GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 & 2

1ST TO 4TH QUARTER | 1ST & 2ND SEMESTER

CELL
●​ Nuclear Envelope surrounds the
The cell is the basic unit of life in all nucleus and regulates material
living organisms. It is responsible for exchange.
various biological functions such as
metabolism, growth, and reproduction. ●​ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a
Cells can be classified into prokaryotic network of membranes
(without a nucleus) and eukaryotic (with responsible for producing and
a nucleus and organelles). transporting molecules.

●​ > Rough ER has ribosomes

attached, aiding in protein
synthesis.

●​ > Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and

is involved in lipid production and
detoxification.

●​ Golgi Apparatus modifies, sorts,

and packages proteins and lipids
for secretion or internal use.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
●​ Lysosomes contain digestive
The endomembrane system consists of enzymes that break down waste
organelles involved in the synthesis, materials and cellular debris.
transport, and processing of cellular
materials. ●​ Vesicles & Vacuoles store and
transport substances within the
cell.

Example: The Golgi apparatus in

glandular cells processes and secretes
hormones such as insulin.

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MITOCHONDRIA AND ●​ Microtubules help in cell division
CHLOROPLASTS and organelle movement.

Mitochondria are the powerhouse of Example: The cytoskeleton in white

the cell, generating ATP through cellular blood cells helps them change shape to
respiration. engulf pathogens.

Chloroplasts are found in plant cells EXTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS

and are responsible for photosynthesis,
converting light energy into chemical Extracellular components are
energy. structures outside the cell membrane
that provide support and
Example: Muscle cells contain numerous communication.
mitochondria to meet high energy
demands. ●​ Cell Wall in plants, fungi, and
some bacteria offers protection
CYTOSKELETON and rigidity.

The cytoskeleton is a network of protein ●​ Extracellular Matrix (ECM) in

filaments that provides structural animal cells contains proteins
support, enables movement, and aids in and carbohydrates that facilitate
intracellular transport. cell signaling and adhesion.

Example: The plant cell wall prevents

excessive water uptake, maintaining cell
stability.

●​ Microfilaments assist in cell

movement and shape
maintenance.
●​ Intermediate Filaments provide
mechanical strength.
MITOCHONDRIA

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Mitochondria are double-membrane
organelles responsible for energy
production through cellular respiration.
They have their own DNA and replicate
independently.

●​ Thylakoids are membrane-bound

structures where the
light-dependent reactions occur.

●​ Stroma is the fluid-filled space

where the Calvin cycle takes
place.

●​ Cristae are the folded inner

Example: The leaves of a plant contain
membrane structures that
the most chloroplasts to maximize
increase surface area for ATP
photosynthesis.
production.

●​ Matrix is the inner compartment

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF
containing enzymes for
ANIMAL TISSUES AND CELL
metabolic reactions.
MODIFICATION

Example: Heart cells have a high

ANIMAL TISSUES
number of mitochondria due to their
constant energy demand.
Animal tissues are groups of similar cells
that perform specific functions.
CHLOROPLASTS

1. Epithelial Tissue covers body surfaces

Chloroplasts are green organelles in
and lines organs.
plant cells that perform photosynthesis
by converting sunlight into glucose.
2. Connective Tissue supports and binds
body structures (e.g., bone, blood).

3. Muscle Tissue enables movement.

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 1. Interphase (G1, S, G2) – The cell
4. Nervous Tissue transmits signals for grows, replicates DNA, and prepares for
communication and control. division.

Example: The skin’s epithelial tissue 2. Mitosis – The nucleus divides into two
acts as a barrier against infections. identical nuclei.

3. Cytokinesis – The cytoplasm divides,

forming two daughter cells.

CELL MODIFICATION

Cell modification refers to structural

adaptations that enhance a cell’s
function.

●​ Microvilli increase surface area

for absorption (e.g., intestines).
MITOSIS
●​ Cilia move fluids or mucus (e.g.,
respiratory tract). Mitosis ensures genetic continuity and
consists of:
●​ Flagella enable movement (e.g.,
sperm cells). ●​ Prophase – Chromosomes
condense; spindle fibers form.
Example: The ciliated cells in the
respiratory tract help remove dust and ●​ Metaphase – Chromosomes align
mucus. at the center.

CELL CYCLE ●​ Anaphase – Sister chromatids

separate.
The cell cycle is the sequence of growth
and division in a cell. It consists of: ●​ Telophase – Nuclear membranes
reform.

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 ●​ Sodium-Potassium Pump
Example: Skin cells undergo mitosis for exchanges sodium and
wound healing. potassium ions across the
membrane.

●​ Endocytosis engulfs substances

into the cell.

●​ Exocytosis expels substances

from the cell.

Example: Nerve cells use the

sodium-potassium pump to transmit
PASSIVE TRANSPORT impulses.

Passive transport moves molecules

across the cell membrane without
energy input.

●​ Diffusion moves molecules from

high to low concentration.

●​ Osmosis is the diffusion of water

through a selectively permeable
membrane.
CARBOHYDRATES

●​ Facilitated Diffusion uses

Carbohydrates are organic molecules
transport proteins to move large
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
or charged molecules.
oxygen (C:H:O in a 1:2:1 ratio). They
serve as a primary energy source and
Example: Oxygen enters cells via
structural components in organisms.
diffusion from the bloodstream.

●​ Monosaccharides – Simple
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose,
galactose).
Active transport requires energy (ATP)
to move molecules against their
●​ Disaccharides – Formed by two
concentration gradient.
monosaccharides (e.g., sucrose,
lactose, maltose).

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 ●​ Polysaccharides – Long chains
of monosaccharides used for
energy storage or structural
support (e.g., starch, glycogen,
cellulose, chitin).

Example: Plants store energy as starch,

while animals store it as glycogen.

AMINO ACIDS

Amino acids are the building blocks of

proteins. Each amino acid has an amino
group (-NH₂), a carboxyl group
(-COOH), and a variable R-group that
determines its properties.

LIPIDS ●​ Essential Amino Acids – Must be

obtained from diet (e.g., lysine,
Lipids are hydrophobic molecules that valine).
play roles in energy storage, insulation,
and cell membrane structure. ●​ Non-Essential Amino Acids –
Can be synthesized by the body
●​ Fats & Oils (Triglycerides) – (e.g., alanine, serine).
Composed of glycerol and fatty
acids; used for long-term energy Example: Meat, eggs, and beans are
storage. rich sources of amino acids.

●​ Phospholipids – Major
component of cell membranes;
have hydrophilic heads and
hydrophobic tails.

●​ Steroids – Include hormones like

testosterone and cholesterol.

Example: The phospholipid bilayer in

cell membranes regulates substance
movement.

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 ●​ Structural Proteins – Provide
PROTEIN STRUCTURE support (e.g., collagen in skin,
keratin in hair).
Proteins are formed by amino acids
linked by peptide bonds. Their structure ●​ Enzymatic Proteins – Speed up
determines their function. chemical reactions (e.g., amylase
breaks down starch).
●​ Primary Structure – Sequence of
amino acids. ●​ Transport Proteins – Carry
substances (e.g., hemoglobin
●​ Secondary Structure – Alpha transports oxygen).
helices or beta sheets.
●​ Defensive Proteins – Involved in
●​ Tertiary Structure – immune response (e.g.,
Three-dimensional shape of a antibodies).
protein.
●​ Hormonal Proteins – Regulate
●​ Quaternary Structure – Multiple physiological processes (e.g.,
polypeptide chains interacting. insulin controls blood sugar).

Example: Hemoglobin has a quaternary Example: Muscle proteins (actin and

structure and carries oxygen in the myosin) enable movement.
blood.

PROTEIN FUNCTIONS

Proteins have diverse functions in the ENZYMES

body, including:
Enzymes are biological catalysts that
speed up chemical reactions without

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being consumed. They lower activation
energy and work best under specific
conditions.

●​ Substrate – The molecule upon

which an enzyme acts.

●​ Active Site – The region where

the substrate binds to the
enzyme.

●​ Enzyme-Substrate Complex –
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Temporary interaction before the
product is released.
Photosynthesis is the process by which
plants, algae, and some bacteria
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME
convert light energy into chemical
ACTIVITY
energy in the form of glucose. It occurs
in the chloroplasts of plant cells.
Several factors influence enzyme
efficiency:
●​ Light-Dependent Reactions –
Take place in the thylakoid
●​ Temperature – High
membrane, producing ATP and
temperatures can denature
NADPH while releasing oxygen as
enzymes.
a byproduct.

●​ pH Level – Extreme pH levels can

●​ Calvin Cycle
disrupt enzyme function.
(Light-Independent Reactions)
– Occurs in the stroma, using ATP
●​ Substrate Concentration – More
and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide
substrate increases reaction rate
into glucose.
until saturation is reached.

Example: A sunflower absorbs sunlight

●​ Inhibitors – Molecules that
and converts it into energy through
reduce enzyme activity (e.g.,
photosynthesis.
competitive and non-competitive
inhibitors).
CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Example: The enzyme lactase breaks

Cellular respiration is the process of
down lactose in dairy products.
breaking down glucose to produce ATP,

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the energy currency of the cell. It occurs
in three stages: ●​ Potential Energy – Stored
energy (e.g., a stretched rubber
1. Glycolysis – Happens in the band).
cytoplasm; glucose is broken into
pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. ●​ Chemical Energy – Stored in
molecular bonds (e.g., glucose,
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) – ATP).
Occurs in the mitochondria; pyruvate is
further broken down, generating more ●​ Thermal Energy – Heat energy
ATP, NADH, and FADH₂. from molecular motion.

3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) – LAWS OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION

Happens in the inner mitochondrial
membrane; uses electrons from NADH 1. First Law of Thermodynamics –
and FADH₂ to produce ATP and water. Energy cannot be created or destroyed,
only transformed.
Example: Humans generate energy
from food through cellular respiration.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics –
Energy transformations increase
entropy (disorder).

ROLE OF ATP

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the

primary energy carrier in cells. It
releases energy when its phosphate
bonds are broken, forming ADP
(Adenosine Diphosphate).

Example: Muscle contraction requires

ATP for movement.
FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy exists in different forms,

including:

●​ Kinetic Energy – Energy of

motion (e.g., moving water).

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ENERGY TRANSFORMATION PART 1

Energy transformation refers to the

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION PART 2
conversion of one form of energy into
another.
●​ Food chains and energy flow –
Energy is transferred from
●​ Photosynthesis transforms light
producers (plants) to consumers
energy into chemical energy
(animals).
(glucose).

●​ Heat loss in metabolism – Some

●​ Cellular respiration transforms
energy is lost as heat during
chemical energy (glucose) into
biological processes.
ATP for cellular work.

Example: A lion obtains energy from

●​ Muscle contraction transforms
consuming prey, originally derived from
chemical energy (ATP) into
plants.
mechanical energy.

Example: A plant stores sunlight as

glucose, which an animal later
consumes for energy.

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 CELLULAR RESPIRATION PART 1

●​ Aerobic respiration – Requires

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION PART 3 oxygen to produce ATP
efficiently.
●​ Energy storage in living
organisms – Plants store glucose ●​ Anaerobic respiration – Occurs
as starch; animals store energy without oxygen, producing less
as glycogen and fat. ATP and generating lactic acid or
ethanol as a byproduct.
●​ Energy efficiency – Not all
energy is converted into useful Example: During intense exercise,
work; some is lost as heat. muscle cells switch to anaerobic
respiration, leading to lactic acid
Example: A person eats carbohydrates, buildup.
which are stored and later used for
energy.

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CELLULAR RESPIRATION PART 2 CELLULAR RESPIRATION PART 3

●​ Glycolysis – First step of cellular ●​ Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

respiration, breaking down – Final stage of respiration,
glucose into pyruvate. producing the most ATP.

●​ Oxygen as the final electron

acceptor – Combines with
electrons and hydrogen to form
water.

Example: Oxygen is essential for

efficient ATP production in humans.

●​ Krebs Cycle – Further breaks

down pyruvate in mitochondria,
releasing CO₂ and high-energy
molecules.

ATP IN CELLULAR METABOLISM AND

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

●​ ATP in metabolism – Powers

Example: Yeast undergoes fermentation
muscle contraction, active
(anaerobic respiration), producing
transport, and biosynthesis.
ethanol.
●​ ATP in photosynthesis –
Provides energy for the Calvin
cycle to produce glucose.

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Example: ATP is used by nerve cells to ●​ Horizontal line between male
transmit signals. and female – Mating/marriage

●​ Vertical line leading to

offspring – Offspring from a
couple

TYPES OF INHERITANCE PATTERNS

IN PEDIGREES

1. Autosomal Dominant – Affected

individuals appear in every generation.
(Example: Huntington’s disease)

PEDIGREE 2. Autosomal Recessive – Affected

individuals may skip generations.
A pedigree is a diagram that represents (Example: Cystic fibrosis)
family relationships and tracks the
inheritance of specific traits across 3. X-linked Dominant – Affects both
generations. It helps geneticists study sexes, but males are often more
patterns of inheritance for genetic severely affected. (Example: Rett
disorders and traits. syndrome)

SYMBOLS USED IN PEDIGREE 4. X-linked Recessive – More common

ANALYSIS in males because they only have one X

●​ Square ( ⬜) – Represents a male chromosome. (Example: Hemophilia)

Circle (⚪) – Represents a female

EXAMPLE PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
●​

Shaded symbol (⬛ or ⚫) –
●​ If both parents are carriers of a
●​ recessive disorder, there is a 25%
Individual affected by the trait chance their child will inherit the

●​ Unshaded symbol ( ⬜ ⚪
or ) –
disorder.

Individual not affected by the ●​ In X-linked recessive traits, males

trait are affected if they inherit one
affected X chromosome from
●​ Half-shaded symbol (◑) – Carrier their mother.
of the trait (for recessive
disorders)

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 Y-LINKED TRAITS
SEX-LINKED TRAITS
●​ Traits only passed from father to
Genes found on the sex chromosomes son.
(X and Y) are called sex-linked genes.
Most sex-linked traits are X-linked Example: Hairy ears, male infertility
because the X chromosome is larger genes
and contains more genes.
GENETIC RECOMBINATION
X-LINKED TRAITS
●​ During meiosis, homologous
●​ More common in males because chromosomes exchange genetic
they have only one X material through crossing over.
chromosome.
●​ This process increases genetic
●​ If a male inherits a defective variation in offspring.
gene on the X chromosome, there
is no second X to mask the effect.

Example: Color blindness, Duchenne

muscular dystrophy, Hemophilia

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INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

●​ A heterozygous phenotype that is

a blend of the two parental traits.

Example: Red flower (RR) × White flower

(WW) = Pink flower (RW)

MULTIPLE ALLELES

●​ More than two alleles exist for a

gene in the population.

CODOMINANCE Example: Blood type system (A, B, and

O alleles)
●​ Both alleles are fully expressed in
the heterozygous individual. EPISTASIS

Example: AB blood type (both A and B ●​ One gene masks or modifies the
antigens are expressed) expression of another gene.

Example: Labrador Retriever coat color

(black, brown, or yellow is determined
by two genes interacting)

PLEIOTROPY

●​ One gene affects multiple traits.

Example: Marfan syndrome affects the

heart, eyes, and bones.

DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)

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 ●​ Double-stranded molecule
carrying genetic information.
●​ Made up of nucleotides:
●​ Sugar (deoxyribose)
●​ Phosphate group
●​ Nitrogenous bases (Adenine,
Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine)

RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID)

Steps:
●​ Single-stranded molecule that
helps in protein synthesis. 1. Helicase unwinds the DNA.
●​ Uracil (U) replaces Thymine (T). 2. DNA polymerase adds new
nucleotides.
PROTEINS 3. Ligase seals the new strands.

●​ Made up of amino acids. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

●​ Sequence of amino acids is
determined by mRNA during 1. Transcription – DNA is converted into
translation. mRNA.

2. Translation – mRNA is translated into

a protein by ribosomes.

WHAT IS GENETIC ENGINEERING?

●​ The modification of an
organism’s DNA using
biotechnology.

Example: Genetically modified crops

(GMOs)
DNA REPLICATION
TECHNIQUES USED
Semi-conservative process where DNA
makes an exact copy of itself. ●​ Recombinant DNA technology
●​ CRISPR-Cas9 (gene editing)

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APPLICATIONS

●​ Medicine: Gene therapy

●​ Agriculture: Pest-resistant crops
●​ Industry: Production of insulin

EARLY EARTH CONDITIONS

●​ Earth was formed about 4.6

billion years ago.
●​ The atmosphere lacked oxygen
and was composed mainly of
carbon dioxide, methane,
WHAT IS RECOMBINANT DNA?
ammonia, and water vapor.
●​ High volcanic activity and
DNA that has been artificially combined
frequent lightning storms were
from different organisms.
present.

USES OF RECOMBINANT DNA

ORIGIN OF LIFE THEORIES

●​ Medical: Insulin production,

1. Abiogenesis (Spontaneous
vaccines
Generation Theory) – Life arose from
●​ Agricultural: Pest-resistant crops
non-living matter.
●​ Environmental: Oil-eating
bacteria for cleaning spills
2. Biogenesis – Life comes from
pre-existing life.

3. Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis –
Suggests that organic molecules formed
in Earth's early conditions and later led
to life.

4. Miller-Urey Experiment –
Demonstrated that organic molecules

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(e.g., amino acids) could form under 3. Gene Flow – Movement of genes
early Earth conditions. between populations through migration.

EVOLUTION OF LIFE 4. Genetic Drift – Random changes in

allele frequency, especially in small
1. Prokaryotes (3.5 BYA) – First living populations.
organisms; simple, single-celled.
5. Non-Random Mating – Individuals
2. Photosynthetic Bacteria (2.5 BYA) – choose mates based on certain traits,
Produced oxygen, leading to the Great affecting genetic diversity.
Oxygenation Event.
TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION
3. Eukaryotic Cells (1.5 BYA) – More
complex cells with nuclei and organelles. 1. Directional Selection – Favors one
extreme trait (e.g., long necks in
4. Multicellular Organisms (1 BYA) – giraffes).
Gave rise to plants, animals, and fungi.
2. Stabilizing Selection – Favors the
average trait (e.g., human birth weight).

3. Disruptive Selection – Favors both

extremes (e.g., large and small beak
sizes in finches).

FACTORS THAT DRIVE EVOLUTION

1. Natural Selection – Organisms with

DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION
favorable traits survive and reproduce.

●​ Proposed by Charles Darwin,

2. Mutation – Random genetic changes
stating that all organisms share
that may introduce new traits.
common ancestors but change

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 over time due to natural PRE-DARWINIAN THEORIES
selection.
1. Lamarck’s Theory of Use and Disuse
PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION – Organisms develop traits through use
and lose traits through disuse.
1. Divergent Evolution – Species evolve (DISPROVEN)
from a common ancestor but develop
different traits (e.g., Darwin’s finches). 2. Cuvier’s Catastrophism – Suggested
that species went extinct due to sudden
2. Convergent Evolution – Unrelated disasters.
species evolve similar traits due to
similar environments (e.g., wings in bats DARWIN’S THEORY OF NATURAL
and birds). SELECTION

3. Parallel Evolution – Two related ●​ "Survival of the fittest" –

species evolve similarly even after Organisms best adapted to their
separation. environment survive and pass on
traits.
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
●​ Darwin’s voyage on HMS Beagle
●​ A single species evolves into led to his observations of species
multiple different species due to diversity.
different environmental
pressures. MODERN SYNTHESIS OF EVOLUTION

Example: Darwin’s finches in the ●​ Combines Darwin’s theory with

Galápagos Islands. genetics to explain evolution at
the molecular level.

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TYPES OF EVIDENCE FOR
EVOLUTION

1. Fossil Record – Shows how species

have changed over time.

2. Comparative Anatomy – Studies

similarities and differences in body
structures:
PHYLOGENY
●​ Homologous Structures –
Similar structures, different ●​ The study of evolutionary history
functions (e.g., human arm and and relationships among species.
bat wing). ●​ Represented using a
phylogenetic tree.
●​ Analogous Structures – Different
structures, similar functions (e.g., CLADISTICS
insect wings and bird wings).
●​ A method of classifying species
●​ Vestigial Structures – Body based on common ancestry.
parts that no longer serve a ●​ Uses a cladogram, a diagram
function (e.g., human appendix). showing evolutionary
relationships.
3. Embryology – Similar embryonic
development across species suggests TYPES OF GROUPS IN PHYLOGENY
common ancestry.
1. Monophyletic Group – Includes an
4. Molecular Biology – DNA and protein ancestor and all its descendants.
similarities show evolutionary
relationships. 2. Paraphyletic Group – Includes an
ancestor but not all descendants.
5. Biogeography – Geographic
distribution of species supports 3. Polyphyletic Group – Includes
evolution (e.g., marsupials in Australia). unrelated species with no common
ancestor.

EXAMPLE OF EVOLUTIONARY
RELATIONSHIPS

●​ Birds are more closely related to

dinosaurs than to reptiles.

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 ●​ Shows how species have evolved
from common ancestors.

THREE DOMAINS OF LIFE

1. Bacteria – Prokaryotic, single-celled

organisms (e.g., E. coli).

2. Archaea – Prokaryotic organisms that

live in extreme environments (e.g.,
thermophiles).

3. Eukarya – Organisms with eukaryotic

cells, including protists, fungi, plants,
and animals.

SYSTEMATICS BASED ON
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS:
TREE OF LIFE AND SYSTEMATICS

HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEMATICS

●​ Organisms are classified using a

●​ The scientific study of classifying
ranking system:
organisms and determining their
evolutionary relationships.
Domain > Kingdom > Phylum > Class >
●​ Helps scientists understand the
Order > Family > Genus > Species.
diversity of life and how species
are related.
●​ Mnemonic: "Dear King Philip
Came Over For Good Soup."
TREE OF LIFE

SYSTEMATICS BASED ON
●​ A metaphor and diagram
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS:
representing the evolutionary
TAXONOMY
history of life.

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WHAT IS TAXONOMY? 6. Genus – Groups closely related
species.
●​ The branch of biology that
identifies, names, and classifies 7. Species – The most specific level;
organisms. organisms that can interbreed.
●​ Developed by Carl Linnaeus, who
introduced binomial EXAMPLE OF CLASSIFICATION
nomenclature.
●​ Humans:
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
●​ > Kingdom: Animalia
●​ A two-word naming system for ●​ > Phylum: Chordata
species: ●​ > Class: Mammalia
●​ > Order: Primates
Genus + species (e.g., Homo sapiens for ●​ > Family: Hominidae
humans). ●​ > Genus: Homo
●​ > Species: Homo sapiens
●​ Rules:

> The Genus is capitalized, and the

species is lowercase.

> Both names are written in italics or

underlined when handwritten.

MAJOR TAXONOMIC GROUPS

1. Kingdom – Broadest category (e.g.,

SYSTEMATICS BASED ON
Animalia, Plantae).
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS:
CLADISTICS AND PHYLOGENY
2. Phylum – Groups organisms based on
body structure.
PHYLOGENY

3. Class – Further divides organisms

●​ The study of the evolutionary
within a phylum.
history and relationships among
species.
4. Order – Groups related families.
●​ Represented using a
phylogenetic tree.
5. Family – Groups related genera
(plural of genus).

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 3. Polyphyletic Group – Includes
unrelated species with no common
ancestor.

EXAMPLE OF CLADISTICS

●​ Birds are more closely related to

dinosaurs than to reptiles.
CLADISTICS
●​ Mammals and reptiles share a
●​ A classification system based on common ancestor but evolved
common ancestry. into separate groups.
●​ Organisms are grouped into
clades, which include an ancestor REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
and all its descendants.
1. Asexual Reproduction – Produces
CLADOGRAM genetically identical offspring.

●​ A branching diagram that shows ●​ Examples: Budding,

how species are related based on fragmentation, vegetative
shared characteristics. propagation.

●​ Example: Potato tubers growing

into new plants.

2. Sexual Reproduction – Involves

gametes (pollen and ovules).

●​ Pollination leads to fertilization

and seed formation.

●​ Example: Flowering plants like

TYPES OF GROUPS IN CLADISTICS sunflowers.

1. Monophyletic Group – Includes an REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

ancestor and all its descendants.
1. Asexual Reproduction – Common in
2. Paraphyletic Group – Includes an simple organisms.
ancestor but not all descendants.

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 ●​ Examples: Binary fission PLANT NUTRITION
(bacteria), budding (hydra),
fragmentation (starfish). ●​ Autotrophic – Plants make their
own food via photosynthesis.
2. Sexual Reproduction – Involves male ●​ Macronutrients: Nitrogen,
and female gametes. phosphorus, potassium.
●​ Micronutrients: Iron, zinc,
●​ Internal fertilization (e.g., manganese.
humans, birds).
ANIMAL NUTRITION
●​ External fertilization (e.g., fish,
amphibians). ●​ Heterotrophic – Animals must
consume food for energy.
DEVELOPMENT IN PLANTS VS.
ANIMALS Types of Feeders:

●​ Plants: Develop through ●​ Herbivores – Eat plants (e.g.,

germination, growth, and cows).
flowering. ●​ Carnivores – Eat meat (e.g.,
lions).
●​ Animals: Develop through ●​ Omnivores – Eat both plants and
zygote, embryo, fetus stages. animals (e.g., humans).

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GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

●​ Occurs in stomata (leaf

openings).
●​ CO₂ enters, O₂ exits for
photosynthesis.

GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

●​ Simple organisms: Diffusion

through skin (e.g., earthworms).
●​ Complex organisms: Use
respiratory systems.
●​ Gills (e.g., fish)
●​ Lungs (e.g., mammals)

PLANT TRANSPORT

●​ Xylem – Moves water from roots

to leaves.

●​ Phloem – Transports sugars from

leaves to the rest of the plant.

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ANIMAL CIRCULATION

●​ Open Circulatory System –

Blood flows freely (e.g., insects).

●​ Closed Circulatory System –

Blood moves in vessels (e.g.,
humans, fish).

IMMUNE SYSTEMS

PLANT IMMUNITY

●​ Physical Barriers (e.g., waxy

cuticle, bark).

●​ Chemical Defenses (e.g., toxin

production).

ANIMAL IMMUNITY

●​ Innate Immunity – First line of

REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS defense (e.g., skin, mucus).

PLANTS ●​ Adaptive Immunity – Antibody

production (e.g., vaccines).
●​ Water balance maintained by
stomata opening/closing.

ANIMALS

●​ Osmoregulation: Maintaining
water-salt balance.
●​ Excretory System (kidneys)
filters waste.

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CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS CONTROL

PLANTS

●​ Hormones regulate growth (e.g.,

auxins, gibberellins).

ANIMALS

●​ Endocrine System – Glands

release hormones.

●​ Nervous System – Uses electrical

signals for rapid response. FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

PLANTS

●​ Positive Feedback – Fruit

ripening (ethylene gas).

●​ Negative Feedback – Stomata

closing to prevent water loss.

ANIMALS

●​ Positive Feedback – Blood

clotting, childbirth contractions.
SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISMS
●​ Negative Feedback – Body
PLANTS
temperature regulation.

●​ Tropisms (e.g., phototropism –

GOODLUCK!
growth towards light).

ANIMALS

●​ Sensory Organs (e.g., eyes, ears).

●​ Motor Responses (e.g., muscle

movement).

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