind West Africa
Bora Cold, dry wind Blows from Hungary to North Italy
Mistral Cold wind The Alps and France
Punas Cold dry wind The western side of Andes Mountain
Blizzard Cold wind Tundra region
Purga Cold wind Russia
Levanter Cold wind Spain
Norwester Hot wind New Zealand
Santa Ana Hot wind South California
Karaburun (black storm) Hot dusty wind Central Asia
Calima Dust-laden dry wind Saharan Air Layer across the Canary Islands
Elephanta Moist wind in monsoon Malabar coast

Vertical Structure of Atmosphere

The structure of the atmosphere is represented in a pictorial form
below:
There are five layers in the structure of the atmosphere depending
upon temperature. These layers are:

• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
• Exosphere

Troposphere

• It is considered as the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.

• The troposphere starts at the surface of the earth and goes up

to a height of 8 kms (poles) to 18 kms (equator).The main
 reason of higher height at the equator is due to presence of hot
convection currents that push the gases upward.

• All kinds of weather changes occurs within this layer.

• This layer has water vapor and mature particles.

• Temperature decreases with increasing height of

atmosphere at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 165 m of
height. This is called Normal lapse rate.

• Tropopause, the transitional zone, separates Troposphere and

Stratosphere.

Stratosphere

• It is the second layer of the atmosphere found above the

troposphere.
• It extends up to a height of 50 km from the earth’s surface.
• This layer is very dry as it contains little water vapour.
• This layer provides some advantages for flight because it is
above stormy weather and has steady, strong, horizontal
winds.
• The ozone layer is found in this layer.
• The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and safeguards earth from
harmful radiation.
• Stratopause separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.

Mesosphere

• The Mesosphere is found above the stratosphere.

• It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.
• The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of Earth
and goes up to 80 km.
• The temperature drops with altitude in this layer.
• By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius.
 • Meteors burn up in this layer.
• The upper limit is called Mesopause which separates
Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

Thermosphere

• This layer is found above Mesopause from 80 to 400 km.

• Radio waves that are transmitted from the earth are reflected
by this layer.
• The temperature starts increasing again with increasing height
in this layer.
• Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.

Ionosphere

• The lower Thermosphere is called the Ionosphere.

• The ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known
as ions.
• This layer is defined as the layer of the atmosphere of Earth
that is ionized by cosmic and solar radiation.
• It is positioned between 80 and 400 km above the
Mesopause.

Exosphere

• It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.

• The zone where molecules and atoms escape into space is
mentioned as the exosphere.
• It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km.
 Hydrosphere

1. The hydrosphere includes water on earth in Oceans, Seas,

Rivers, Lakes and even in frozen forms.
2. Only 2.5% of Earths water is freshwater. And even in this
2.5%; approximately 69% is in the form of snow and ice.
3. 97.5% of Earths water is salt water, which is unfit for
human consumption.
4. Approximately 71% of the Earth surface is covered by
oceans.

Oceans
WHAT IS AN OCEAN?

• The term ocean derived from the Greek word “Oceanus” means
enormous river encircling the earth.
• Oceans are huge bodies of water generally separated by
continents.
• An ocean represents a far larger body of open water than a sea.
Oceans are vast bodies of water that cover over 70% of the
Earth's surface,
• In terms of geography, seas are smaller than oceans and are
usually located where the land and ocean meet. Typically, seas
are partially enclosed by land. Seas are found on the margins of
the ocean and are partially enclosed by land
• Five major oceans in the world -Pacific Ocean, Atlantic
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean.

•
•

1. The Five Major Oceans in order of their size are

Pacific Ocean: -

It is almost circular in shape. Asia, Australia, North and

South Americas surround it.
The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean, around 15 times the
size of the United States. With 25,000 islands in the region,
the ocean also contains the most biodiversity waters in the
world – thanks to the Coral Triangle. Even though the
Pacific Ocean is best known for its incredible fauna, it also
contains an incredible array of plants and coral reefs.
Size: 165.25 million square kilometres
Average depth: 4,280 metres
Deepest Point: Mariana Trench, 10,911 metres
Surface temperature: From -1.4ºC in poleward areas to
30ºC near to the equator
Covers: 30.5% of Earth’s total surface area
Boundaries: Asia, Australia, the Americas
Notable dive locations: Great Barrier Reef, Lembeh Strait,
Komodo, Sipadan, Palau, Malapascua, Tubbataha, Chuuk
Lagoon, Raja Ampat
Interesting facts:
• 60% of the world’s fish come from The Pacific Ocean
• The Pacific Ocean shrinks in size by just over two
centimetres each year
• The Pacific Ocean Basin is home to 75% of the world’s
volcanoes
• There are more than 25,000 islands in the Pacific

Atlantic Ocean: -

the Atlantic Ocean: It is the second-largest ocean in the

world. It is ‘S’ shaped. It is flanked by the North and South
Americas on the western side, and Europe and Africa on
the eastern side.

Containing most of our planet’s shallow seas – but with

relatively few islands – the Atlantic Ocean is a relatively
narrow body of water that snakes between nearly parallel
continental masses, the Americas, Europe and Africa.
Famed for offering incredible encounters with large pelagics
in the Caribbean, Mediterranean, Baltic, and the Gulf of
Mexico. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, that runs roughly down
the centre of the ocean, separates the Atlantic Ocean into
two large basins.
Size: 82.36 million square kilometres
Average depth: 3,339 metres
Deepest Point: Puerto Rico Trench, 8,605 metres
Surface temperature: From -2 ºC in the polar regions to
over 30 ºC north of the equator
Covers: 20.8% of Earth’s total surface area
Boundaries: The Americas, Europe, Africa and Antarctica
Notable dive locations: Grand Bahama, Cozumel, Grand
Cayman, British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, Bonaire, The
Great Blue Hole, Honduras
Interesting facts:
• The name Atlantic comes from the Greek
word Atlantikos which was known in the English
language at the time, as the Sea of Atlas
• The Atlantic Ocean is the world’s saltiest sea with a water
salinity level of between 33 – 37 parts per thousand
• It’s the world’s youngest ocean, formed long after the
Pacific, Indian and Arctic Oceans of the Triassic Period
• Home to the earth’s largest mountain range, The Mid
Atlantic Ridge, which is 40,000 kilometres long by 1,601
kilometres wide – dividing the ocean into two distinct east
and west regions
• The Atlantic is famous for being the home of the
legendary area known as the Bermuda Triangle, an
area renowned for the mysterious disappearance of
several aircraft and ships

Indian Ocean: -

the Indian Ocean: It is the only ocean named

after a country, that is, India. The shape of the
ocean is almost triangular. In the north, it is bound
by Asia, in the west by Africa and in the east by
Australia.

The Indian Ocean is enclosed on three sides by landmasses

of Africa, Asia, and Australia. The southern border is wide
open and exchanges with the much colder Southern
Ocean. With relatively few islands, the continental shelf
areas tend to be quite narrow and not many shallow seas
exist. Some of the major rivers flowing into the Indian
Ocean include the Zambezi, Indus, and the Ganges.
Because much of the Indian Ocean lies within the tropics,
this basin has the warmest surface ocean temperature.

Size: 73.56 million square kilometres

Average depth: 3,960 metres
Deepest Point: Sunda Deep, 7,450 metres
Surface temperature: N/A
Covers: 14.4% of Earth’s total surface area
Boundaries: Africa, Asia, Australia/Oceania
Notable dive locations: Seychelles, Oman, Maldives,
Musandam, Bali
Interesting facts:
• The ocean is the warmest ocean in the world and offers
little scope to plankton and other species for growth
• It is estimated that approximately 40% of the world’s oil
comes from the Indian Ocean
• There was a discovery of a submerged continent in the
Indian Ocean named the Kerguelen Plateau, it is believed
to be of volcanic origins
• The Ocean’s water evaporates at an abnormally high rate
due to its temperature
• Every year it is estimated that the Indian Ocean becomes
approximately 20 centimetres wider
•

Southern Ocean
Compared to the other five oceans, the floor of the
Southern Ocean is quite deep – ranging from 4,000 to
5,000 metres below sea level over most of the area that it
occupies. In September of each year, a mobile icepack
situated around the Antarctic reaches its greatest seasonal
extent covering around 19 million square kilometres– later
in March the icepack shrinks by almost 85%.
Size: 20.3 million square kilometres
Average depth: 4,496 metres
Deepest Point: South Sandwich Trench, 7,235 metres
Surface temperature: -2 to 10 ºC
Covers: 4.0% Earth’s total surface area
Boundaries: Antarctica
Notable dive locations: Polar diving in Antarctica
Interesting facts:
• The world’s largest penguin species, the emperor
penguin, lives on the ice of the Southern Ocean and on
the Antarctica continent. Along with the world’s largest
animal, the blue whale, who often calls these waters
home
• Antarctica is home to 90% of the world’s ice. This
continent contained within the Southern Ocean’s
 boundaries is the windiest, driest and coldest continent
in the world
• Having been only officially recognised in 2000, there is
still some controversy as to whether it should be
considered a separate ocean or merely an extension of
the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans
• The ocean is the youngest of the five oceans at only 30
million years of age and formed when the continents of
South America and Antarctica completely split apart
• Clouds are brighter in the Southern Ocean due to large
plankton blooms, which release gases that allow water
droplets to spread out more thus creating more reflective
clouds
•

Arctic Ocean: -

the Arctic Ocean: It is located within the Arctic

Circle and surrounds the North Pole. The Bering
strait a narrow stretch of shallow water connects
it with the Pacific Ocean.

The world’s smallest and shallowest (on average) ocean is

also one of its most interesting. The crown of the world,
both above and below the waves, enchanting creatures
from narwhals to belugas sound out in the deep depths.

Size: 14.05 million square kilometres

Average depth: 1,050 metres
Deepest Point: Litke Deep in the Eurasian Basin, 5,450
metres
Surface temperature: Average -1.8 ºC
Covers: 2.8% of Earth’s total surface area
Boundaries: Europe, Asia, North America
Notable dive locations: Greenland, Baffin Island
Interesting facts:
• There are four whale species in the Arctic Ocean
including the bowhead whale, grey whale, narwhal, and
beluga whale
• When the ice of the Arctic Ocean melts it releases
nutrients and organisms into the water which promotes
the growth of algae. The algae feed zooplankton which
serves as food for the sea life
• Because of the Arctic Ocean’s low evaporation, large
freshwater inflow, and its limited connection to other
oceans it has the lowest salinity of all oceans. Its salinity
varies depending on the ice covers’ freezing and melting
• Icebergs often form or break away from glaciers posing a
threat to ships the most famous being the Titanic. Ships
also often get trapped or crushed by the ice
• Ice cover of the ocean is shrinking due to global warming,
and it has been observed that the rate of disappearance
of ice cover is 3% per decade
Pacific Ocean

• It is the world’s largest ocean.

• It is bigger than all the continents put together.
• It covers one-third of the earth’s surface area.
• The Pacific Ocean separates American continents from Asia and
Australia.
• The International Date Line passes through the Pacific Ocean.
• The Pacific Ocean joins the Indian Ocean through
the Indonesian Seaway.
• The average depth of this ocean is about 4280 m.
• The deepest Mariana trench located in the western Pacific
Ocean.

Atlantic Ocean
• It is the second largest ocean after Pacific.
• It covers about 20% of the earth’s surface.
• Its name is derived from the Greek mythology- Atlantis
Thalassa.
• It is an elongated S- shaped water body between Africa,
Europe and other continents
• Average depth of this ocean is about 3,646 m.
• Deepest trench in the Atlantic Ocean is Puerto Rico Trench.

Indian Ocean

• It is the only ocean in the world named after a country.

• It is named after India which makes up much of its northern
border.
• It lies in the eastern hemisphere.
• It covers about 19.8 % of water on the earth’s surface.
• It lies between Africa, Southern Ocean, Australia and Asia.
• It is landlocked a closed and warmest ocean.
• The largest island in the Indian ocean is Madagascar.
• Sunda trench/ is the deepest trench in the Indian ocean.

Southern Ocean

• Also known as the Antarctic Ocean.

• It comprises the southernmost waters of the world ocean.
• It is the fourth largest ocean in the world.
• It shares its northern boundary with the Atlantic, Indian and
Pacific Ocean.
• It is known for its violent storms.

Arctic Ocean

• The Arctic Ocean is shallower and smaller ocean.

• It lies entirely within the Arctic Circle.
• It covers about 1.3% of the earth’s water surface area.
• It is surrounded by Eurasia and North America.
• It is completely covered by ice in winter.
• The Molloy Deep is the deepest point in the Arctic Ocean.
 Distribution of Ocean Currents

It is a horizontal movement of seawater that is produced by

gravity, wind, and water density. Ocean currents play an
important role in the determination of climates of coastal regions.

Ocean currents refer to the steady movement or flow of surface

ocean water in a prevailing direction. Various forces act upon ocean
water, causing it to move. They include the wind, temperature,
breaking waves and at tides, and sometimes underground forces
like earthquakes.

Ocean currents are the movements of ocean water due to

gravity, the rotating earth (Coriolis effect),water density, the
sun, and wind. The various forces determine the size, speed
direction, and shape of ocean currents. The water can either move
horizontally – known as currents, or vertically – known as
downwellings or upwellings.

Causes of Ocean Currents

1. Solar heating

it causes water to expand. The water around the equator is roughly

8cm high than in middle latitudes. It causes a slight slope in the
water and it flows down the slopes. Warm water flows towards the
cold Polar Regions and cold water flows towards the warmer
equatorial regions.

2. Wind

The Wind is responsible for ocean currents as it blows the water on

the surface, causing the currents. The wind is responsible for
surface currents where ocean water is redistributed based on its
density and temperature.

3. Gravity

Gravity tends to pull items towards the surface of the earth. When
the wind blows on ocean water, the water piles up in the direction
of the wind. Gravity, therefore, pulls the water down the ‘hill’
against the pressure gradient.

4. The salinity of the water

When water moves towards the poles, it gets cold and freezes into
ice, leaving a share of salt behind. It makes the underlying water
saltier, making it denser. The cold, saltier and denser water sinks to
the floor of the ocean and is replaced by surface water in the
process.

5. Temperature Warm water tends to stay on the surface of the

ocean. When the denser, saltier, and cold water moves towards the
equator, where it is warmer, it warms up and becomes less dense,
rising to the surface of the ocean, resulting in upwellings.

6.Coriolis effect

It refers to the rotation of the earth. It produces forces on all bodies

moving relative to the earth. As the earth is spherical, the forces are
greatly felt at the poles and least at the equator.

7. Underwater earthquakes

They can trigger ocean currents, moving masses of water inland.

Earthquakes can also trigger down slope movements of water-
saturated sediments, resulting in strong turbidity currents.

The ocean currents are distributed across five oceans. The list of
important ocean-wise currents is given below:

1. There are two types of ocean currents:

List of Cold Currents

Cold Ocean Current Region Important or Additional Facts
Humboldt or Peruvian South Pacific The Current is named after Prussian
Current Ocean naturalist Alexander Von Humboldt.
This low-salinity current has a large
marine eco-system serves as one of the
major nutrient systems of the world.
Flows from the southernmost tip
of Chile to northern Peru, along the west
coast of South America.
Kurile or Oya shio Current North Pacific This sub-arctic ocean current circulates in
 Ocean a counterclockwise direction.
It originates in the Arctic Ocean flows
south via the Bering Sea in the western
North Pacific Ocean.
It is a nutrient-rich current.
It collides with Kurioshio off the Japanese
eastern shore to form North Pacific Drift.
California Current Pacific Ocean It is the extension of Aleutian Current
along the west coast of North America in
southward flowing direction.
It is a part of North Pacific Gyre.
Region of strong Upwelling.
Antarctic Circumpolar Southern It is the largest ocean current in the
Current Ocean world.
It is also known as West Wind Drift.
It flows from east to west
around Antarctica in a clockwise
direction.

Labrador Current North It flows from the Arctic Ocean towards the
Atlantic south and meets the warm northward
Ocean moving Gulf Stream.
The combination of cold Labrador Current
and warm Gulf Stream is known for
creating one of the richest fishing grounds
of the world.
Canary Current North This Eastern Boundary Current is a part
Atlantic of North Atlantic Gyre.
Ocean
It is named after the Canary Islands.
Presence of Upwelling.
Eastern Greenland Current Arctic Ocean Low salinity current extending between
& North Fram Strait and Cape Farewell.
Atlantic
It connects the Arctic directly to North
Ocean
Atlantic.
 Major freshwater sink for the Arctic.
It is a major contributor to sea-ice export
out of Arctic.
Benguela Current South Atlantic Branch of West Wind Drift of the Southern
Ocean Hemisphere.
Eastern portion of South Atlantic Ocean
Gyre.
Low salinity, presence of upwelling-
excellent fishing zone.
Falkland Current South Atlantic It is a branch of Antarctic Circumpolar
Ocean Current.
It is also known as Malvinas Current.
It is named after the Falkland Islands.
This cold current mixes with
warm Brazil current and form Brazil-
Malvinas Confluence Zone which is
responsible for the region’s temperate
climate.
Northeast Monsoon Current North Indian Indian North Equatorial Current flows
Ocean southwest and west, crossing the Equator.
Somali Current West Indian Analogous to the Gulf Stream in the
Ocean Atlantic Ocean.
The Current is heavily influenced by
monsoon.
Region of major upwelling system.
Western Australian Current Southern It is also known as West Wind Drift.
Ocean &
It is a part of Antarctic Circumpolar
South Indian
Current.
Ocean
It is a seasonal current- strong in summer
and weak in winter.
South Indian Ocean South Indian Analogous to South Atlantic Current
Current Ocean
List of Warm Currents
List of Warm Warm Region Important or Additional Facts
Ocean Current
North Equatorial Pacific Ocean &• Flows east to west between 10° N to 20°N.
Current Atlantic Ocean• It forms the southern side of the clockwise
sub-tropical gyre.
• It has no relation with the equator despite
the term “equatorial” being used in its
name.
Kuroshio Current Pacific Ocean • This west boundary current is also known
as Japan Current or Black Current. The
term “Kuroshio” in Japanese means
“Black Stream”.
• It is the Pacific analogue of Gulf Stream in
the Atlantic Ocean.
• The average surface temperature of this
current is warmer than the surrounding
ocean. This also helps in regulating the
temperature of Japan, which is relatively
warmer. Thanks to Kuroshio!
North Pacific Current Pacific Ocean • It is formed by the collision of Kurioshio &
Oyashio.
• It circulates counter-clockwise along the
Western North Pacific Ocean.
Alaskan Current North Pacific • It results from a northward diversion of a
Ocean part of the North Pacific Ocean.
• It forms two large eddies- Haida Eddies
and Sitka Eddy
Equatorial Counter Atlantic Ocean, • This wind-driven current flows west to
Current Pacific Ocean, east between 3°N-10°N.
 and the Indian • It is also called North Equatorial
Ocean Countercurrent.

El Nino Current Central & East- • Speed and strength of ocean currents
Central impacted by the occurrence of El Nino
Equatorial Pacific events.

Tsushima Current Sea of Japan • Branch of Kuroshio Current

South Equatorial Atlantic Ocean, • Directly driven by trade winds blowing

Current Pacific Ocean, from east to west.
and the Indian • Southern hemisphere counter-part of
Ocean North Equatorial countercurrent.

East Australian South-Western• Acts to transport tropical marine fauna to

Current Pacific Ocean habitats in sub-tropical regions along the
southeast Australian coast.
Florida Current South Atlantic• Flows around Florida Peninsula and joins
Ocean the Gulf Stream at Cape Hatteras.
&Caribbean Sea• Discovered in 1513 by Spanish explorer
Juan Ponce de León.
Gulf Stream North Atlantic• Western intensified current-driven mainly
Ocean by wind stress.
• It splits into North Atlantic Drift (crossing
Northern Europe & southern stream) and
Canary Current (recirculating of West
Africa).
Norwegian Current North Sea • This wedge-shaped current is one of the
(Atlantic Ocean) & two dominant Arctic inflows of water.
Barents Sea • It is a branch of North Atlantic Drift and
(Arctic Ocean) sometimes also considered as an
extension of the Gulf Stream.
Irminger Current North Atlantic• It is a part of the North Atlantic sub-polar
 Ocean gyre.
• It is named after the Danish vice-admiral
Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger.
Antilles Current North Atlantic • It flows past the island chain that
Ocean separates the Atlantic Ocean and the
Caribbean Sea.
• It is a part of North Atlantic gyre.
Brazilian Current South Atlantic • Flows along the south coast of Brazil till
Ocean Rio de la Palta.
• It joins cold Falkland Current at the
Argentine Sea making it a temperate sea.
Mozambique Current Indian Ocean• Flows between Mozambique and the island
of Madagascar along the African east coast
in the Mozambique Channel.
• Large anticyclonic Mozambique channel
eddies are formed.
Agulhas Current South-West • Largest western boundary ocean current.
Indian Ocean • Flows south along the east coast of Africa.

Southwest Monsoon Indian Ocean • It dominates the Indian Ocean during the
Current southwest monsoon season (June–
October).
• It is a broad eastward flowing ocean
current that extends into the Arabian Sea
and Bay of Bengal.

Tides
Tides are the “rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined
effects of gravitational forces exerted by the Moon, Sun, and
rotation of the Earth”. It is a proven fact that in comparison to the
Sun, the Moon is much smaller, although it is smaller than the Sun
its gravitational attraction is much greater than that of the Sun
because, the Moon is much closer to Earth than the Sun is. The
Moon being much closer to Earth than the Sun is causes the oceans
to bulge out in the direction of the Moon. This is known as the Tidal
Force.

The gravitational forces of the sun and the moon combined with the
rotation of the earth result in an alternate rise and fall of the sea
levels. At one particular place, it usually occurs twice on a lunar
day. The rise of the sea level is called the high tide, whereas
the fall is called the low tide. When the earth and
moon’s gravitational field are in a straight line, the influences of
these two fields become very strong and causing millions of gallons
of the water flow towards the shore resulting in the high tide
condition. Likewise, when the moon and earth’s gravitational fields
are perpendicular to each other, the influences of these fields
become weak, causing the water to flow away from the shore
resulting in a low tide condition.

There are two types of tides, high tides and low tides. A high tide is
when the tide is at its fullest, or when the water reaches its highest
level, whereas low tide is the opposite; it is when the tide is at its
lowest level. High tides and low tides occur twice each day, but
during the New Moon and Full Moon there is a drastic difference in
the high and low tides. The drastic difference in the high and low
tides during the New Moon and Full Moon are known as spring
tides. The opposite of spring tides is what is known as neap tides.

• Tides are periodic movements of ocean water due to the Moon

and Sun’s gravity. Tides are periodic movements of ocean
water due to the Moon and Sun’s gravity.
• There are two types of tides: High tide and Low tide which are
influenced by the gravitational pull of the Sun over the Moon's.
The tides are of great help to fishing. Tides at some places take
away the mud brought down by rivers and prevent silting.
 Top 5 highest tides in the world

Height (ft) Height (m)

Location

1 Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia 38.4 11.7

2 Ungava Bay, Quebec 32.0 9.8

3 Bristol Channel, UK 31.5 9.6

4 Cook Inlet, Alaska 30.3 9.2

5 Rio Gallegos, Argentina 29.0 8.8

Rainfall
Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that
have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and
then become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major
component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most
of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for
many types of ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric power
plants and crop irrigation.

Types of Rainfall

Rainfall has been classified into three main types based on the
origin –

• Convectional rainfall

• Orographic or relief rainfall

• Cyclonic or frontal rainfall

Convectional Rainfall –

• The air on getting heated becomes light and rises in convection

currents.
• As the air rises, it expands and drops the temperature and
subsequently, condensation takes place and cumulus clouds
are formed.

• Heavy rainfall with lightning and thunder takes place which

does not last long.

• Such rain is usually in the summer or the hotter part of the

day.

• This type of rainfall generally takes place in the equatorial

regions and internal parts of the continents,
predominantly in the northern hemisphere.

• This rainfall is usually associated with hail and graupel

•
2.Orographic Rainfall –

• When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is

forced to rise.

• The rising air expands, eventually, the temperature falls, and

the moisture gets condensed.

• The principal characteristic of this type of rain is that the

windward slopes get more rainfall.

• After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds

reach the other slope, they drop away, and their temperature
increases. Then their ability to take in moisture increases and
hence, these leeward slopes remain dry and rainless.

• The region situated on the leeward side is known as the rain-

shadow area.

•
3. Cyclonic Rainfall –

• Cyclonic activity causes cyclonic rain and it occurs along the

fronts of the cyclone.

• When two masses of air of unlike density, temperature, and

humidity meet then it is formed.

• The layer that separates them is known as the front.

• A warm front and the cold front are the two parts of the front.

• At the warm front, the warm lighter wind increases slightly

over the heavier cold air.

• As the warm air rises, it cools, and the moisture present in

it condenses to form clouds

• This rain falls gradually for a few hours to a few days.

Types of Rainfall based on Intensity

The types of rainfall based on intensity can be classified as:

1. Light rain – Rate of rain varies between 0 to 2.5 millimeters
2. Moderate rain – Rate of rain varies between 2.6 millimeters
to 7.6 millimeters
3. Heavy rain – Rate of rain is beyond 7.6 millimeters

Continental Geography
 EUROPE
Size: Second smallest continent in the world in area, after
America.
Situation: Europe is situated between Ural Mountains in the east
and the Atlantic Ocean in the west, in the west of Asia, and north
of Africa. To the north of Europe lies Arctic Ocean, to the south
lies the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea and the Caucasus
Mountains and to the East Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea.
Europe and Asia as one common landmass, is known as ‘Eurasia
 Important Mountains

MOUNTAIN VESUVIUS

• A volcanic mountain lying in Neples ALPS

(Italy.) • Lies in the south-eastern part of France and separates it from It
APPENNINES • Mount Blanc (4,807 m) is the highest peak of Alps, lies in Franc
• Mountain chain extending from the • The Alps acts as giant watershed in Switzerland.
western Alps to the southern tip of
MOUNT ETNA
mainland in Italy.
• A volcanic mountain of Sicily (Italy.)
• An example of limestone hillls,
• Example of parasitic volcanic cone.
which is well known for wine (Asti)
in piedmont district of Italy. DINARIC ALPS

VOSGES • Lies along the north-east coast of Adriatic Sea.

• Lies in France and separate it from

 Italy.

• An example of Block mountain.

CARPATHIAN

• Runnin in northwest-southeast
direction in the countries of Poland,
Ukraine and Romania.

BALKAN CAUCASUS
• Runs in east-west direction in • Lies to the north of Georgia, Azerbaijan.
Bulgaria.
• Separates Asia from Europe.
PINDUS
• Mount Elbrus in the Caucasus is the highest mountain peak of
• The barren limestone chain, runnine
BLACK FOREST
north west-southeast and rising to
• Block mountain of Germany.
2,500 m.
MOUNT STROMBOLI
• Constitutes the principal mountian
chain of Greece. • An example of composite volcanic cone.

URAL • Known as the ‘Light house of the Mediterranean’.

• Average height between 500 and 800

m.

• Forms the natural boundary

between Asia and

Important Peninsulas
NAME INFORMATION
Iberian Peninsula or Spanish Surrounded by Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean Sea
Plateau and Atlantic Ocean.

• Surrounded by Black Sea, Aegean Sea, and Adriatic Sea.

Balkan Peninsula
• Consist of Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania and Greece.
Kola Peninsula
• Surrounded by White Sea and Arctic Ocean in Russia.

Important Rivers of Europe

 Rivers of Italy Outflow
Po
Adriatic Sea
• The principal lowland of Italy is the fertile
 northern plain formed by the country’s longest
river the Po (.652 km) and its tributaries.

• South West flowing river of Italy

Tiber
Mediterranean Sea
Delta : Cuspate
Garrone Bay of Biscay
Loire Bay of Biscay

Seine English channel

NORTH FLOWING RIVERS FROM WEST

INFOMATION
TO EAST
Onega, N. Dvina, and Mezen Flows through European Plain into theWhite Sea.

SOUTH EAST FLOWING RIVER SOURCE OUTFLOW

Volga (Europe’s longest river, 3,690km) Valdas Plateau Caspian Sea
 Don Tula (Black Sea) Sea of Azov Rostov.
Dnepr Valdai Hill Black Sea
Dnester -- Black Sea
Danube

• If flows in Middle Europe through Austria,

Slovakia Hungary and the northern part
Black Forest (Germany) Black Sea
of Yogoslavia and Romania.

• It is the only river in the world which

touches or corsses right countries.

Important Seas

NAME LOCATION, (PART OF OCEAN)

Separates Europe from Africa, Strait of

Mediterranean Sea
Gibralter connects it to the Atlantic Ocean.

White Sea North of Russia, Arctic Ocean

Baltic Sea
North Sea
• Wide continental shelves of
North Sea, called as Dogger
Atlantic Ocean
Bank is one of the most
productive regions for fishing in East of the United Kingdom, Atlantic Ocean
the world.
• North sea is connected to the
Baltic Sea through Kiel Canal.

Irish Sea Lies between Great Britain and Ireland, Atlantic Ocean.
Adriatic Sea North east of Italy, Mediterranean Sea
Ionian Sea Lies between Greece and Italy, Mediterranean Sea.
Balck Sea Separates Europe from Asia
Sea of Azov South east of Ukraine, North of Black Sea
Sea of Marmara South westof Black Sea
 Lies between Greece and Anatolia Peninsula (Turkey),
Aegean Sea
Mediterranean Sea.

Important Straits
NAME SEPARATES CONNECTS
Strait of Gibralter
(Known as ‘Key to the Europe and Africa Mediterranean Sea with Atlantic Ocean.
Mediterranean’).
Sardina islands. (Italy) and
Strait of Bonifacio Tyrhenian Sea with Mediterranean Sea.
Corsica (France)
Strait of Messina Sicily and Peninsular Italy Tyrhenian Sea with Mediterranean Sea.
Strait of Otranto Italy and Balkan Peninsula Adriatic Sea with Ionian Sea.
Istanbul and Anatolia
Bosporus Strait Black Sea with Sea of Marmara.
Peninsula (Turkey)
Strait of Kerch Kerch (Ukraine) and Russia Sea of Azov with Black Sea.
Balkan Peninsula and
Dardanelles Strait Sea of Marmara with Aegean Sea.
Antolia Peninsula

Important Gulfs and Bays

NAME SEPARATES PART OF SEA OR OCEAN
Gulf of Riga Estonia and Latvia Baltic Sea
Gulf of Finland Finland and Estonia Baltic Sea.
Gulf of Bothnia Sweden and Finland Baltic Sea.
English Channel Britain and Spain Atlantic Ocean
Bay Biscay France and Spain Atlanic Ocean
Gulf of Lions Lies to the south of France Mediterranean Sea
AFRICA
Area: 3,03,35,000 sq. km (20.4% of total area Madagascar and other islands of
Africa)
Population : 778.5 million
Latitude : 37031'N to 34052'S Longitude : 25011'W to 51024'E
Size : Second largest continent after Asia and nine times the size of India.
Situation : Situated to the south of Europe and south west of Asia. It is bound
by the Meditarranean Sea in the north, the Atlantic Ocean in the west and
southwest, the Indian Ocean in the east and the Red Sea in the northeast.
Africa belongs to all the four hemispheres and bulk of the continent lies
in tropics. It is joined to Asia by the narrow isthmus of Suez and separated
from Eurasia at three diffirent points (Strait of Gibraltar, Suez Canal and Strait
of Bab-el-Mandeb). The only continent which is crossed by Tropic of Cancer,
Equator and Tropic of Capricorn
Africa is called as the “Dark Continent’ because the greater part of its
vast interior remained little known to the outside world until the last
century.
 Important Mountains and Plateaus:

Name Information

Atlas • Highest peak- Jbel Toubkal (4165m) located in High

Mountains
• Atlas Mountains.
Divided into
• Dominates in the rugged country of Morocco
five separate
running to • These mountains sweep across the centre from north
each other- • east to south-west and rising 2,750 m in the Middle
i. High (Haut) • Atlas to over 4,000 m in the High Atlas and to the
Atlas Mts
• south the Anti- Atlas (the uplifted edge of the Saharan
ii. Anti-Atlas
iii. Middle Atlas • platform) reaches 2,000 m.
iv. Sahara Atlas • An example of fold mountain.
v. Maritime
Atlas
Ethiopian
Highlands
• High plateau of volcanic origin.
Highest peak • The high plateau is split by the Great Rift vallyey along
: Ras Dashan
• a north east-southwest line.
(4,620 m) is the
Africa’s third • Source of the Blue Nite River.
highest peak.
Mt. Kenya
(5,200 m) • Africa’s second highest peak, volcanic in origin.

Mt. Elgon
(4,210 m) • Mighly peak of Kenya, lies on the Uganda border.

• Also known as Mount Kibo.

• It stands alone, not apart of mountain range.
• Africa’s highest peak locatedin Tanzania.
Mt. Kilimanjaro
(5,895 m) • An example of extinct volcanoes.
• Coffee is grown on the slopes of Kilimanjaro.
• Just 322 km from the equator, mountain peaks covered
• with perpetual snow throughout the year.

• High escarpment in Southeast Africa caused by lava flow.

• An example of continental plateau, formed due to
Drakensberg
Scarpland • epeirogenesis (continental building) movement.
• From the escarpment rim, the land slopes inwards
• down to the Kalahari desert in the north.

Mount • Situated near the Lake Mobutu or Lake Albert in Zaire.

Rouwenzori
(5,109 m) • Known as the ‘The Mountains of the Moon’.

Mount
Cameroon • Only active volcanic mountain of Africa, dominates the
(4,070 m)
 • coastline of Cameroon.
• Known for iron ore deposits.
• Wettest place in Africa along slopes of Mt. Cameroon.

Tibesti Massif • Desert Mountains which is situated in the south east of

(3,400 m)
• Sahara in Norhtern Chad.

Ahaggar Massif • Desert mountains of Algeria.

Bomi and Nibas

hills • The main hills of Liberia, known for Iron ore deposits.

Katanga • One of the largest copper and diamond producing region of

Plateau
• Zaire.

• The northern half of Nigeria consists of undulating

Jos Plateau • Jos Plateau which rises to over 1,500 m in the centre.
• Tin is the main mineral of this region.

Mount Sinai • Desert mountain of Egypt

• Lies between 150 top 300 N latitudes.

• The largest stretch of desert, which is 5150 km from east to west
• and at least 1610 km in area.
• Erg: Sandy desert of Sahara (9.1 sq. km) is undulating plain of
Sahara desert • sand, produced by wind deposition.
• Hamada: Rocky desert of Sahara is bare rock surface formed by
• deflation.
• Cities located in the desert fringe are Zinder (Niger), Timbuktu
• (Mali), Kano (Nigeria), and Kumasi (Ghana).

• Vast arid land of north-east of Africa in Libya.

Libyan desert
• Serir: Stony desert of Libya is covered with boulders, angular
 • pebbles and gravels which have been produced by high diurnal
• temperature range.

Arabian desert • Arid region of North-East Egypt.

• It is an extension of Sahara which occupies a third of the Sudan’s

Nubian desert
• territory in the north.

• A narrow, dune-covered desert belt, runs 1,600 km along the entire

Namib desert
• Atlantic Sea board of Namibia.

• Semi desert region of Botswana lies to the east of Namib desert.

Kalahari desert
• Home of one of the Africa’s oldest races, the Kalahari Bushmen.

Important Seas / Ocean Channels around Africa:

Name Location African Countries Along the Sea

Mediterranean Sea

• It separates Africa from

Europe. North of Africa Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.
• Region around are
known for its
distinct climate.
Red Sea
North East of
Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti.
• It separates Africa from Africa
Asia.
Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambiquei
Indian Ocean East of Africa
and South Africa

Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania,

Atlantic ocean West of Africa Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau,
Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia, Ivory
Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria,
 Camernoon, Equatorial Guniea, Gabon,
Congo, Zaire, Angola, Namibia, South
Africa.

East of Mozambique (West) and Madagascar

Mozambique Channel
Mozambique (East).

Important Gulfs and Bays

Name Location

South of Ivory coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria,

Gulf of Guinea Cameroon and Equatorial
Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean.

Walvis Bay West of Namibia, Atlantic Ocean

Maputo Bay South East of Mozambique, Indian Ocean.

Important Straits
Name Separates Connects

Mediterranean Sea with Atlantic

Strait of Gibraltar Europe from Africa
Ocean.

Djibouti (Africa)
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb Red Sea with Gulf of Aden.
from Yemen (Asia)

Coasts of Africa Countries

Sierra Leone and

Grain Coast
Liberia

Ivory Coast Ivory Coast

Gold Coast Ghana

Togo, Benin and

Slave Coast
Nigeria.
Important Lakes

Name Information

Lakes from South to North

• Southernmost lake which is located on the Zambezi

• River in Zambia. One of the biggest man-made lake wher
LakeKariba
commercial fishing is done.
• Largest producer of hydroelectricity in Africa.

• Rift valley lake, which lies along the Malawi, Mozambiqu

Lake Nayasa (Lake Malawi) • and Tanzania.
• Third largest lake in Africa.

Lake Mweru • A small lake which lies along the border of Democratic
 • Republic of Congo (Zaire) and Zambia.

• Rift valley lake which lies along the Tanzania, Zaire and
• Zambia.
• World’s second deepest lake (1435 m ) after Ozero,
Lake Tanganyika
• Baikal
• and also the second largest lake of Africa.
• It lies 2500 m above sea level.

• Located between Uganda and Democratic Republic

Lake Edward
• of Congo.

• Largest lake of Africa which is located between Uganda,

• Source of White Nile River.

Lake Victoria • It does not lie in the rift valley.

Area : 68,880 sq. km. • A large lake through which equator pass.
Max. depth : 80 m.
• World’s third largest lake after Caspian Sea and
• Lake Superior.
• It contains numerous islands coral reefs.

Lake Turkana (Lak Rudolf) • Rift valley lake of Kenya

• Lake situated in the Ethiopian highlands.

Lake Tana
• Source of Blue Nile River.

• Lake lies on the River Nile.

Lake Nasser • Man-made lake, which is located between Egypt and
• sudan.

• Largest lake (shallow fresh water lake) of Sahara in

Lake Chad • chad.
• Actually an example of deflation hollow which is formed
 • A lake of inland drainage where the Chari River drains.

• One of the largest man-made lakes on the River

Lake Volta
• Volta in Ghana

• Located in Djibouti.
Lake Assal
• The lowest point in Africa.

Important Rivers
North America
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern
Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can
also be considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas.

It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the

Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to
the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea.

North America is the third largest continent by area, following

Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa,
and Europe.
 • From south to north, it extends from 7°N to 85°N latitude and
east to west from 20°W to 179° W.
• In other words, its northern boundary is only about 500
kilometers away from the North Pole and its western boundary
only 10 kilometers away from the International Date Line.
• There are five time zones in North America.
• The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle passes through the
continent and the 100°W longitude cuts through the center of
the continent.
• This huge landmass includes three large countries – Canada,
the United States of America and Mexico, seven small states of
Central America, and the islands of the West Indies.
• The Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans surround North
America in the east, west, and north respectively.
• In the north-west, the Bering Strait separates it from Asia and
in the south-east, the Isthmus of Panama joins it to South
America. North America has a smooth coastline except for the
existing in the north-west.

Regional Divisions of North America

Region-wise North America can be classified into the following parts
which are listed below:

• Western Region
• Great Plains
• Canadian Shield
• Eastern Region
Western Region

Young mountains rise in the west. The most familiar of these

mountains are probably the Rockies, North America’s largest chain.
They stretch from the province of British Columbia, Canada, to the
U.S. state of New Mexico.

Great Plains

In the middle of the continent lies the Great Plain. Deep, rich soil
blankets are large areas of the plains in Canada and the United
States. Grain is grown in this region called the “Breadbasket of
North America,” feeds a large part of the world. The Great Plains are
also home to rich deposits of oil and natural gas.

Canadian Shield

The Canadian Shield is a raised but relatively flat plateau. It

extends over eastern, central, and northwestern Canada. The
Canadian Shield is characterized by a rocky landscape pocked by
an astounding number of lakes.

Eastern Region

This varied region includes the Appalachian Mountains and the

Atlantic coastal plain. North America’s older mountain ranges,
including the Appalachians, rise near the east coast of the United
States and Canada. These areas have been mined for rich deposits
of coal and other minerals for hundreds of years.
Major Physical Divisions of North America

• The Western Cordilleras

• The Central Lowlands
• The Eastern Highlands

The Western Cordilleras

• The parallel ranges of young fold mountains run from Alaska

and extend into South America as the Andes.
• As they resemble twisted cords they are known as Cordilleras.
• Fold mountains are formed when tectonic plates push the
Earth’s crust and force it to form ridges and valleys.
• Volcanic rocks from the base of fold mountains.
• The Cordilleras are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Mount St.
Helena is in the USA.
• The snow-covered Cordilleras act as a barrier to moisture-
laden winds and cause relief rainfall.
• Some of the rivers flow westwards and some eastwards with
the Cordilleras acting as the water divide between them.
• Rocky Mountains, Alaska Range, Cascades, Sierra Nevada,
and the Sierra Madre are the chief ranges of the Western
Cordilleras
• The Grand Canyon is a network of deep narrow valley cuts
into the dry Colorado Plateau.
• The Old Faithful” is a natural geyser (a hot waterspout). Once
in every 90 minutes, the water from the geyser comes out
roaring up to 60 meters high. It is found in Yellowstone
National Park.
The Central Lowlands

• These stretch from around the Arctic Shores and Hudson Bay
to the Gulf of Mexico.
• They are hemmed in by the Cordilleras in the west and the
highlands in the east.
• In the west, they are known as high plains because of the
greater altitudes.
• In the north, they form the Canadian Shield.
• The Canadian Shield is a peneplain with a number of lakes.
They are large enough to be called seas. They are the five
Great lakes – Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario.
• Lake Winnipeg, Great Bear Lake, and Lake Athabaska are also
on the Canadian Shield.
 • South of the Canadian Shield, the Central Lowlands are
covered with layers of sediment brought by glaciers and rivers.
It is a very fertile region.

Great Lakes of USA –

Importance of great lakes region

• Glacial lakes
• The largest freshwater system
• Together – they hold 1/5 th of the earth surface’s freshwater
• Source of drinking water, irrigation, transport, sulfide and iron
mining in the periphery

The Eastern Highlands

• They are old fold mountains that stretch from the valley of
River St. Lawrence to Southern USA.
• They are not high or as continuous as the Cordilleras.
 • The highlands are also known as the Laurentian highlands in
Canada and the Appalachians in the USA and are less than
2,000 meters in height.
• Their eastern slopes facing the Atlantic Ocean are very steep
causing waterfalls in the streams that flow to the coast.

Canadian Shield –

The Canadian Shield is a raised but relatively flat plateau. It

extends over eastern, central, and northwestern Canada. The
Canadian Shield is characterized by a rocky landscape pocked by
an astounding number of lakes.

Gulfs of North America

A gulf is a portion of the ocean that penetrates land which is very

large in size, shape, and depth. They are generally larger and more
deeply indented than bays and often make excellent harbors. Many
important trading centers are located on gulfs.

• Gulf of Mexico
• Gulf of Alaska
• Gulf of California
• Gulf of St. Lawrence

Gulf of Mexico
It is an important economic site for three countries and surrounded
by the United States, Mexico, and the island nation of Cuba. As one
of the biggest gulf, it has a coastline of 5000 kilometers.
Gulf of Alaska
It is situated in the northwestern part of North America where two
types of water run into each other, a light, almost electric blue
merging with a darker slate-blue.

Gulf of California
It separates the Baja California Peninsula from the Mexican
mainland. It has a coastline of 4000 km( 2600 miles). It is
considered to be one of the most diversified seas on the planet and
is home to more than 5,000 species of microinvertebrates.

Gulf of St. Lawrence

It is a water outlet of the North American Great Lakes via Saint
Lawrence river. It’s a semi-enclosed sea that covers 236,000 square
kilometers (91,000 sq mi) and containing about 35,000 cubic
kilometers (8,400 cu mi) of water, which results in an average depth
of 148 meters (486 ft).

Islands
The world famous islands of North America are:

Vancouver Island
It is situated on Canada’s Pacific Coast, is known for its mild
climate and thriving arts community. It is separated from British
Columbia mainland by the Strait of Georgia and Queen Charlotte
Strait and from Washington by the Juan De Fuca Strait.

Greenland
It is a massive island situated between Atlantic and Arctic oceans
and 80% of its land is covered by ice.
Prince of Wales Island
It is one of the islands of the Alexander Archipelago in the Alaska
Panhandle. This ranks four among the island in size.

Hawaii Island
It is otherwise known as the Big Island provides a vast canvas of
natural environment and it is the largest island of the Hawaiian
archipelago in the Central Pacific.

Cuba Islands of Antilles

It is known as the sugar bowl of the World and its vast source of
metallic resources include cobalt, nickel, iron ore, chromium, and
copper. Other resources include timber, petroleum, silica, salt, and
arable land.

Bermuda Island
It is the territory of the British Islands in North Atlantic and famous
for its pink sand beaches such as Elbow and Horseshoe Bay.

Drainage Pattern
There are many rivers in North America. River of North America can
be grouped according to the seas they drain into, like

• Rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico

• Rivers draining into the Atlantic Ocean
• Arctic Ocean drainage
• Pacific Ocean Drainage
1. The rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico

These are the Mississippi, Missouri and their tributaries drain the
whole of the lower Central Lowlands. They start from the Western
Cordilleras. The Ohino and Tennesse. Rivers which are also
tributaries of the Mississippi but have their source in the
Appalachians are exceptions.

2. Rivers draining into the Atlantic Ocean

River St. Lawrence is the large river of this group. In this group the
smaller rivers of the Fall Line can also be included.

3. Arctic Ocean drainage

River Mackenzie which has many shallow lakes on the Canadian
Shield. River Nelson flow into the Hudson Bay.

4. Pacific Ocean Drainage

River Yukon in Alaska, Columbia, Fraser, and Colorado along the

west coast. The Colorado River cuts across the Colorado plateau
and forms the world’s most famous and attractive deep gorges,
known as grand canons having nearly one km depth. Among the
other rivers, the Yukon, the Fraser, the Snake, the Humboldt, the
Sacramento, the San Joaquin, etc. are well known.

Seas in North America

Caribbean Sea

It is a sub-oceanic basin bordered by coasts of Venezuela,

Colombia, and Panama; to the west by Costa Rica, Nicaragua,
Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, and the Yucatán Peninsula of
Mexico; to the north
by the Greater Antilles islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and
Puerto Rico; and to the east by the north-south chain of the Lesser
Antilles, consisting of the island arc that extends from the Virgin
Islands in the northeast to Trinidad.
Beaufort Sea
It is situated in the north of Canada and Alaska is known to be the
marginal sea of Arctic Ocean covering an area of 184,000 sq. miles
and the average depth of 3,239 ft (1,004 m).

Hudson Bay
It is known as the second largest bay in the world which
encompasses an area of 1,230,000 square kilometer (470,000mi)
and large body of Salt water.

Labrador Sea
It is bordered by continental shelves and separates Canada from
Green Land.

Bering Sea
It is situated on the extreme North of North America separating the
continents of Asia and north America.
Inland Drainage System
The Great Basin area in the Rocky Mountains (Middle) has rivers
which do not reach the coast, but terminate in the land. This is the
Inland Drainage System.

The rivers are small, seasonal and end up in saline lakes.

Lakes in North America

• The Lakes of the Canadian Shield are freshwater bodies.

• The Great Salt Lake between the Rockies and the Sierra
Nevada has a high salt content and is an area of ‘Inland
drainage’.
• Lake Erie in Ontario, Canada, and Michigan, New York, Ohio,
Pennsylvania in the USA.
• Lake Huron in Ontario, Canada, and Michigan in the USA.
• Lake Ontario in Ontario, and New York in the USA.
• Lake St Clair in Ontario, and Michigan in the USA.
• Lake Superior in Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin in the USA.
 South America

.
• It stretched from 12°N to 55°S latitude.
• The Equator passes through the northern part of the
continent and the Tropic of Capricorn runs roughly
through the middle.
• Because of its tapering shape, a major part of the landmass is
in the tropics. South America lies on the west of the Prime
 Meridian. So the time at any place on this continent will be
some hours less than or behind the Greenwich Mean Time.
• The 60° meridian divides the continent lengthwise into
two halves. It is more to the east compared to North America
and is, therefore, closer to Europe and Africa. South America
is the fourth largest continent after Asia, Africa, and North
America.
• It is two-third the size of Africa and six times the size of
India. The coastline of South America is smooth with very few
inlets except in the extreme south-west where there are fiords
and many small islands.
• Fiords are deep inlets of the sea into mountains land. There
are a few large islands off the coast of South America.
• The Galapagos Islands near the Equator and the Juan
Fernandez Islands near Central Chile are in the Pacific Ocean.
• The Tierra del Fuego is in the Southern Ocean and the
Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. The island of
Trinidad is near Venezuela in the North Atlantic Ocean.
• The Andes is the longest mountain range in the world.
South America’s three southern countries – Argentina, Chile,
and Uruguay – constitute a region sometimes referred to as
the Southern Cone because of its pointed, ice-cream- cone-like
shaped.
• Landlocked Countries – Paraguay and Bolivia

South America includes 14 countries:

 1. Argentina
2. Bolivia
3. Brazil
4. Chile
5. Colombia
6. Ecuador
7. Falkland Islands (United Kingdom) i.e. (British Overseas
Territories)
8. French Guiana (France)
9. Guyana
10. Paraguay
11. Peru
12. Suriname
13. Uruguay
14. Venezuela.

Major Physical Divisions of South America

• The Pacific coastal strip

• Mountain Ranges
• The Central Lowlands
• The Eastern Highlands
1. The Pacific coastal strip

• It lies in the west, between the ocean and the Andes. It is the
longest coastal plain in the Atlantic world.
• In most places, it is about 80 kilometers wide but in some, it is
as narrow as 8 meters. The coastline of South America is
smooth and regular. At the river mouths, there are inlets that
are used as harbors.
• The south-western coast of the continent has fiords or deep
inlets of the sea.

Andes Mountains:
 • Forms the second-highest mountain systems in the world
and is next to the Himalayas
• Mount Aconcagua is the extinct volcano lies in Argentina
• Mount Ojas del Salado is the highest active volcano in the
world of Argentina
• Andes Mountains – A part of seven countries: Venezuela,
Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, Argentina.

2. Mountain Ranges

• The Andes stretches through the entire continent, running in

the north-south direction from Isthmus of Panama to Strait
of Magellan.
• They are the continuous range of folded mountain systems
that cover the entire western coast of South America.
• The Andes is the longest mountain range in the world. The
highest mountain of this mountain range is Aconcagua, which
stands at 6,962 meters (22,841 feet) and straddles the
Argentina-Chile border.
• They form a chain of ranges and knots with
enclosed intermontane plateaus namely in Ecuador and
Bolivia.
• Being part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, there are many volcanoes
and frequent earthquakes in this region. Mount Cotopaxi and
Mount Chimborazo are active volcanic peak, which is the
highest peak in South America.
Intermontane plateau – Bolivian plateau

Guiana Highlands:

an abundance of rain, tropical rainforest, gold, diamond, and iron

ore reserve. World’s highest fall – Angel’s fall on the Caroni River.

Plateau of Mato Grosso:

Ancient erosional plateau, savannah, cattle raising, gold, and

diamond reserve.
Plateau of Borborema:

Semi-arid, deciduous-thorny scrub

Brazilian highlands:

Lava plateau, Minas Garais region- iron and gold reserve.

3. The Central Lowlands

• They are formed by two great river systems – the Amazon- the
Orinoco and the Parana-Paraguay. The vegetation of the
lowlands is given special names.
• The Orinoco Basin has dense tropical forests. The northern
part is a plain covered with savanna grass called the Llanos.
• The equatorial jungle of the Amazon Basin is called the selvas,
a typical tropical rain forest.
• The rich temperate grasslands around the mouth of the
Parana-Paraguay is the pampas.
• At the source of these rivers is a region scrub forest called the
Gran Chaco.

4. The Eastern Highlands

• These are plateaus made up of hard old rocks.

• The River Amazon separates them into the Guiana Highland to
the north and the Brazilian Highland to the south.
 • They have been worn down by wind, rain, and rivers. They
have steep cliffs along the east coast and slope gently towards
the Central Plains.
• The savanna grasslands of Brazilian Highlands are
the Campos.
• Towards the Central Lowlands, it is known as the plateau of
Matogrosso.
• The Eastern highlands consists of Igneous and Metamorphic
rocks.

Highlands are split in to three regions:

1. Brazilian Highlands
2. Guiana Highlands
3. Patagonian Plateau

Guiana Highlands

• It is a geographically stunning part of Planet Earth, over 1,000

miles in length, the Highlands stretch from southern
Venezuela across the northern edge of South America to the
tip of Brazil.
• It consists of a vast plateau, one marked by deep gorges,
tropical rain forests, numerous rivers, and waterfalls. It’s
famed for the highest waterfall in the world (Angel Falls) at
3,212 ft (979 m) high. The highest point is Mt. Roraima on the
borders of Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela at 2,810 m.
Brazilian Highlands

• This highlands region is about 800 miles in length and runs

through the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Goias, Bahia,
and Sao Paulo in southeastern Brazil. The magnificent
landscape includes varied mountain ranges, namely the Serra
de Mantiquiera, Serra do Paranapiataba, Serra Geral, and
Serra do Mar.

Patagonian Plateau

• It is located between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean, and

about 1,000 miles in length; Patagonia stretches south from
the Rio Negro river in southern Argentina to Tierra del Fuego
and the Strait of Magellan. It’s mostly rugged, barren land,
famed for its beauty and striking scenery.

Deserts of South America

• Patagonian Desert – the largest desert by area located in

Argentina
• La Guajira Desert – a desert in northern Colombia and some
of northwestern Venezuela
• Atacama – a desert in Chile, the driest place on Earth.
• Sechura Desert – a desert located along a portion of the
northwestern coast of South America
• Monte Desert – in Argentina, a smaller desert above the
Patagonian desert.
Drainage System of South America

• The Amazon Basin

• The Rio de Plata Basin
• The Orinoco Basin
• The Sao Francisco Basin

The Amazon Basin

• It is the basin of River Amazon.

• Its length is second to that of the Nile river of Africa.
• It has the largest flow of water in the world.
• The river drains nearly 40 per cent of the area of South
America.
• The major tributaries of the Amazon river are the Caqueta, the
Jurua, the Madeira, the Negro, etc.
 • Equatorial rainforest
• Navigable till Manaus
• Petroleum at mouth
• Natural Rubber
• Amazon rainforest – deforestation due to cattle ranching and
soya beans field.

The Rio de Plata basin

• This basin is second in size to that of the Amazon.

• The main rivers which form the Basin of Rio de Plata are the
river Paraguay, the Parana, and the river Uruguay.
• River Parana (4,879 km) rises from Minas Gerais from a water
divide Carino.

The Orinoco basin

• This is considered to be the third-largest drainage system of
South America.
• It rises in the Southern end of Sierra Parima near Mount
Delgado Chalboud at a height of 1000 meters.
• It traverses 2,740 km to meet the Atlantic ocean.
• The word the Orinoco means ‘a place to paddle’, i.e. a river
where navigation is possible.
• In the North, the Orinoco river passes through a zone called
‘Region of Rapids’ where there are enormous granite boulders.
• The world’s highest waterfall Angel (979 m) is situated on
river Churun which is a tributary of river Caroni which is
further a tributary of river Orinoco.
• The Orinoco flows through the llanos (savanna grasslands) of
Venezuela into the (North Atlantic Ocean).
Parana river system –

• From source to its junction with Paraguay – known as Alto

Parana
• Numerous waterfalls in alto Parana – then navigable
• Useful for HEP, irrigation
• Wheat cultivation in Pampas region

Uruguay river system –

• Joins Parana river – to form Rio de la Plata estuary

• Important for irrigation and HEP
• Not useful for navigation due to numerous rapids

The Sao Fancisco basin

• The fourth-largest river system of South America is the river

Sao Francisco which is about 2,914 km in length. It flows
within Brazil.
• It originates North-west of the city of Belo Horizonte.

Rivers of South America

• Amazon River
• Orinoco River
• Magdalene River
• Parana-Rio de la Plata
 • Tocantins-Araguaia
• Sao Francisco River
• Paraguay and Uruguay Rivers.

Important Lakes and Islands

NAME LOCATION

North of Venezuela, is one of the major oil p

Lake Maracaibo (12,950 sq. km)
region.Largest lak of South America.
 Situated between Bolivia and Peru.
Lake Titicaca (12,500 feet above sea level)
Highest navigable lake in the world.

Lies in the Altiplano (high Plateau

Lake Popo between the Andes mountain chain) in

Bolivia.

Home of many unique species of reptiles

Galapagos Islands
(turtles), birds and fishes.

Galapagos Islands
 ASIA
Asia is the world largest continent, having an area of 44,444,100
sq km.

It covers 8.8% of the Earth’s total surface area with a population of

4.4 billion which is 60 % of the world’s total population.

It is a continent of contrast in relief, temperature, vegetation and

people also.

Asia is to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural
Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains and the
Caspian and Black Seas.

It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by

the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean.

The earth’s highest and lowest places are both in Asia:

• The highest place on earth: Mount Everest

• The lowest place on earth: Dead Seashore

Regional Divisions of Asia

Asia can be divided into six physiographic divisions:

Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,

Uzbekistan
Eastern Asia: China, Hong Kong, Japan, North Korea, South Korea,
Macau, Mongolia, Taiwan

Northern Asia: Russia

South-eastern Asia: Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos,

Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Vietnam.

Southern Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives,

Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.

Western Asia: Armenia, Azerbaijana, Bahrain, Cyprus, Georgia,

Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, State of
Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab
Emirates, Yemen.

Major Physical Divisions of Asia

• The Northern Lowlands

• The Central Mountains
• The Central and Southern Plateaus
• The Peninsulas
• Deserts
• The Great River Plains
• Island Groups

1. The Northern Lowlands

The Northern Lowlands are the extensive plain areas that
comprise of several patches of lowlands of this large continent.
The major lowlands are:

Great Siberian plain

• It extends between the Ural Mountains in the west and the river
Lena in the east. It is the largest lowland in the world covering an
area of 1,200,000 square miles approx.

Manchurian Plain

• It is the area adjoining Amur river and its tributaries of

the northern part of China with an area of 135,000 square
miles approx.

Great Plains of China

• It is contributed by two major rivers of China, Hwang Ho

and Yangtze river which covers an area of 158,000 square
miles approx.

2. The Central Mountains

• These are the prominent and extensive mountain ranges that cover the
parts of Central Asia.
• They consist of Pamir and Tian Shan ranges and extending across
portions of Afghanistan, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and
Uzbekistan.
• These mountain ranges are designated as biodiversity hot spots by
Conservation International which covers several montanes and alpine
ecoregions of Central Asia.
 • It encompasses several habitat types, including montane grasslands and
shrublands, temperate coniferous forests, and alpine tundra.
• A mountain knot is a junction of two or more mountain ranges. The
two main mountain knots in Asia are:
• The Pamir Knot is the junction of five mountain ranges they are the
Sulaiman, the Hindu Kush, the Kunlun, the Karakoram, and the
Himalayan ranges. Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world in the
Himalayan range.
• The Armenian Knot is connected to the Pamir Knot by the Elburz
and the Zagros Ranges that originate in the Armenian Knot. The Tien
Shan and the Altai are other mountain ranges in Asia

Peaks of Asia

• Mount Everest (8848 m), Nepal-Tibet, China border

• K2 (8,61,1 m), Pakistan-China
• Kangchenjunga (8,586 m), Nepal-Sikkim (India).
• Lhotse (8,516 m), Nepal-Tibet, China
• Makalu (8,462 m), Nepal-Tibet, China
• Cho Oyu (8,201 m), Nepal

3. The Central and Southern Plateaus

Plateaus are the land areas having a relatively that surface
considerably raised above adjoining land on at least one side, and
often cut by deep canyon.

Major Plateaus of Asian Continent –

Plateau Location

Ladakh Between Karakoram and Himalaya mountain ranges

Tibet Between Kulun and Himalayan Mountain range

Situated on the southeast of the Tibet Plateau and separated from Szechuan
Yunan
Basin extensive fertile land by the range of Mountains

Well connected to the range of mountains such as The Himalayas with the
Pamir
Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush ranges on all sides

Armenian Present in between Caspian and the Black Sea

Present in between Zagros Mountains, Caspian Sea, Turkmen-Khorasan

Iranian
Mountain Range

Surrounded by the Greater Hinggan Mountains in the east, the Yin Mountains
Mongolian to the south, the Altai Mountains to the west, and the Sayan and Khentii
mountains to the north

Shan Stretched in the Pegu Yoma and Arkan Yoma in the eastern part of Myanmar,

Extended in between the Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in
the east of
Deccan
Indian Subcontinent, it almost touches the southern tip of India and in north
covered by the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges

Anatolian Enclosed between Pontic mountain ranges in the South and Taurus in the
 southwest

4. Peninsulas
A peninsula is a mass of land surrounded by water but attached to
the mainland. The Deccan plateau region is also a peninsula. The
major peninsulas of Arabia, India, and Malay are in southern
Asia. The Kamchatka peninsula lies in northeastern Asia.

5. Deserts
Asia has some big deserts such as the Gobi, the Takla Makan,
the Thar, the Kara-Kum, and the Rub-al-Khali Deserts.

The Rub’ al Khali desert, considered the world’s largest sand

sea, covers an area larger than France across Saudi Arabia, Oman,
the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

6. Drainage of Asia
The drainage of Asia consists of mighty oceans, extensive seas,
lengthy rivers, and their tributaries and distributaries, major lakes,
etc.

Oceans: Asian continent is surrounded by three major ocean from

three sides such as
The Pacific Ocean – It covers the eastern part of Asia where major
rivers of eastern Asia drain, such as Menam Mekong, Xi Jiang,
Chang Xiang, Huang Ho, and Amur.

The Indian Ocean – It covers the southern part of Asia and the
major rivers that flow into the Indian Ocean are Tigris, Euprates,
the Indus, the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Salween.

The Arctic Ocean – It covers the Noth east part of Asia and consists
of three major rivers such as Ob, Yenisey, and Lena.

Lakes:
Major lakes of Asia are

• Lake Baikal, Onega, Ladoga, and Peipus in Russia;

• Lake Akan, Mashu, Biwa, Shikotsu in Japan;
• Qinghai Lake, Lake Khanka in China;
• Dal Lake, Chilka, Vembanada, Pullicat and Sukhna in India;
• Lake Matano and Toba in Indonesia, etc.

Baikal is the deepest lake in the world. It is in Southern Siberia,

Russia.

Straits:
The important straits in Asia are the Strait of Malacca, Bering
Strait, etc.
 AUSTRALIA
Australia is the world’s largest island and smallest continent. It
is the only nation that completely covers a continent. Its total area
is nearly double that of India and Pakistan combined. It lies entirely
in the Southern Hemisphere and is aptly named – Austral meaning
south. It is located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans,
stretches west to east from 114°E longitude to 154°E longitude and
from 10°S to 40°S latitude.

The Tropic of Capricorn cuts the continent almost into half. Asia is
the continent nearest to Australia. The nearest point on the
mainland of Asia is Singapore To the west of Australia, Indian
Ocean, to the south, the icy shore of Antarctica to the south-east
is New Zealand. To the north-west is the continent of Asia.

Australia

Capital: Canberra

• It is the only continent which is also a country

• It lies between the Indian and the Pacific oceans
• It is surrounded by
• The Timor Sea in the North-West
• The Gulf of Carpentaria in the North,
• Great barrier reef in the north-east &
• Great Australian bight in the south
• To the southeast of the mainland lies the island of Tasmania
Major states –

It has 6 states and 2 centrally administered territories.

Its 6 states are:

1. Western Australia
2. Queensland
3. South Australia
4. New South Wales
5. Victoria
6. Tasmania

• Australia is the most leveled and lowest of all the continents.

• There are no high mountains, deep valleys, or large rivers.
• Mount Kosciusko 2,230 meters above sea level, is the highest
peak.
• The coastline is very smooth with no inlets except in the
south. So there are very few good harbors.
• As the smallest continent, Australia has no prominent
physical division, yet efforts have been made to divide it
roughly into four categories, such as:

Major Cities in Australia

• Australia’s major cities include Sydney, Melbourne,

Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Cairns, Darwin, and Canberra,
the capital.
Physical Divisions

• Eastern Highland
• The Western Plateau
• Desert
• The Central Lowland
• The Great Barrier Reef
Eastern Highland

This is a chain of hills and mountains which interrupts the leveled

landform of Australia. These are also known as the Great Dividing
Range.

The Great Dividing Range

• It is, also known as the Eastern Highlands, is Australia’s most

substantial mountain range.
• The range stretches more than 3500 km from the northeastern
tip of Queen’s land, running the entire length of the eastern
coastline through New South Wales, then into Victoria and
 turning water, before finally fading into the central plain at the
Grampians in western Victoria.
• The Great Dividing Range does not consist of a single
mountain range.
• It consists of a complex of mountain ranges, plateau, upland
areas, and escarpments with an ancient and complex
geological history.
• The crest of the range is defined by the watershed or boundary
between the drainage basins of rivers which drain directly
eastward into the Pacific Ocean, and those rivers which drain
into the Murray- Darling River system towards the west.
• In the north, the rivers on the west side of the range drain
towards the Gulf of Carpentaria.

The Western Plateau

• This eroded plateau has undergone the process of erosion for a

quite long period. It is characterized by several ‘sinkhole’ a
network of underground caves which filled with water.
• The Western Plateau is also called the home for several deserts
and the climate is comparatively dry owing to the cold water
current of western Australia. The series of the desert in this
region are:
• The ranges were originally home to Australian Aboriginal
tribes such as the Kulin.
Desert

• Gibson Desert – a central Australian desert

• Great Sandy Desert – a northwestern Australian desert
• Great Victoria Desert – the sixth-largest desert in the world by
area, located in south-central Australia.
• Simpson Desert – a central Australian desert
• Little Sandy Desert – a western Australian desert
• Strzelecki Desert – a south-central Australian desert
• Tanami Desert – a northern Australian desert
• Western Desert – a desert located in western Australia,
comprising the Gibson, Great Sandy, and Little Sandy deserts.
• Rangipo Desert – a barren light altitude desert on the North
Island Volcanic Plateau in New Zealand.
The Central Lowland

• The extensive patch of plain or low land has its existence

between the Eastern Highlands and Western Plateau.
• The patch is drained by two rivers such as Murray and Darling
which also facilitate the land with irrigation facilities for
farming and other essential activities.
• The area is also known as the Great Artesian Basin as it is
covered by a number of underground pressurized wells from
which the water comes out automatically to the surface. Yet
they are not suitable for drinking as they are salty by nature.

The Great Barrier Reef

• This is the largest coral reef in the world.

 • It lies along the east coast of Queensland, Australia, in the
Pacific Ocean.
• It is about 2,000 kilometers long, in some places, it is as close
as 16 kilometers to the coast while in other places it is 200
kilometers away.
• It is one of the natural wonders of the world.
• It is formed by the tiny coral polyps.

The Islands of Australia & Oceania

• The islands situated surrounding the younger most continent

in size are collectively known as Oceania. Broadly it has been
divided into three major island groups Melanesia, Micronesia,
and Polynesia.
• Melanesia is otherwise known as Black Islands and
congregated around north and east of Australia. Some of the
 major islands are East Timor, Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New
Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.
• Micronesia which is also called as Little Islands is the
agglomeration of islands such as Guam, Kiribati, Marshall
Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Northern
Mariana Islands, Palau, and Wake Island.
• Polynesia is otherwise known as Many Lands which expand
from islands of Midway in the north to New Zealand in the
south and include the series of islands such as the American
Samoa Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue, Pitcairn,
Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna Islands.
• The islands of Oceania have been formed due to the
differential activities of volcanoes. The low islands of
Micronesia have been formed by building up coral reefs on the
rim of the volcanic islands, hence giving it a shape of a Ring
which is known as Atolls. The atolls further encircle the
lagoons which are characterized by shallow pools of clear
water at a very low altitude of just a few feet above sea level.
Drainage System

• Australia has low average rainfall.

• Being a hot dry country the rate of evaporation is high. So
there is very little water left to flow like a river to the sea.
• As a result of this, the total Australian continent is mainly
drained by two of the largest drainage basins Murray and
Darling and an inland lake is also found which is known as
Lake Eyre Basin. Which accounts for an area for over 1 million
square kilometers.
• River Murray starts from the Snowy Mountains of the Great
Dividing Range.

• Its tributaries are the Darling, Murrumbidgee, and Lachlan.

Many dams have been built across these to provide for
irrigation and power generation.
• River Swan near Perth is also utilized in the same way.
Antractica
Major Landforms of Earth
A landform is a feature on Earth's surface that is part of the
terrain. Mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains are the four
major types of landforms.

Classification of Major Landforms of Earth

The surface of the earth is uneven, some parts may be
rugged and some flat. The earth has an immeasurable
variety of landforms.
These landforms are a result of two processes and they are:
1. Internal process- The Internal Process leads to the upliftment
and sinking of the earth’s surface.
2. External process- It is the continuous wearing down and
rebuilding of the land surface and includes two processes
namely:
• Erosion– It is the wearing away of the earth’s surface.
 • Deposition– It is the rebuilding of a lowered surface
(occurred due to erosion).
The erosion and deposition processes are carried out by
running water, ice and wind.
Landforms can be grouped based on the elevation and
slope and they are:

• Mountains
• Plateaus
• Plains

Mountains
A mountain range is a series or chain of mountains that are
close together.

A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth’s crust,

generally with steep sides that show significant exposed
bedrock. A mountain differs from a plateau in having a
limited summit area, and is larger than a hill, typically
rising at least 300 metres (1000 feet) above the
surrounding land. A few mountains are isolated summits,
but most occur in mountain ranges

Mountains and hills differ on the basis of:

A mountain is created by faulting while hill is created by either

faulting or erosion.
1) A mountain is created by faulting while hill is created by either
faulting or erosion.
The faulting, that happens because the rocks underneath the
Earth’s surface are constantly moving and changing the landscape.
Hills formed by faulting can eventually become mountains.
A natural mound of earth created either by faulting or erosion is a
hill.
A natural mound of earth created by faulting is mountain.
2) A mountain is often named whereas hill is often unnamed.
Mountains form a major landform on the earth. They cover the
maximum area and their ranges are wide spread across the
country. Hence mountains are named. Hills do not form major
landform as compared to mountains so they are not named.
3) The altitude and elevation of the hill is low while the
altitude and elevation of the mountain is high.
Hills are usually formed by either by faulting or erosion hence the
altitude and elevation is less. Mountains are a natural mound of
earth created by faulting. Hence mountains have high altitude and
elevation.

• Any natural elevation of the earth surface is called a

Mountain.

• Range- A mountain range is a group or chain of mountains

located close together

There are three types of mountains and they are:

 1. Fold Mountains
• They are rugged relief and high conical peaks.

• g. Himalayan Mountains and the Alps (Young fold

mountains)
• The Aravali range in India (oldest fold mountain system
in the world)
• The Appalachians in North America and the Ural
mountains in Russia (very old fold mountains)

•
Block Mountains
• Created when a large mass of land is broken and
displaced vertically.
• g. The Rhine valley and the Vosges mountain in Europe
 •
•

Volcanic Mountains
• Formed due to volcanic activity.

• g. Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt. Fujiyama in Japan.

•
How the Mountains are useful?
• Mountains are very useful in various ways.
• They are the storehouse of water and many rivers have their
basis in the glaciers in the mountain.
• Reservoirs are made and water is harnessed for the use of
people.
• Water from the mountains is also used for irrigation and
generation of hydro-electricity.
• Mountains have a rich variety of flora and fauna.
• The forests provide fuel, fodder, shelter and other products
like gum, raisins, etc.
• Mountains also provide a tranquil site for tourists.

How many types of mountains are there in the

World?
Mountain formations are classified under the following categories:

1. Volcanic Mountains

2. Fold Mountains

3. Block Mountains

4. Residual Mountains

5. Dome Mountains

Details of each mountain type is given below

1.Volcanic Mountains: When tectonic plates move about,

volcanoes are formed, and when volcanoes erupt, mountains are
formed in turn.A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone due to the
low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily basalt. Mauna Loa is
the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°.

The composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising

cone (33°-40°), due to the higher viscosity of the emitted material,
and eruptions are more violent and less frequent than for shield
volcanoes.

Most volcanic mountains occur in a band surrounding the Pacific

Ocean. Collectively they are known as the Pacific Ring of Fire. The
famous volcanic mountains are stratovolcanoes or shield volcanoes.
Examples of a stratovolcano is Vesuvius and Mount Fuji, while a
shield volcano is Mauna Loa on Hawaii.

2. FoldMountains: Fold Mountains are created where two or

more of Earth’s tectonic plates are pushed together. At these
colliding, compressing boundaries, rocks and debris are warped
and folded into rocky outcrops, hills, mountains, and entire
mountain ranges.

3. Block Mountains: The raising of a fault block leads to the

formation of block mountains. Higher blocks are called horsts and
troughs are known as grabens. When the surface is spread apart, it
leads tensional forces coming into place when these tension forces
split apart; it causes the centre block to drop down. An example of
this is the Sierra Nevada Range in the United States.

4. Residual mountains: Through an erosion of an elevated area

residual mountains are formed. Alternatively such formations are
also known as mountains of denudation. The Scottish Highlands,
ScandanavianMountains, and the landmass of the
BalkanPeninsula are examples of Residual Mountains.

5. Dome mountains: Dome mountains are formed when large globs

of magma float up from beneath the crust and push up surface
rocks, creating a rounded swelling in the crust. Once the magma
cools, it creates a large dome of harder rock under the surface,
which erosion sometimes reveals.

Types of Mountains in India

The table below shows the type of mountains found in India

Top 10 Longest Mountain Ranges

1. The Andes – 7,000 km
2. The Rockies – 4,830 km
3. The Great Dividing Range – 3,500 km
4. The Transantarctic Mountains – 3,500 km
5. The Ural Mountains – 2,500 km
6. The Atlas Mountains – 2,500 km
7. The Appalachian Mountains – 2,414 km
8. The Himalayas – 2,400 km
9. The Altai Mountains – 2,000 km (1,243 mi)
10. The Western Ghats – 1,600 km

Top 10 Highest Peaks in the World

Highest Mountain in Height in

Range Location & Features
the World Metres
Mount Everest 8,848 Himalayas Nepal

K2 8,611 Karakoram India

Kangchenjunga 8,586 Himalayas Nepal/India

Nepal/China – Climbers move to the

Lhotse 8,516 Himalayas
Lhotse Face in climbing Everest

Makalu 8,485 Himalayas Nepal/China

Cho Oyu 8,201 Himalayas Nepal/China

Dhaulagiri 8,167 Himalayas Nepal

Manaslu 8,163 Himalayas Nepal

Nanga Parbat 8,126 Himalayas Pakistan

Annapurna 8,091 Himalayas Nepal

Types of Mountains in India

Fold Mountains The mountains of Himalayas are an example of fold mountains

Residual Hills like the Nilgiris, the Parasnath, the Girnar and Rajmahal in India are
Mountains examples of this type
Block The mountains of Satpura and Vindhya found in the central-western part of
mountains India are an example of block mountains.

Volcano The only known instance of a Volcanic mountain is located on Barren Island in
Mountains the Andaman Sea

Dome Kedar Dome peak is a dome shaped mountain in the Garhwal range of the
Mountains Himalayas in Uttarakhand.

Plateaus
In geology and physical geography, a plateau, also called a
high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland
consisting of flat terrain, that is raised sharply above the
surrounding area on at least one side. Often one or more
sides have deep hills.

• A plateau is an elevated flat land.

• It is a flat-topped table land standing above the surrounding

area.

• e.g. The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus.

• The Western plateau of Australia, the East African

Plateau in Kenya (The Tanzania and Uganda), the Tibet
plateau (the highest plateau in the world) etc.

How Plateaus are useful?

• Plateaus are very useful as they are rich in mineral deposits.

 • E.g. African plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining

• Chhotanagpur plateau in India is a huge reserve of iron, coal

and manganese

Plains

In geography, a plain is a flat expanse of land that

generally does not change much in elevation, and are
primarily treeless. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or
at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as
plateaus or uplands

• Generally, plains are not more than 200 metres above mean sea level.

• Generally, plains are very fertile; hence these plains are very thickly-
populated regions of the world.

• E.g. largest plains made by the rivers are found in Asia and North
America

• Large plains in Asia are formed by the Ganga and the

Brahmaputra in India and the Yangtze in China.

How the Plains are useful?

• Plains are the most useful areas for human habitation.

• Building houses, construction of the transport network, as well as for

cultivation is easy.

• In India, the Indo-Gangetic plains are the most densely populated

regions.
1. Basic Types of Mountains

1. Fold Mountains (Folded Mountains) - These are the most

common Mountain types. The world’s largest Mountain
ranges are Fold Mountains. These ranges were formed over
millions of years. Fold Mountains are formed when two
plates collide head on, and their edges crumbled, much the
same way as a piece of paper folds when pushed together.
Fold Mountains are formed when two plates collide head
on, and their edges crumbled, much the same way as a
piece of paper folds when pushed together. The Himalayan
Mountains were formed when India crashed into Asia and
pushed up the tallest Mountain range on the continents.

Some of the Fold Mountains

• Himalayan Mountains in Asia.

• The Alps in Europe.
• The Andes in South America.
• The Rockies in North America.
• The Urals in Russia.

2. Fault-Block Mountains - These type of Mountains are

formed when faults or cracks in the Earth's crust force
some materials or blocks of rock up and others down.
Instead of the Earth folding over, the Earth's crust
fractures (pulls apart). It breaks up into blocks or chunks.
Sometimes these blocks of rock move up and down, as they
move apart and blocks of rock end up being stacked on one
another. Often Fault-Block Mountains have a steep front
side and a sloping back side.

Some of Fault-Block Mountains

• The Sierra Nevada Mountains in North America.

• The Harz Mountains in Germany.

3. Dome Mountains - Dome Mountains are formed when a

large amount of magma pushes up from below the Earth's
crust, but it never actually reaches the surface and erupts.
Instead of bursting the magma pushes up overlaying rock
layers. After some time the magma cools and forms a dome
shape rock. The uplifted area created by rising magma
looks like the top half of a sphere or ball, thereby giving it
the name Dome Mountain. It also gets its name because
the uplifted area is higher than its surroundings, erosion
by wind and rain occurs from the top. This results in a
circular Mountain range.
4. Volcanic Mountains -Volcanic Mountains are created
when magma (molten rock) deep within the Earth, erupts,
and piles upon the surface. When the ash and lava cools, it
builds a cone of rock. This material builds up around the
Volcanic Vent is known as Volcanic Mountain.

Some of the Volcanic Mountains

• Mount St. Helens in North America.

• Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines.
• Mount Kea and Mount Loa in Hawaii.

5. Plateau Mountains - Plateau Mountains are created

when running water carves deep channels into a region,
creating Mountains. Over billions of years, the rivers can
cut deep into a Plateau and make tall Mountains. Plateau
Mountains are usually found near Mountain. Because they
are formed by erosion they are also known as Erosion
Mountains. The Mountains in New Zealand are examples of
Plateau Mountains.

at are the major tmajor types of plateaus?

plateau
A plateau is a flat area of land that is elevated above sea level.A
plateau is an elevated flatland. It is a flat-topped table land
standing above the surrounding area. A plateau may have one or
more sides with steep slopes. Plateaus, like mountains may be
young or old.

E.g: the Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus. The
East African Plateau, The Tibet Plateau and the Western Plateau of
Australia are other examples.

Types of plateau
On the basis of their geographical location and structure of rocks, the plateaus
can be classified as:

Intermontane Plateaus: The plateau which is bordering the fold mountain

range or are partly or fully enclosed within them are the intermontane
plateaus.

Example: Tibet is surrounded by folded mountains like Himalaya, Karakoram,

Kunlun, Tien Shah on its two sides.

Piedmont Plateaus: The plateaus that are situated at the foot of the
mountains and are bounded on other sides by a plain or an ocean are called
the piedmont plateau.

Example: the plateau of Malwa in India and Appalachian situated between the
Appalachian Mountain and the Atlantic Coastal Plain in U.S.A

Continental Plateaus : These are formed either by an extensive continental

uplift or by the spread of horizontal basic lava sheets completely covering the
original topography to a great depth.

Example: the volcanic lava covered plateau of Maharashtra in India, Snake

River Plateau in North West
 Name of Location Characteristics
Plateau
Tibetan Plateau Central Asia 1. Popularly known as
"the Roof of the World"
2. Surrounded by
imposing mountain
ranges that harbour the
world's two highest
mountain peak i.e. Mount
Everest and K2
3. Formed due to the
collision of the Indo-
Australian and Eurasian
tectonic plates
Columbia – Washington, 1. Formed due to the
Snake Plateau Oregon, and volcanic eruptions with a
Idaho (USA) consequent coating of
basalt lava (Flood Basalt
Plateau). Hence it is called
'flood basalt plateau'.
Colorado Southwestern 1. Bounded by the Rocky
Plateau part of USA Mountains from north
and east, in the west by
the Great Basin, and
from the south by the
Sonoran Desert.
Deccan Plateau India 1. Largest plateau in India
2. Located between
Western Ghats and
Eastern Ghats
 3. It is volcanic basalt
beds of the Deccan which
were laid down by the
massive Deccan Trap
eruption.
Kimberley Australia 1. Formed by the volcanic
Plateau eruption
2. Mineral deposits,
including kimberlite
(diamond-bearing rock)
and traces of oil.
Katanga Democratic 1. Famous for copper and
Plateau Republic of the uranium deposits
Congo 2. Region is good for
farming and ranching
Mascarene Indian Ocean 1. Second largest
Plateau undersea plateau in the
Indian Ocean after the
Kerguelen Plateau
2. Formed of granite, and
is a fragment of the
ancient supercontinent of
Gondwana
Laurentian Canada 1. Also known as
Plateau 'Canadian Shield'
2. Famous for
exposed Precambrian
igneous and high-grade
metamorphic
rocks (geological shield)
3. Fine quality of iron-
ore is found here
Mexican Mexico 1. Also called as Mexican
Plateau Altiplano
2. Popularly known as
‘Mineral Store’
3. Famous for World's
biggest silver
mine i.e. Chihuahua
Patagonian Argentina 1. It is semi-arid
Plateau scrub and rain shadow
desert plateau.
 2. Famous for sheep
rearing
Altiplano South-eastern 1. It is a series of
Plateau or region of Peru intermontane basins.
Bolivian and western 2. Famous for Tin
Plateau region Bolivia reserves
Massif Central France 1. Tectonic movements
created faults and are
maybe at the origin of the
volcanism in the Massif
Central (but the
hypothesis is not proved
yet).
2. Famous for Grapes
cultivation
Anatolian Turkey 1. Popularly known as
Plateau Asia Minor
2. Region is famous for
best quality wool
producing goat i.e.
Angora goats
Spanish Spain 1. Formed by the volcanic
Plateau or eruption and lava
Iberian Plateau 2. One of the best quality
iron is found in this
region
Loess Plateau China 1. Also known as the
'Huangtu Plateau'
2. Famous for highly
erodible soil on the Earth
Pothohar Pakistan 1. Bounded on the east by
Plateau the Jhelum River, on the
west by the Indus River,
on the north by the Kala
Chitta Range and the
Margalla Hills, and on the
south by the Salt Range.
Bavarian Germany 1. Also known as 'Alpine
Plateau Foreland'
2. Formed under the
influence of the ice ages
 and has a rich variety of
landforms
Ahaggar Algeria 1. Also called as 'Hoggar',
Plateau large plateau in the north
centre of the Sahara, on
the Tropic of Cancer,
North Africa.
2. Region is composed of
black volcanic (basalt).

Landforms Created by River

Water is regarded as the most important geomorphic factor in causing

the degradation of the ground surface in humid locations with heavy
rainfall. The majority of running water erosional landforms are
connected with energetic and young rivers flowing over steep grades.
Potholes

These are the deep natural underground cave formed by the erosion of
rock, especially by the action of water. These currents erode the river’s
bed and create small depressions in it.

• These are drilled into the bed of a river and are cylindrical in
nature.
• The diameter and depth vary from a few centimeters to meters.
• These are formed due to the whirling impact of the water
current in the upper course of the river.
• In India, the potholes can be observed in the river bed of the
Kukadi, Krishna, and Godavari rivers in Maharashtra.
 •

V-Shaped Valley

In mountain ranges, you will find these types of valleys. V-Shaped

valleys are deep river valleys with steep sides that look like the letter
V, a diagram shown below will give you a better understanding.

• V-shaped valleys have steep valley walls with narrow valley

floors.
• These are generally formed by the result of erosion and withering
by fast-flowing rivers and are generally formed in the upper
course of the river.
• A deep and narrow valley with steep sides is called a Gorge.
 • Many gorges are found in river Ulhas in Thane district in
Maharashtra and the gorge of the river Narmada at Bhedaghat
near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh is well known.

Gorge

A gorge is often smaller than a canyon, although both words are

used to describe deep, narrow valleys with a stream or river
running along their bottom. It is found in the mountains in the
upper courses of the rivers. They are near I-shaped in appearance.
Canyon

A canyon has steep step-like side slopes and can be as deep as a

gorge. A canyon is wider at the top than it is at the bottom. In
actuality, a canyon is a type of gorge. Canyons are frequently formed
in horizontally bedded material.

Waterfalls

Waterfalls are formed due to the erosion of both hard rock and soft
rock. As the river flows over the resistant rock, it falls onto the less
resistant rock, eroding it and creating a greater height difference
between the two rock types, producing the waterfall.
• Over thousands of years, the repeated collapse of the caprock
and retreat of the waterfall produces a gorge of recession.
• Waterfalls exist because of the difference in rock types. When a
river flows, it passes through many different rock types and
when a river passes from a resistant rock bed to a softer one, it
erodes the softer one very quickly and at the junction between
the rock types, it steepens its gradient.
• The highest waterfall in the world is Angel Falls in Venezuela
(~800 m).
• The largest waterfall is the Chutes de Khone (Khone Falls) on the
Mekong River in Laos.
• The Niagara Falls on the river Niagara and Jog Falls in
Karnataka on the Sharavathi River are famous waterfalls.
Meanders and Ox-bow Lakes

Meanders are bent in a river that forms as a river’s sinuosity

increases. A meander forms when moving water in a stream erodes
the outer banks and widens its valley, and the inner part of the river
has less energy and deposits silt.

• Meanders form a snake-like pattern as the river flows across a

fairly flat valley floor.

•
• .
• Meanders are formed due to lateral erosion and as the erosion
increases over a period of time, the meanders in the river again
start flowing in a straight line.
• Meander formation is a self-intensifying process where a greater
curvature results in more erosion of the bank which in turn
results in greater curvature.

Ox-bow Lakes

• An oxbow lake is a U-shaped lake or pool that forms when a

wide meander of a river is cut off, creating a free-standing
body of water.
 • Oxbow lakes are an evolution of meanders that undergo
extensive deposition and erosion
• When the meanders cut from the main course and water
accumulates in this pool then it resembles the shape of the
oxbow.

Fan-shaped Plains

These are found in the region where the Tributaries Rivers join the
main river. Fan-shaped plains are landforms that are formed due to
the deposition of material carried by the Tributaries Rivers. A fan-
shaped mass of sediment, especially silt, sand, gravel, and boulders, deposited
by a river when its flow is suddenly slowed
These flows come from a single point source at the apex of the fan,
and over time move to occupy many positions on the fan surface. This
deposition resembles the shape of a Fan like plains

Flood Plains

These are formed due to the overflows of the river and floods in the
nearby areas. It is an area of low-lying ground adjacent to a river,
formed mainly of river sediments and subject to flooding.

• Floodplains are made by downstream traveling meanders.

 • Slit carried by the water gets deposited in flooded areas and
forms flat plains on both sides of the river.
• The Gangetic Plain is a
floodplain.

Delta

Delta is a term coined by Herodotus (The Father of History) after the

Greek letter Delta because of the deltoid shaped at the mouth of the
Nile River. A River delta is a landform that forms from the deposition
of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters
slower-moving or standing water.
 • This occurs when a river enters an ocean, sea, estuary, lake,
reservoir, or (more rarely) another river that cannot transport
away the supplied sediment.
• Over a period of time, this deposition builds the characteristic
geographic pattern of a river delta.
• The Sunderbans delta of the Ganga River is the largest in the
world.

What is Glacier?

"A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving

under its own weight; it forms where the accumulation of snow
exceeds its ablation over many years." On an average day, a glacier
moves 1 to 15 meters a day and there are two types of
glaciers, Continental Glaciers and Alpine or Mountain Glacier.

Glacial Landforms

Glacial landforms are those created by glaciers. The majority of

modern glacial landforms are the product of massive ice sheets
migrating throughout the Quaternary glaciations. Glacial landforms
can still be found in areas without active glaciers or glaciation
processes. A straight row of stakes laid across a glacier would
gradually bend as they descend the valley, implying that the glacier
moves quicker in the center than at the outside.

Types of Glacial Landforms

Glaciers form where there is more snowfall than melts each year.
When snow falls, it instantly starts to compress or thicken and
become more firmly packed. Firnification is the process by which snow
condenses into glacial firn (thick, granular ice). When the ice thickens
to around 50 meters (160 feet), the firn grains join together to produce
a massive mass of solid ice. The glacier begins to calve as a result of
its weight.

A glacier's many components move at varying rates. The flowing ice of

the glacier advances faster than the glacier's base. There are majorly
two types of Glacial Landforms Depositional and Erosional.

Glacial Deposition

Glaciers have substantially impacted landscapes in mid and high-

latitude alpine regions. The primary glacial depositional landforms
are as follows:

The Drumlins

• Drumlins are hills of sediment (generally a quarter of a

mile or more in length) that have been streamlined by
glacier flow.
• These flat, oval-shaped topographies mimic ridges and are
composed primarily of glacial till with minor amounts of gravel
and sand. It forms as a result of glacier fissures that enable rock
debris to slide beneath heavily weighted ice. Drumlins' long axes
run parallel to the direction of ice movement. Drumlins depict
the movement of glaciers. The Stoss end, the steeper of the two
ends, is used to face the ice flow.
•

Esker

Eskers are ridges of sands and gravels deposited by glacial melt

water flowing through tunnels within and underneath glaciers.

The esker is one of the most stunning landforms formed by glacial

deposits. They are frequently built of gravel and washed sand. The
eskers vary in size and shape. When glaciers melt, water seeps
down their edges or flows on top of the ice. These waters pool
beneath the glacier and flow through a passage beneath the ice-like
streams. These streams are produced by ice and flow above the
ground. When the ice melts, very coarse objects like stones and
 blocks, along with a few small particles of rock debris, settle down
in the valley of ice beneath the glacier and become visible as the
curving ridge known as Esker.

Glacial Erosion

Glacial Erosion is caused by two major reasons which include

Plucking and Abrasion. It is a process that is known to move the ice
which is on the bed of the glacier. The pressure on the ice can make
the glacier flow across the water body near which it is situated. Glacial
Erosion also causes the glaciers to melt which is extremely harmful to
our environment. It has an adverse impact on the climate and is also
one of the reasons for the rise of sea levels.

Erosional Landforms by Glaciers

There are three major types of erosional landforms created by
glaciers. These landforms are created when the ice on the glaciers
moves from their bed. It can cause major geographical changes in the
area as new landforms are created. Major Glacial Erosion Landforms
are provided below.

Cirque
A cirque glacier is formed in a cirque, a bowl-shaped depression on the side of
or near mountains

It is a half-open steep-sided hollow at the head of a valley or on a

mountainside, formed by glacial erosion. Cirques are created by
glaciers, grinding an existing valley into a rounded shape with steep
sides.

• The back wall of the cirque is like a high cliff and the floor is
concave and huge in size. The total shape resembles
an armchair.
• When a glacier melts completely, water accumulates in the
cirque and forms a lake which is known as a tarn.
 •

Hanging Valley
A hanging valley is a sub valley which is higher than the main
valley. They are related to U shaped valley when any sub glacier is
flown into a large glacier

It is a valley that is cut across by a deeper valley or a cliff. Hanging

Valley Landforms Have 2 Main Characteristics - a valley that leads to
another valley below and a cliff or steep wall below the meeting point

• Hanging valleys are often associated with valley glaciers, joining

the main valley along its sides.
• They are the product of different rates of erosion between the
main valley and the valleys that enter it along its sides.
• The tributaries are left high above the main valley, hanging on
the edges, their rivers and streams entering the main valley by
either a series of small waterfalls or a single impressive fall
 •

Aretes and Horns

Arêtes are thin, spiky land formed when two glaciers erode towards
each other. It is a small ridge of rock that is formed between the two
valleys.
A glacial horn is the peak that forms from three arêtes. A glacial
horn is a feature created by glaciers

Aretes, which are glacial landforms, are usually seen between two
perpendicular circles. These U-shaped valleys were scoured by
glaciers, leaving knife-edged slopes behind.

• The glaciers erode the bedrock beneath these valleys even more,
resulting in aretes at the upper reaches of the parallel valleys.
 Between aretes between two cirques, there is typically a low area
called a col.
• A number of cirques are typically clustered radially on the sides
of larger mountain ranges, such as the Alps.

•
• When glaciers wear down the higher regions of these mountain
ranges, they form sharp peaks.
• These pointed peaks, nicknamed horns, are surrounded by
vertical headwall cliffs divided by aretes.

Fjord

Geologically, a fjord is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs,

created by glacial erosion. Fjords are common in Norway, Greenland,
and New Zealand
A fjord or fiord is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by
a glacier. Fjords exist on the coasts of Antarctica

Erosional Landforms due to Wind

Wind Erosional Landforms are Pediments, Pediplains,

Playas, Deflation Hollows, And Caves, Mushroom
Rocks, etc.

1. Pediplains

• When the high relief structures in deserts are reduced

to low featureless plains by the activities of wind, they
are called as Pediplains.

• Pediplains are formed when high relief features in

deserts are lowered to low featureless plains due to
wind activity.
• The convergence of pediments forms a pediplain,
which is a largely flat landscape.
• Pediplanation is the term for the process by which
pediplains form.

•
Pediments
• A pediment is a gently sloping erosion surface or low-relief
plain at the base of a receding mountain front in an arid or
semiarid region.
• A pediment is often covered by a thin, discontinuous veneer of
soil and alluvium produced from upland areas, which is
underlain by bedrock.

Pediment
Deflation Hollows
• Deflation is the removal of loose particles from the ground by
the action of wind.

• When deflation causes a shallow depression by persistent

movements of wind, they are called as deflation hollows.

Mushroom Tables
A mushroom rock, rock pedestal, or gour is a typical mushroom-
shaped landform that is formed by the action of wind erosion.
At an average height of two to three feet (0.6 to 0.9 m) from the base

• These geomorphic features are most typically found in arid

environments where there is little vegetation to interfere with
aeolian particle transport, where there are frequently strong
winds, and where there is a steady but not overwhelming
supply of sand.
 • In deserts, a greater amount of sand and rock particles are
transported close to the ground by the winds which cause more
bottom erosion in overlying rocks than the top.
• This result in the formation of rock pillars shaped like a
mushroom with narrow pillars with broad top surfaces.

Yardangs:
o Yardangs are parallel troughs cut into softer rock running
in the direction of the wind, separated by ridges. The direction
of the yardangs can indicate the direction of the prevailing
wind.
Zeugen:
o A zeugen is a tabular mass of resistant rock, standing
prominently in the desert.
It is usually composed of alternating layers of hard and soft
rocks.
Playas:
o Playa is a flat-bottom depression found in interior desert
basins and adjacent to coasts in arid and semiarid regions,
periodically covered by water.

o It slowly filtrates into the groundwater system or evaporates

into the atmosphere, causing salt, sand, and mud deposition
along the bottom and around the depression's edges
Depositional Landforms of Wind

1. Sand dunes

• Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation.
• According to the shape of a sand dune, there are varieties
of sand dune forms like Barchans, Seifs etc.
• The crescent-shaped dunes are called as Barchans and they
are the most common one.
• Seif is similar to Barchans but has only one wing or point.
Barchans:
• Barchans have crescent-shaped points or wings that face away
from the wind, or downwind, and where sand is moving over an
almost uniform surface from where the wind is constant.

2. Loess
Loess:
o Loess is terrestrial sediment composed largely of windblown silt
particles made of quartz. Loess requires three things:
 • A source of silt
• Wind to transport the silt
• A suitable site for deposition and accumulation

• In several large areas of the world, the surface is covered by

deposits of wind-transported silt that has settled out from dust
storms over many thousands of years. These depositions are
called as Loess.

Erosional Landforms formed due to Groundwater

Sinkhole

Sinkhole

• A sinkhole is a depression in the ground that is caused

by limestone or chalk region erosion.
• It looks like a circular or funnel-shaped opening at the
top and at the bottom.
 • They are formed where the limestone is more prone to
the solution, weathering, or where an underground
cover near the surface has collapsed.
• These holes are formed by the widening of the cracks
occurring in such rocks as a result of rainwater's
continual solvent action.
• A solution sink is a sinkhole that has formed purely
via the process of solution.
• Some sinkholes are steep-sided dug holes filled with
earth washed down from nearby hillsides.
• Surface streams that sink are usually swallowed and
disappear underground.

Sinkhole
Swallow Holes

Swallow Holes

• They are cylindrical in shape and are found at a

depth beneath the sinkholes.
• Surface streams frequently enter sinkholes in
limestone environments and then disappear
underground through swallow holes.
• Because these openings are connected to the
subsurface caverns on the other side.

Swallow Hole
Doline

Doline

• In karst regions, a doline is a closed depression that

drains underground. It might be formed like a
cylinder, a cone, a bowl, or a dish.
• The diameter varies greatly, from a few meters to
hundreds of meters.
• Doline is derived from the Slovenian term Dolina,
which means valley.

Doline

Lappies

Lappies
• Lappies are uneven grooves and ridges that occur
after the majority of the surface of the limestone is
removed by the process of solution.
• The weathered limestone surface found in karst region
consists of etched, fluted, and pitted rock pinnacles
are separated by deep grooves.
• This rugged surface is formed by the solution of rock
along with joints and areas of greater solubility by
water containing carbonic and humic acids.
• It is not clearly understood whether lapies form on
bare rock or under the soil mantle and are exposed
later.
• The grooves of the lapies may vary in depth from a few
millimeters to several meters.
• Lapies commonly form on tilted rocks, and the
limestone base becomes extremely hard.
Lappies

Uvala

Uvala

• Collection of multiple smaller individual sinkholes

gathers to form a compound sinkhole called uvala.
• It denotes a closed karst depression, a terrain form
usually of elongated or compound structure and
of larger size than of sinkholes.
• Uvalas are large, irregular, contiguous hollow forms in
karst areas.
 • Since karst processes are very slow, even the
emergence of Uvalas is a long process. Thus they date
back to the formation of sinkholes.
• When sinkholes expand laterally by progressive
subrosion or suffosion adjacent sinkholes can grow
together to Uvalas.
• In general, Uvalas often look like an array of dishes in
the soil.

Uvalas

Polje

Polje
 • The Polje basin is a long, narrow basin with a level
bottom and steep cliffs. It is the result of the merging
of many sinkholes.
• The basins are typically 250 square kilometers in size
and might show "disappearing streams."
• The majority of these basins have steep enclosing walls
that range in height from 50 to 100 meters, earning
the term "blind valley."

Polje

Caves

Caves

• Cave streams are generally discharged through an

aperture in the cave.
• Tunnels are also caves that have an aperture on both
ends.
• The dissolution process produces a distinctive
landform known as karst, characterized by sinkholes
and underground drainage.
• Cave formation is common in locations with
alternating beds of rocks (shales, sandstones,
quartzites) with limestones or dolomites in between, or
where limestones are dense, massive, and occur as
thick beds
• Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium
carbonate formations produced through slow
precipitation.
• These include flowstones, stalactites, stalagmites,
helictites, soda straws, and columns.
Formation of Caves as a Result of Groundwater Erosion

Groundwater depositional landforms are

Curtains

• Rainwater drips from a cave roof's lengthy fracture, forming a

continuous strip of calcites.
• Numerous needle-shaped dripstones hanging from the cave
ceiling are called Drapes or Curtains.

Drapes or Curtains

Stalactite

• Water droplets carrying dissolved limestone fall through cave

roof fissures.
• Water drops expel carbon dioxide and deposit calcite.
 • Calcite pillars hang from the cave's roof as calcite
deposits accumulate over time.
• Usually, the base is broader than the free end of the hanging
stalactites.
• It's known as stalactite, and it's known as helictites when
the stalactite stretches to the sidewalls.

Stalactite

Stalagmite

• Stalagmite is the formation of calcite icicles that rise

upward from the cave floor.
• Stalactites are calcium carbonate deposits that hang like
icicles from the ceiling.
• Whereas stalagmites are calcium carbonate deposits that rise
from the ground.
• Halagmite is those that stretch horizontally or
diagonally from stalagmites.
Stalagmite

Pillar

• A pillar is formed when both a stalagmite and a stalactite

connect together.
• The diameter of the pillar varies from one another.

Pillar

Significance
Significance of Groundwater

• Minerals are dissolved in groundwater, which then carries the

ions in the solution.
• Wells benefit from groundwater to keep their water levels
stable.
• Groundwater hydrates a vast amount of vegetation.
• There are very few chances of human and animal waste
contaminating groundwater.
Cyclone
Cyclone is defined as the mass of air that rotates around the centre
of low pressure on a large scale. Cyclone is characterized by inward
spiralling winds, rotating clockwise (Southern Hemisphere) or
anticlockwise (Northern Hemisphere).

Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are formed between 5 degrees to 30 degrees in

both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. These are not formed
over or near the equator due to a lack of Coriolis force.
They are low-pressure atmospheric systems of low latitudes.

Cyclones developed in the regions lying between the tropics of

Capricorn and cancer are called tropical cyclones which are not
regular and uniform like extratropical or temperate cyclones.

Numerous forms of cyclones vary considerably in shape size velocity

and weather conditions.

Different names of tropical cyclones in different regions of the

world:

• Southeast Asia- typhoons

• Caribbean sea- hurricane
• Indian Ocean- tropical cyclones
• Northeast coast of Australia- Willy Willy
• A tornado is the smallest and most deadly form of cyclone in
the Mississippi valley of the USA. They are funnel-shaped
storms that are small but the most violent and disastrous of all
storms. The center of a tornado is characterized by extremely
low pressure.

Because of such steep pressure gradient winds rush hour with

great force towards the center having a high velocity of 600 to 800
km per hour. The approach of tornadoes is heralded by dark and
thick clouds in the sky resulting in complete darkness and
minimum visibility and low air pressure.
Conditions required for the origin of tropical cyclones:

1. Presence of a warm Ocean surface with a temperature of 27

degrees Celsius or more. The warm surface is the source of
thermal convection and strong hot and humid currents. It is
because of this factor that tropical cyclones are
characteristically developed over the east coast of continents
under the influence of warm ocean currents.
2. The presence of ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone)
supports the intensification of low pressure and augments the
supply of moisture due to the inflow of trade winds.
3. Coriolis force helps in deflection of strong influence wind to
generate circulatory system. In the absence of Coriolis force
tropical cyclones do not originate near the equator.
4. Presence of high moisture in the atmosphere as it becomes the
source of latent heat of vaporization which is the basic source
of energy for a tropical cyclone.
5. Minimum vertical wind shear to support the unrestricted flow
of air currents upwards.
6. Divergence of air in the upper troposphere.

Tropical cyclones cover relatively smaller areas but are more

destructive. On average their diameters range between 80-300 km
but sometimes they become so small that the diameter is restricted
to 50 km or less. But they are relatively taller and extend up to 15
km from sea level in the upper troposphere.
The basic source of energy is the latent heat of vaporization present
in hot and humid thermal convective currents. This latent heat of
vaporization later becomes a source of cooling condensation cloud
formation and rainfall.

Normally they move from east to west under the influence of trade
winds hence the general direction is there for the West word from
their origin.

A fully developed tropical cyclone consists of:

1. Eye: the pressure is lowest in the eye. It is a zone of high

temperature and high humidity. It is also a cloudless, windless,
and rain-less zone.
2. Inner eyewall: It is the most destructive part of a tropical
cyclone. It is characterized by strong winds and the greatest
intensity of rainfall. Rainfall is generated through
cumulonimbus clouds.
3. Outer eyewall: It is the outermost part of a tropical cyclone. In
this zone, wind velocity is relatively low and so is the intensity
of rainfall.

Tropical cyclones become very vigorous with high velocity over the
oceans but become weak while moving over land areas and
ultimately die out after reaching the interior portion of the
continents. That is why the cyclones affect only the coastal areas of
the continents.
 o

What Are the Causes of a Cyclone?

After knowing the answer to your question, "how are cyclones

formed?" you might also like to know about why a cyclone occurs or
what causes it.

Here are the factors responsible for cyclone formation -

• Warm temperature at sea surfaces.

• Coriolis force impacts the area that forms a low-pressure

zone.

• Atmospheric instability.

• Increased humidity in the lower to middle levels of the

troposphere.

• Low vertical wind shear.

• Pre-existing low-level disturbance or focus.

Stages of Formation: Tropical Cyclones

The development cycle of tropical cyclones may be divided into three

stages:

Formation and Initial Development Stage

▪ The formation and initial development of a cyclonic storm

depends upon the transfer of water vapour and heat from the
 warm ocean to the overlying air, primarily by evaporation from
the sea surface.

▪ It encourages formation of massive vertical cumulus clouds due

to convection with condensation of rising air above the ocean
surface.

Mature Stage

▪ When a tropical storm intensifies, the air rises in vigorous

thunderstorms and tends to spread out horizontally at the
tropopause level. Once air spreads out, a positive pressure at
high levels is produced, which accelerates the downward motion
of air due to convection.

▪ With the inducement of subsidence, air warms up by

compression and a warm ‘Eye’ (Low pressure centre) is
generated. The main physical feature of a mature tropical
cyclone in the Indian Ocean is a concentric pattern of highly
turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud bands.

Modification and Decay

▪ A tropical cyclone begins to weaken in terms of its central low

pressure, internal warmth and extremely high speeds, as soon
as its source of warm moist air begins to ebb or is abruptly cut
off.

▪ This happens after its landfall or when it passes over cold

waters.
Worldwide Terminology of Tropical Cyclones

▪ They are given many names in different regions of the world –

eg.they are known as Typhoons in the China Sea and Pacific
Ocean; Hurricanes in the West Indian islands in the Caribbean
Sea and Atlantic Ocean; Tornados in the Guinea lands of West
Africa and southern USA.; Willy-willies in north-western
Australia and Tropical Cyclones in the Indian Ocean.

What Are the Different Categories of Cyclones?

The categories of a cyclone depends on its wind strength.

Category Wind Speed (in kmph) Damage at Landfall

1 119-153 Minimal

2 154-177 Moderate

3 178-210 Extensive

4 211-250 Extreme

5 More than 250 Catastrophic

Anticyclones

Anticyclones are centers of high pressure. They are surrounded by

closed isobars having decreasing pressure outward.

The circulation is from central high pressure towards the periphery

in such a way that air blows outwards in a clockwise direction in
the Northern hemisphere and anticlockwise direction in the
southern hemisphere.

Due to Coriolis force, blowing winds are deflected from their paths
to the right in the Northern hemisphere and left in the Southern
hemisphere, that’s how it gets circular with a flowing system.
The difference in pressure between the center and periphery of
anticyclone ranges between 10 to 20 mb and sometimes higher.

There are much larger in size and area than temperate cyclones as
the diameter is 75% larger than that of temperate cyclones.
Temperate anticyclones are very extensive that a single anticyclone
can cover nearly half of the USA.

The track is highly variable and unpredictable. They move very

sluggishly and sometimes they become stationary over a particular
place for 4 days. The average velocity of an anticyclone is 30 to 50
km per hour.

Anticyclones originated due to the descent of either polar cold air

mass or warm tropical air mass.

These anticyclones are high-pressure systems and are more

common in subtropical high-pressure belts and polar high-pressure
belts where the air is sinking from the upper troposphere to the
lower troposphere but are practically absent in equatorial regions.

The formation of anticyclonic conditions at polar high-pressure

belts is a thermal phenomenon as these bills a thermally direct
whereas the formation of anticyclonic conditions at subtropical
high-pressure belts is a dynamic phenomenon as these bills are
thermally indirect.
Hence, anticyclones of polar high-pressure belts are termed thermal
anticyclones, and anticyclones of subtropical high-pressure belts
are termed dynamic anticyclones.

Types of anticyclones:

1. Cold anticyclones or thermal anticyclones: They are formed

above the Polar Regions due to the sinking of air. Post
subsidence of air outflows from the polar region in an easterly
and southeasterly direction.
2. Warm anticyclones or dynamic anticyclones: They are
formed above warm subtropical regions due to the sinking of
air from the upper troposphere to the lower troposphere and
consequent divergence of air.
3. Blocking anticyclones: These developed due to obstruction in
the air circulation in the upper troposphere that develops over
mid-latitudes and are called blocking because they obstruct the
flow of temperate cyclones in mid-latitudes.

Anticyclones tend to produce fairly uniform weather. Whence

descends from above at the center and the weather becomes clear
and rainless because the descending wind brings atmospheric
stability. The weather of Canada USA and northern Eurasia is
mostly affected by anticyclones.
Cyclones in India

Tropical Cyclones

▪ Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian

Sea and the Indian ocean. These tropical cyclones have very
high wind velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Indian
Coastal states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal,Odisha and Gujarat (These five states are more
vulnerable to cyclone disasters than others in India).
▪ Most of these cyclones are very destructive due to high wind
velocity and torrential rain that accompanies it.

▪ There are three elements associated with cyclones which

cause destruction during its occurrence. These are-

o Strong Winds/Squall: It damages installations, dwellings,

communications systems, trees etc., resulting in loss of
life and property.

o Torrential rains and inland flooding: Rain is a serious

problem for the people who become shelter less due to the
cyclone. Heavy rainfall is usually spread over a wide area
and causes large scale soil erosion and weakening of
embankments.

o Storm Surge: It is an abnormal rise of sea level near the

coast caused by a severe tropical cyclone. Due to storm
surge sea water inundates low lying areas of coastal
regions drowning human beings and livestock, causes
eroding beaches and embankments, destroys vegetation
and leads to reduction of soil fertility.

Cyclones that Occurred in India Till Now

With respect to the above table, the following list of cyclones have
occurred in India over the past few years -
Name of the Cyclone Type of the Cyclone

Yaas Severe cyclonic storm over the Bay of Bengal.

Tauktae Very severe cyclonic storm originating from the Arabian Sea.

Nisarga Severe cyclonic storm emerging from the Arabian Sea.

Amphan Super cyclonic storm formed in the Bay of Bengal.

Kyarr Super cyclonic storm emerging from the Arabian Sea.

Maha Extremely severe cyclonic storm originating in the Arabian Sea.

Vayu Severe cyclonic storms originate from the Arabian Sea.

Hikka Very severe cyclonic storm emerging from the Arabian Sea.

Fani Extremely severe cyclonic storm originating from the Indian Ocean.

BOB 03 Severe cyclonic storm formed in the central Bay of Bengal

Bulbul A very severe cyclonic storm emerged from the Bay of Bengal.

Impact of Cyclones in India

 If you know how a cyclone is formed, you must know that it is often
accompanied by strong winds, torrential rains and storm surge. These
three elements causes impact to a great extent in the following ways -

• Strong winds cause damages to infrastructure, uproots trees, and lead

to other catastrophes.

• Torrential rainfall leads to unprecedented floods and damages to

houses and buildings.

• Due to storm surge, seawater levels rise, and the coastal areas are
exposed to flooding.

• The rise in seawater level also erodes beaches and embankments.

• Severe cyclonic storms resulting in floods can damage vegetation and

livestock.

• Due to the strong winds and conditions, the soil tends to become
infertile.

In addition to this, cyclonic storms result in the loss of human, plant

and animal lives and affect the country's economy.

Next up, let's look at the cyclone-prone zones in India.

What is a cloud?
• A cloud is an accumulation or grouping of tiny water droplets and
ice crystals that are suspended in the earth atmosphere.
• They are masses that consist of huge density and volume and
hence it is visible to naked eyes.
 • There are different types of Clouds. They differ from each other in
size, shape, or colour.
• They play different roles in the climate system like being the
bright objects in the visible part of the solar spectrum, they
efficiently reflect light to space and thereby helps in the cooling of
the planet.
• .. The warm air holds more water vapour than cold air.
• Being made of the moist air and it becomes cloudy when the
moist air is slightly cooled, with further cooling the water vapour
and ice crystals of these clouds grew bigger and fall to earth as
precipitation such as rain, drizzle, snowfall, sleet, or hail.

Cloud Formation

When airborne water vapour condenses into observable water droplets

or ice crystals, clouds are created. Water is always present around us
in the form of microscopic gaseous particles known as water vapour.
Also present in the air are microscopic particles known as aerosols,
which include dust and salt. Aerosols and water vapour frequently
collide with one another. Condensation occurs when water vapour
from the cooling air adheres to part of the aerosols during a collision.
The aerosol particles eventually attract larger water droplets, which
eventually start adhering to one another to form clouds.

When the air becomes too saturated to store any more water vapour,
clouds form. This can happen in one of two ways:

The air is no longer able to hold any more water due to a rise in the
amount of water present, such as evaporation. When the air reaches
its dew point, where condensation starts to happen, it becomes too
cold for it to hold any more water. More water vapour may be held in
the air the warmer it gets. Clouds are typically created through
condensation; as air rises, it cools, and as the air gets colder, it loses
its capacity to store water vapour, which leads to condensation.
Condensation is the height at which the dew point is attained and
clouds begin to form....

What are the different types of cloud?

Clouds are classified primarily based on – their shape and
their altitude.

Based on shape, clouds are classified into three. They are:

1. Cirrus
2. Cumulus
3. Stratus

1.
 2. Classification of clouds – based on their
altitude (height):

Classification of Clouds Types of Clouds

High Clouds Cirrus, Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus

Middle Clouds Altostratus, Altocumulus

Low Clouds Stratocumulus, Nimbostratus
Clouds with Extensive Vertical Development Cumulus, Cumulonimbus
Based on the height or altitude the clouds are classified into three.
They are –

1. High Clouds
2. Middle Clouds
3. Low Clouds

1. High Clouds
• They can reach above 6000 metres or 20,000 feet.
 • They are also known as Cirrus Clouds.
• They are usually thin and are made up of ice.
• They often indicate fair weather and hence do not produce rain.

Types of

High Clouds

They are thin and often wispy cirrus clouds.

Typically found at heights greater than 20,000 feet

1. Cirrus (6,000 meters), they are composed of ice crystals that

originate from the freezing of supercooled water

droplets.

2. They are high, very thin, comprises a uniform layer,

Cirrostratus and are composed of ice-crystals. It is difficult to

detect and is capable of forming halos when the cloud

takes the form of thin cirrostratus nebulosus.

They are small rounded puffs shaped clouds, that

3.
usually appear in long rows high in the sky and are
Cirrocumulus
usually white, but sometimes appear grey.

2) Middle Clouds
• They form between 6,500 feet and cirrus level or from 2000 to
6000 metres.
• They are also known as “Alto” clouds.
• They frequently indicate an approaching storm.
• They may sometimes produce Virga, which is a rain or snow that
does not reach the ground.

Types of

Middle

Clouds

These clouds are in the form of continuous sheet or veil,

1.
grey or blue-gray in colour. They are composed of ice
Altostratus crystals and water droplets. In its thinner areas, the sun

can still be visible as a round, dim disk. These clouds

may often form ahead of storms with continuous rain or

snow.

They are greyish sheet cloud, characterised by globular

2. masses or rolls in layers or patches, the individual

Altocumulus elements being larger and darker than those of

cirrocumulus and smaller than those of stratocumulus.

3) Low Clouds
• They lie below 6,500 feet, which means from the surface to 2,000
meters.
• Low clouds are also known as Stratus Clouds.
• They may appear dense, dark, and rainy (or snowy) and can
also be cottony white clumps interspersed with blue sky.
Types of Low

Clouds

1. Strato Usually arranged in a large dark, rounded or globular

Cumulus masses, usually in groups, lines, or waves.

Usually looks like a huge grey blanket that hangs low in

the sky that resembles fog, comprises uniform layer

2. Stratus
and appear dull, if these clouds are warm it means rain

and if it is cold it snows.

3. They are known as ‘Rain Clouds’ and they are dark,

Nimbostratus thick and accompanied by light to moderately falling

precipitation.

4) Great Vertical Extent Clouds

• They are most dramatic types of clouds.

• Great Vertical Extent Clouds are also known as the Storm
Clouds.
• They rise to dramatic heights, and sometimes well above the level
of transcontinental jetliner flights.

Types of Great

Vertical Extent

Clouds
 They are convection clouds, puffy, that sometimes look

like pieces of floating cotton. The base of each cloud is

1. Cumulus often flat and may be only 1000 meters (3300 feet)

above the ground. The top of the cloud has rounded

towers.

They are dense towering vertical cloud, it’s top

acquiring an ‘Anvil Shape’, associated with

2.
thunderstorms and atmospheric instability, forming
Cumulonimbus
from water vapour carried by powerful upward air

currents.
 Strait

A strait is a narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water.

Strait Contiguous Landmass Joining Seas/Water Bodies

Formosa Strait China and Taiwan The South China Sea and the East China Sea

Strait of Tartary Russia (East Russia-Sakhalin Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan
Islands)

Yucatan Strait Mexico and Cuba The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea

Mesina Strait Italy and Sicily The Tyrrhenian Sea and the Ionian Sea, within
the central Mediterranean

Otranto Strait Italy and Albania Adriatic Sea & Ionian Sea

Cook Strait New Zealand The Tasman Sea and South Pacific Ocean
Mozambique Mozambique and Madagascar Indian Ocean
Channel

North Channel Ireland and Scotland Irish Sea and Atlantic Ocean

Hormuz Strait Iran and Oman The Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf

Bab-el-Mandeb Djibouti, Yemen, and Eritrea of the The Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea
Somali Peninsula

Ten Degree Car Nicobar Islands and Little Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal
Channel Andaman

Sunda Strait Java island of Indonesia with its Java Sea and the Indian Ocean
Sumatra island.

Florida Strait Cuba and the USA Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean

Bering Strait Asia from America The Arctic Ocean and East Pacific ocean

Strait of Gibraltar Spain and Morocco The Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea

Korea Strait Japan and South Korea The East China Sea and the Sea of Japan

Strait of Malacca Malaysia and Sumatra The Pacific Ocean to the east with the Indian
Ocean to the west

Bonifacio Strait Corsica island of France and The Tyrrhenian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea
Sardinia islands of Italy

Palk Strait India and Sri Lanka The Bay of Bengal in the northeast with the Palk
Bay/Arabian Sea in the southwest

Bosphorus Strait Divides Europe from Asia The Black Sea to Sea of Marmara

Bass Strait Tasmania island and mainland The Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea
Australia

Davis Strait Between Greenland and Canada The Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea
Jamaica Channel Jamaica and Hispaniola The Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic

Hudson Strait Baffin Island and Labrador Hudson Bay and the Labrador Sea
peninsula

Major Straits of The World

Straits of the world are used by commercial shipping to travel from one sea or exclusive
economic zone to another and they are of immense strategic and commercial
importance. Straits serve as a channel through which ocean currents pass, modifying the
climate of that area.

1. Malacca Strait

Joins: Andaman Sea & South China Sea

Location: Indonesia –Malaysia

2. Palk Strait
Join: Palk Bay & Bay of Bengal

Location: India-Sri Lanka

3. Sunda Strait

Join: Java Sea & Indian Ocean

Location: Indonesia
4. Yucatan Strait

Join: Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea

Location: Mexico-Cuba
5. Mesina Strait

Join: Mediterranean Sea

Location: Italy-Sicily
6. Otranto Strait

Join: Adriatic Sea & Ionian Sea

Location: Italy-Albania
7. Bab-el-Mandeb Strait

Join: Red Sea & Gulf of Aden

Location: Yemen-Djibouti
8. Cook Strait

Join: South Pacific Ocean

Location: New Zealand (North & South Islands)

9. Mozambique Strait

Join: Indian Ocean

Location: Mozambique -Madagascar

10. North Channel

Join: Irish Sea & Atlantic Ocean

Location: Ireland-England
11. Taurus Strait (Torres Strait)

Join: Arafura Sea & Gulf of Papua

Location: Papua New Guinea — Australia

12. Bass Strait

Join: Tasman Sea & South Sea

Location: Australia
13. Bering Strait

Join: Bering Sea & Chuksi Sea

Location: Alaska-Russia
14. Bonne-Fasio Strait

Join: Mediterranean Sea

Location: Corsika — Sardinia

15. Bosporous Strait

Join: Black Sea and Marmara Sea

Location: Turkey
16. Dardanelles Strait

Join: Marmara Sea and Agean Sea

Location: Turkey

17. Davis Strait

Join: Baffin Bay & Atlantic Ocean

Location: Greenland-Canada
18. Denmark Strait

Join: North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean

Location: Greenland-Iceland
19. Dover strait

Join: English Channel & North Sea

Location: England-France
Strait of Dover or Dover Strait is the narrowest part of the English Channel
20. Florida Strait

Join: Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean

Location: USA-Cuba

21. Hormuz Strait

Join: Gulf of Persia & Gulf of Oman

Location: Oman-Iran

22. Hudson strait

Join: Gulf of Hudson & Atlantic Ocean

Location: Canada
23. Gibraltar Strait

Join: Mediterranean Sea & Atlantic Ocean

Location: Spain-Morocco

• The Strait of Gibraltar is located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula.
• The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the
Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Peninsular Spain in Europe from
Morocco in Africa.
• The two continents are separated by 14.3 kilometers of the ocean at the Strait’s
narrowest point.
• The Spanish side of the Strait is protected under El Estrecho Natural Park.
• On the northern side of the Strait are Spain and Gibraltar(a British overseas territory
in the Iberian Peninsula); while on the southern side are Morocco and Ceuta (a
Spanish autonomous city in northern Africa).
• Due to its location, the Strait is commonly used for illegal immigration from Africa to
Europe.
 • The Iberian Peninsula: The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme
south-west of Europe and includes modern-day Spain, Portugal, Andorra, and Gibraltar.
At the nearest point, it is only 5 miles (8km) from the continent of Africa.
24. Magellan strait

Join: Pacific and South Atlantic Ocean

Location: Chile
25. Makkassar Strait

Join: Java Sea & Celebeze Sea

Location: Indonesia
26. Tsugaru Strait

Join: Japan Sea and Pacific Ocean

Location: Japan (Hokkaido-Honshu Island)

27. Tatar Strait

Join: Japan Sea & Okhotsk Sea

Location: Russia (East Russia-Sakhalin Islands)

28. Foveaux Strait

Join: South Pacific Ocean

Location: New Zealand (South Island- Stewart Island)

29. Taiwan Strait (Formosa Strait)

Join: South China Sea & East China Sea

Location: China-Taiwan
Bohai Strait

The Bohai Sea is connected to the Yellow Sea via the Bohai Strait.

The Bohai Sea is a marginal sea which is the north-western extension of the Yellow Sea.
30. Korea Strait

Join: East China Sea and Sea of Japan

Location: Japan and South Korea

31. Jamaica Channel

Join: The Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic

Location: Jamaica and Hispaniola

32. Ten Degree Channel

Join: The Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal

Location: Car Nicobar Islands and Little Andaman

33. English Channel

The English Channel is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates southern
England from northern France and links to the southern part of the North Sea by the Strait of
Dover at its northeastern end. It is the busiest shipping area in the world.

34. Kerch Strait

• The Kerch Strait is a strait connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
• It separates the Kerch Peninsula of Crimea from the Taman Peninsula of Russia’s
Krasnodar Krai.
35. Straits of Lombok

Join: Java Sea & Indian Ocean

Location: Indonesia (Bali and Lombok)
36. Bali strait

Join: Bali Sea & Indian Ocean

Location: Indonesia (Bali and Java)
Isthmus: A narrow strip of land with sea on either side, forming a link between two larger
areas of land. The Isthmus of Panama is a narrow strip of land at the southernmost end
of Central America. It lies between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea while
linking North and South America.
10 Important strategic Straits and Channels

• Strait of Gibraltar
• Bab-El Mendeb Strait
• Strait of Hormuz
• Strait of Malacca
• Bosporus Strait
• Bering Strait
• Strait of Magellan
• Strait of Messina
• Suez Canal
• Panama Canal

What is a gulf?

A gulf is a large inlet of a sea cutting deep into the land.

a very large area of sea surrounded on three sides by
a coast

Gulfs
A gulf is a body of water that is connected to a sea or ocean and is surrounded or
penetrated by land. The gulf is almost completely surrounded by land. Gulfs vary
greatly in size, shape, and depth. They are generally larger and more deeply indented
than bays. Like bays, they often make excellent harbors. Many important trading
centers are located on gulfs.
 • The world’s largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.
• Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of California, Gulf of Aden (between
the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the Persian Gulf (between Saudi Arabia
and Iran).
• The Persian Gulf is important with respect to world energy because petroleum
is transported through its waters in oil tankers.

Important Gulfs of the World

1. Gulf of Mexico
(a) It is the largest gulf in the world.
(b) It is bordered by the United States, Mexico, and the island nation of Cuba.
(c) It has a coastline of about 5,000 km.

2. Gulf of Oman
(a) Gulf of Oman connects the Arabian Sea with the Strait of Hormuz, which then
runs to the Persian Gulf.
(b) The gulf borders Pakistan and Iran on the north, Oman on the south, and
the United Arab Emirates on the west.
3. Gulf of Aden
(a) Gulf of Aden is located in the Arabian Sea between Yemen and Somalia.
(b) In the north-west, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait.
(c) The waterway is part of the important Suez canal shipping route between
the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean.
4. Persian Gulf
(a) It is located in Western Asia between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.
(b) The Persian Gulf is an extension of the Indian Ocean (Gulf of Oman) through
the Strait of Hormuz.
(c) Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from the north): Iran,
Oman, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iraq.
5. Gulf of Carpentaria
(a) It is a large, shallow sea enclosed on three sides by northern Australia and
bounded on the north by the Arafura Sea. The Arafura Sea is the body of water that
lies between Australia and New Guinea.
6. Gulf of Bothnia
(a) the Gulf of Bothnia is part of the Baltic Sea between Sweden and Finland.
(b) It is the northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea.
7. Gulf of Riga
(a) the Gulf of Riga is a bay of the Baltic Sea between Latvia and Estonia.
(b) Gulf of Riga and the Baltic Sea is connected by the Irbe Strait.
8. Gulf of Alaska
(a) The Gulf of Alaska is an arm of the Pacific Ocean.
(b) The entire shoreline of the Gulf is a rugged combination of forest, mountain, and a
number of tidewater glaciers.
(c) Alaska’s largest glaciers, the Malaspina Glacier and Bering Glacier spill out onto
the coastal plain along the Gulf of Alaska.
9. Gulf of Finland
(a) Gulf of Finland is located between the southern coast of Finland and the northern
coast of Estonia in the Baltic Sea.
(b) It extends all the way to Saint Petersburg in Russia, where the river Neva drains
into it. The eastern parts of the Gulf of Finland belong to Russia
(c) The area of the gulf is 30,000 km2. The length from the Hanko Peninsula to Saint
Petersburg is 400 km.
10. Gulf of Mannar
(a) Gulf of Mannar lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri
Lanka.
(b) It is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean.
(c) Adam’s Bridge, also called Ramsethu, which includes Mannar Island, separates
the Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay, which lies to the north between India and Sri
Lanka.
(d) In 1986, a group of 21 islets lying off the Tamil Nadu coast between Thoothukudi
and Dhanushkodi was declared the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. The park
and its 10 km buffer zone were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1989.
 1. Palk Bay
2. Palk Strait
3. Gulf of Mannar
4. Adam’s Bridge
Select the correct answer code:

a) 3-4-2-1
b) 3-4-1-2
c) 4-3-1-2
d) 4-3-2-1

Solution: b)
11. Gulf of Martaban
The Gulf of Martaban or the Gulf of Mottama is an arm of the Andaman Sea in the
southern part of Burma. The gulf is named after the port city of Mottama (formerly
known as Martaban). The Sittaung, Salween, and Yangon rivers empty into it.
12. Gulf of Panama
(a) Gulf of Panama is a gulf in the Pacific Ocean, near the southern coast of Panama.
(b) It has a maximum width of 250 km, a maximum depth of 220 m, and a size of
2,400 km2.
(c) The Panama Canal connects the Gulf of Panama with the Caribbean Sea and
the Atlantic Ocean.
13. Gulf of Suez
The Gulf of Suez is a gulf at the northern end of the Red Sea, to the west of the
Sinai Peninsula. Situated to the east of the Sinai Peninsula is the smaller Gulf of
Aqaba.

14. Gulf of Thailand

(a) Gulf of Thailand was formerly known as the Gulf of Siam.
(b) The Gulf of Thailand is bordered by Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
(c) The northern tip of the gulf is the Bay of Bangkok at the mouth of the Chao
Phraya River.
(d) The gulf covers roughly 320,000 km2.
15. Gulf of Gabes
(a) Gulf of Gabes is a gulf on Tunisia’s east coast in the Mediterranean Sea, off North
Africa.
(b) The gulf borders Libya and Tunisia.
16. Gulf of Saint Lawrence
(a) Gulf of Saint Lawrence is the world’s largest estuary.
(b) The gulf is the outlet of the North American Great Lakes via the Saint Lawrence
River into the Atlantic Ocean.
(c) The Gulf of Saint Lawrence is bounded on the north by the Labrador
Peninsula and Quebec, to the east by Newfoundland Island, to the south by the Nova
Scotia peninsula and Cape Breton Island, and to the west by the Gaspe Peninsula,
New Brunswick, and Quebec.
17. Gulf of Aqaba
(a) The Gulf of Aqaba or Gulf of Eilat is a large gulf located at the northern tip of the
Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian mainland.
(b) Its coastline is divided between four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi
Arabia.
(c) The Gulf of Aqaba is one of the world’s premier sites for diving.
18. Amundsen Gulf
(a) Amundsen Gulf is a gulf located in Canadian Northwest Territories,
between Banks Island and Victoria Island and the mainland.
(b) The gulf is 400 km in length.
(c) The Amundsen Gulf was explored by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen.
19. Gulf of Tonkin
(a) The Gulf of Tonkin is a gulf at the northwestern portion of the South China Sea,
located off the coasts of Tonkin and South China.
(b) The gulf receives the Red River, and its main ports include Ben Thuy and Haiphong
in northern Vietnam and Beihai (Pakhoi) in China.
20. Gulf of Kutch
It is situated on the coast of the state of Gujrat near the Kutch region. It is an inlet
into the Arabian Sea from the west coast of India. The maximum depth of the Gulf of
Kutch is 402 ft and its width is around 150 to 160 Kms. The First Coral garden will be
set up in the Gulf of Kutch.
21. Gulf of Khambhat
This is located south of the Gulf of Kutch and is also an extension of the Arabian sea
along the western coast of India around the state of Gujrat’s Kathiawar region. India’s
major east-flowing rivers – Narmada and Tapti flow into the Gulf of Khambhat. It also
is known as the Gulf of Cambay.

22. Gulf of Guinea

The Gulf of Guinea is the north-easternmost part of the tropical Atlantic Ocean.

• The intersection of the Equator and Prime Meridian (zero degrees latitude and
longitude) is in this gulf.
• Among the many rivers that drain into the Gulf of Guinea are the Niger and the
Volta.
Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea:

• Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea affects a number of countries in West Africa as well
as the wider international community making it becoming an issue of global
concern.
• Pirates here are often part of heavily armed criminal enterprises, who employ
violent methods to steal oil cargo.
• The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) has recently described the Gulf of
Guinea as the most dangerous area in the world for shipping.
• According to its estimations, 73 percent of all sea kidnappings and 92 percent
of hostage-takings occur there, with pirates normally taking sailors for ransom.
Causes of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea:

• Youth unemployment and widespread poverty are one of the main triggering
factors for piracy in the Gulf of Guinea, and as admitted by the UN Security
Council during a meeting set to discuss a mission to the region ‘any
comprehensive anti-piracy strategy might also need to take into account root
causes, including high levels of youth unemployment’.
 • Severe political disputes are considered another reason contributing to the
rise of piracy in the area, and in some cases directly feeding into the piracy
activity itself.
• Of particular relevance are the activities of the Movement for the Emancipation
of the Niger Delta, in the south of Nigeria; this organization has publicly stated
to steal and smuggle oil ‘as a form of re-appropriation of wealth and as a form of
protest’.
• Another major and relevant controversy has involved the governments of
Cameroon and Nigeria; the two countries have been in dispute about the
sovereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula, which has caused a lack of cooperation
between the governments resulting in poor control over illegal activities.
• Corruption is another major contributing factor, especially with regards to the
case of Nigeria. Attention has been called towards the political protection that
some of those who attack installations and personnel of oil companies,
especially in the Niger Delta, enjoy protection from certain local authorities.

Bay
A bay is a body of water partially surrounded by land. A bay is usually smaller
and less enclosed than a gulf. The mouth of the bay, where meets the ocean or
lake, is typically wider than that of a gulf.

A bay is a body of water that is partly surrounded by land.