6.

Listening is often the most overlooked skill among listening, speaking, writing, and reading, despite
being challenging and requiring practice. It should be combined with the other three skills in teaching.
Initial classroom activities should focus on the sounds of the language, which can be harder for learners
from some cultures.

Students need exposure to various listening situations, including both formal and informal styles. The
materials should encourage interactive learning by allowing learners to respond to speakers, and
assessment should focus on understanding information with clear explanations for correct or incorrect
answers.

When selecting listening passages, it's crucial to avoid over-fatigue in learners. Materials must match
the learners' levels and cultural context, with careful attention to length and speed. Tasks should aim to
develop specific listening sub-skills, such as following instructions and making predictions.

Language learners face significant challenges when listening to a language they are not fluent in. Unlike
native speakers, these learners may struggle to identify sounds, understand common vocabulary, keep
pace with rapid speech, grasp different sentence structures, separate important information from non-
essential details, and anticipate a speaker’s message.

The nature of authentic speech adds to these difficulties. Spoken language is often spontaneous and
informal, featuring short speech chunks where turns are taken quickly. Pronunciation may involve
slurring, and colloquial vocabulary differs from written forms.

Informal grammar tends to be loose, with incomplete structures and clauses. Additionally, some speech
contains unintelligible sections due to unclear pronunciation, while redundancy, such as repetition or
fillers, is common. Importantly, a listener typically has only one opportunity to understand spoken
discourse, as it is not always repeated.

=========================

At the beginning, it is important to help learners get used to the sounds of the language. This mostly
involves you speaking, so don’t worry about limiting your Teacher Talking Time (TTT) early on.

Use material that suits the learners' level and their cultural background without adding extra challenges.
Make sure the speed of the speaker and the length of the material matches their ability, like using short
dialogues for beginners or longer listening exercises for advanced students. In the early stages, the
speaker’s voice should be clear and not heavily accented. Ideally, use your own voice for practice.

Before any listening activity, ensure learners understand most of the words in the passage. Provide some
context about the topic, like a brief overview of the Great Wall, making it relevant. Explain any difficult
words or phrases beforehand, or create your own materials to avoid these problems. Encourage learners
to predict what they might hear, which can spark their interest. If they have done a similar activity
before, discuss that to connect it with the new topic.
As they progress, allow learners to encounter various situations to help them interpret and respond
correctly. Introduce them to different styles of language, from formal to informal, and expose them to
various accents.

Consider bringing in native English speakers from different backgrounds as guest speakers. Listening
activities should involve interaction, where learners can respond with questions, discussions, and
actions. Provide tasks that target specific listening skills, not just information gathering, but also
instructions and prediction.

==================

Listening Sub• Skills

· • General listening

· • Applicable to all learner levels

· • Tasks can be brief for beginners or longer for advanced learners

· • Involves listening to dialogues or descriptions

· • General questions follow the listening

· • Listening for specific information

· • Tasks focus on finding particular pieces of information

· • Learners should be aware of the task before listening

· • Listening for the message

· • Emphasis on understanding the complete message

· • Questions may be given before or after listening

· • Following instructions

· • Involves transferring information onto charts or maps

· • Demonstrates understanding without immediate verbal response

· • Predicting
 · • Focuses on anticipating what happens next

· • Example scenario provided to illustrate predicting skills

· • Listening for the gist

· • Learners identify main ideas of the text

· • Variations include assigning titles reflecting the main theme

· • Discerning attitude

· • Advanced learners infer the speaker’s attitude or tone, both implicit and explicit

=================================

To structure an effective listening lesson, you can follow a 5 Step Lesson Plan that applies to listening,
speaking, writing, reading, and grammar lessons.

Step 1: Opening

Engage students with a warm-up activity related to previous lessons. Briefly explain what they will do,
such as listening to a recording about a family’s holiday plans, and emphasize its importance for their
learning.

Step 2: Introduction of new material

Address any potential misunderstandings to keep students interested. Reiterate the significance of the
new learning and use various methods to present information, including asking questions and involving
the learners through realia.

Step 3: Guided practice

Maintain interest while clearly stating expectations. Provide opportunities for practice that gradually
increase in difficulty. This stage may involve comprehension activities that train different listening skills.
Monitor and correct performance as learners practice the targeted structures.

Step 4: Independent practice

Ensure engagement by clearly stating expectations again. Set tasks that allow students to demonstrate
their understanding. Offer additional activities for those who finish early. This step focuses on using the
new learning in a communicative situation to develop fluency rather than accuracy.

Step 5: Closing

Keep students engaged as they summarize what they have learned and discuss its significance. Provide
all students with chances to show understanding if they have not had enough opportunities. Assign
homework if needed, which could relate to the listening activity. This helps assess their learning
progress.

================================

6.1.5. Effective Listening Strategies, Exercises And Activities

· • Importance of Listening Strategies

· • Learners need a variety of listening strategies and activities.

· • Aim for listening events to be interesting, productive, enjoyable, and fun (controlled for
adults).

Strategies

· • Questions And Answers

· • Use short exchanges for elementary or lower intermediate learners.

· • Recording learners can be enjoyable, despite initial shyness about their voice.

· • Short Dialogues

· • Authenticity can be enhanced with background noise like traffic or café sounds.

· • Short Passages

· • Authentic language in short passages is challenging.

· • Humorous stories can engage learners.

· • Prepare factual and deductive questions.

 · • Reordering Information

· • Provide learners with items in incorrect order.

· • Tasks may include categorizing, reordering, or classifying information.

· • Information Transfer

· • Learners translate spoken messages into new formats (e.g., tables, maps).

· • This includes transferring information from a listening passage to various formats.

· • Using Humour To Develop Listening Skills

· • Humor can make language learning more enjoyable.

· • Dictation

· • Valuable for listening practice; passage should be familiar to learners.

· • Avoid using passages learners haven't encountered; it's for practice, not testing.

· • Jigsaw Listening

· • Learners listen to different parts of conversations and collaborate to complete tasks.

· • For large classes, divide into groups for different recordings before pairing.

Some Listening Exercises and Activities

· • Choose participative, interesting, and fun exercises.

· • Add on

· • One learner starts a sentence, each subsequent learner adds to it.

· • Can be a competitive or cooperative activity.

· • Pass the message

· • One learner whispers a message to another, highlighting the importance of clear listening.
 · • Think of a verb

· • Groups create a passage with missing verbs; others suggest appropriate verbs.

· • What’s the word?

· • Quickly spell out words for learners to guess.

· • Hands up!

· • Write 5• 10 words related to the study topic in a passage, learners raise hands on hearing
them.

· • Missing word

· • Provide a passage with one missing word; learners suggest the missing word.

· • That’s not right

· • Speak an incorrect sentence for learners to correct.

====================================

6.2

Speaking is often seen as the first productive skill, with learners typically speaking before they learn to
write. Unlike listening and reading, which are receptive skills, speaking allows for more flexibility in
language use. In speaking, people often break grammar rules, leading to hesitations and incomplete
sentences, which can confuse learners when they encounter native speakers who may speak with
various accents and mistakes.

One goal for educators should be to help learners not only produce correct spoken English when needed
but also understand the often fragmented speech of native speakers. Speaking is considered a vital skill,
as it represents one's ability in a language. Despite its importance, listening is reportedly used twice as
often as speaking outside the classroom. Speaking involves a collaborative process of creating meaning
and depends on the speaker's purpose, context, environment, participants, and their shared
experiences.

Speaking is usually spontaneous and adaptive, requiring knowledge of language elements like grammar,
pronunciation, and vocabulary, as well as the ability to understand the social aspects of communication.
Good speakers mix these skills to communicate effectively. When teaching speaking tasks, it’s important
to explain the language function required and the relevant context without introducing excessive new
vocabulary or grammar.
Fluency refers to speaking smoothly without hesitation, while accuracy relates to using correct grammar
and pronunciation. In teaching, the focus should lean towards developing fluency over accuracy.
Educators can enhance learners' speaking skills by regularly emphasizing different aspects of speaking,
such as fluency, pronunciation, grammar, and body language, while ensuring the main objective of
conversation is to teach learners how to express and produce language effectively.

=====================

When planning a speaking activity, consider these questions: Is it practical? Think about how easy it is to
set up and manage. Does it require materials or preparation time? Is it purposeful?

Ensure the learners have a reason for doing the activity and a measurable outcome. If there's no
purpose, reconsider the activity. Is it productive? Determine how much speaking the activity will
generate. Is it adaptable? Can it be adjusted for different skill levels? Overall, ensure that the activity
encourages conversation without being too complicated or time-consuming to prepare.

For example, an activity could involve learners in groups of three writing six sentences about their daily
routines, mixing three true and three false. They would read their sentences aloud, while others guess
which are true or false, encouraging discussion. This exercise is practical, purposeful, and adaptable for
any skill level, requiring only about 20 minutes to plan.

To assess if learners are becoming ‘good’ speakers, observe their speaking skills and habits. A ‘good’
speaker needs to choose appropriate language, use correct pronunciation, grammar, and manage
conversation flow. They should also clarify misunderstandings, consider their audience, use body
language, and adjust their speech based on the interaction's success.

=====================

To structure an effective speaking lesson, follow the same five-step lesson plan used for a listening
lesson.

1. Step 1: Opening - Start by engaging your learners with a warmer that relates to previous
learning. Explain what the lesson will cover, such as learning words to help someone give
directions. Highlight the importance of the lesson and how it can help others.

2. Step 2: Introduction of New Material - Address any misunderstandings and keep your learners
engaged. Reinforce the significance of the new learning, ensuring all learners are included. Use
various teaching methods to make the information accessible, and encourage active
participation by asking questions and eliciting examples.

3. Step 3: Guided Practice - Maintain engagement as you model behavior expectations. Provide
materials, like a marked map, and have learners practice writing down instructions based on
what they learned. Ensure all learners have plenty of practice opportunities, starting from easy
 tasks and gradually increasing difficulty. Monitor and correct performances as needed, focusing
on accuracy.

4. Step 4: Independent Practice - Keep engagement high by setting clear expectations. Design tasks
so learners can show they've mastered the lesson objectives, such as partnering to give
directions based on a map. Offer extension activities for those who finish early. This step
emphasizes learner fluency and applying what they've learned.

5. Step 5: Closing - Maintain engagement while allowing learners to summarize what they've
learned. Encourage them to reflect on the significance of their learning. Provide opportunities
for those who haven't demonstrated mastery yet and set a homework assignment if necessary.

When teaching speaking, consider these practical points:

6. 1. Arrange learners in pairs or small groups to increase speaking time and reduce anxiety in
larger settings, though monitoring may be limited.

7. 2. Base activities on clear, accessible language to ensure learners can easily recall and produce
necessary language for fluent speaking.

8. 3. Choose stimulating topics and tasks to motivate learners, using problem-solving and role-
playing to spark interest.

9. 4. Give clear instructions for setting up activities, ensuring everyone contributes during group
discussions and appoint a chairperson to regulate participation.

10. 5. Encourage the use of the target language during discussions, with the chairperson helping to
keep the group accountable and you circulating to remind learners of language use.

11. 6. Maximize speaking time by ensuring learners have plenty of opportunity to talk during the
activity.

12. 7. Ensure participation is even, preventing a few talkative learners from dominating discussions
and allowing all learners to contribute. Adjust groups as needed to maintain balance.

==========================

If your learners want to communicate effectively, they need to practice various speaking strategies and
activities. The goal is to make these engaging, productive, enjoyable, and appropriate for young adults
and adults.

One practical approach is to help learners develop speaking strategies. This includes minimal responses,
recognizing scripts, and using clarification and comprehension responses, which can enhance their
language knowledge and boost their confidence.

Beginner learners often lack confidence in speaking. You can encourage them by helping them use
minimal responses. These are simple phrases that show understanding, agreement, doubt, and other
reactions during conversations, such as “Oh, I see,” “Is that so? ” or “Sorry, I didn’t catch that. ” Such
responses allow learners to focus on the speaker without needing to think about what to say next.

Another useful strategy is recognizing scripts. Many conversations follow predictable patterns, like
greetings or making requests. By teaching learners about common scripts for specific interactions, they
can anticipate responses and feel more prepared to engage in conversations.

Clarification and comprehension responses are also important. Learners might feel shy or embarrassed if
they don’t understand what is being said. Let them know that it’s common to ask for clarification. Teach
them phrases they can use, like “Do you mean…? ” or “Sorry, I don’t understand. ” Encouraging the use
of these phrases in class will help learners feel more confident managing conversations outside of the
classroom.

Another aim is to get students talking. The classroom can feel fake, and some learners may be nervous
about speaking in a new language, fearing they will make mistakes or be laughed at. It’s essential to
create a comfortable environment where learners are willing to practice. To achieve this, keep tasks
simple, prepare learners well, and allow them to work in pairs or groups instead of presenting in front of
everyone.

Here are some engaging activity ideas:

13. 1. A little-known fact: Ask learners to share their name, age, and an unusual fact about
themselves, such as “I have a pet snake. ” This helps learners practice conversation and gives
them something to talk about in future interactions.

14. 2. The hot seat: A volunteer sits with their back to the board, while a word is written on the
board. Other learners give hints to help the person guess the word, which can be related to what
they are currently studying.

15. 3. Interviews: Pair learners to conduct interviews based on a provided topic, like favorite sport or
food. When finished, they share their partner's favorites with the class.

16. 4. A few of my favorite things: Ask learners to name their top three favorite things related to a
topic. If time allows, ask them to share their three least favorite things, too.

17. 5. Describing a drawing/map: One learner describes a picture while another attempts to draw it
 based only on the description. This reverses roles afterward, which makes it challenging and fun.

18. 6. Twenty questions: In groups, one learner thinks of a famous character, and others must guess
who it is by asking yes or no questions. They can ask up to 20 questions to find out.

19. 7. Time for a change: Learners keep their eyes closed while changes are made to the teacher's
appearance. They then guess what has changed by asking questions.

20. 8. Find a classmate who: Learners move around the room asking each other questions to find
classmates who can do various activities, like play football or paint. They then report back what
they learned to the class.

================================

6.3

Your job is to make sure the writing tasks you give your learners are suitable for their level and content,
providing them with enough time to prepare. If done well, this will help your learners enjoy their writing
and produce good work. Learners from backgrounds with different alphabets, such as Arabic countries,
may require extra support.

People often think of writing as just composing essays, but we write for diverse purposes and in various
styles. One key part of your role is to teach learners the differences between formal and informal writing
so they can use both correctly. Every writing task must have a clear purpose, ensuring that learners
understand for whom they are writing.

Keep in mind that in some educational settings, learners focus more on language learning rather than
creative writing. Many learners need English for practical purposes, such as studying, taking exams, or
advancing their careers, so they will expect your teaching to reflect these needs. For them, accuracy,
fluency, and the right style matter more than imaginative writing.

==============

Some learners may struggle with basic writing concepts, such as what a sentence and a paragraph are.
They might seek advice on sentence length or have difficulties with paragraph structure, needing to
understand that a paragraph covers one idea, not a set number of lines.

Problems with punctuation are also common; students may not know how to use capital letters, full
stops, or other punctuation marks correctly. Encouraging learners to keep a spelling book can help with
spelling, along with pointing out commonly misspelt words and teaching basic spelling rules.

Writing is one of the core language skills, and the different skills should be combined to support each
other. Writing reinforces language learned through other activities like listening and speaking. It is
important to dedicate enough time to the writing process, as it requires thought and preparationthis can
include reading, discussing, or listening before writing.
===========

Punctuation can be challenging for learners, as many may not be familiar with the correct usage of
capital letters or periods. They may need practice with specific punctuation rules, such as using capital
letters for names or titles, quotation marks for direct speech, and proper use of commas. It's essential to
monitor learners’ progress and create exercises that target their weaknesses in punctuation.

It's worth showing how punctuation affects meaning. For example, removing a comma can alter the
entire message of a sentence. You can also teach learners basic punctuation rules to clarify meaning,
such as the placement of dashes and the impact on sentence interpretation.

Spelling is another hurdle even for native speakers. Encourage learners to maintain a personal spelling
notebook to track mistakes. Highlight words they need to master as they appear in the course, along
with regular spelling activities. Teaching common spelling patterns can help, like the rule that "i" comes
before "e" except after "c," or guidelines for doubling consonants based on vowel length.

==============

Highlight common mistakes like confusing "of" and "off", "advise" and "advice," and the differences in
British and American spelling, such as "colour" versus "color. "

There are various reasons why we write. Your learners may need to create formal documents like
business letters, essays, or job applications, or informal notes and emails to friends or family. It is
essential for them to understand the difference between formal and informal writing styles so that they
can apply the right approach depending on their audience.

When writing, it is important to know the audience. This could be anyone from a family member to a
bank manager or a newspaper editor. Having a clear understanding of the audience helps learners
choose an appropriate tone for their writing. You might personalize assignments so that learners can
write about themselves or imagine how they would react to certain situations.

Introduce different writing types to learners based on their proficiency levels and provide guidance as
they practice writing across various contexts.

============

Different types of writing styles:

21. Imitative writing is for beginners, where learners copy written forms by writing letters, words,
and short sentences, including dictation.

22. Self-writing is for the learner alone, with examples like note-taking and journal entries.

23. Display writing involves showing work to others, such as short answers and essays.
 24. Authentic writing targets a specific audience and includes various texts like opinion pieces and
letters.

25. Creative writing is crucial for native learners but less so for second language learners.

===========================

6.3.5 Writing Approaches And Processes

General Approaches to Writing

process writing and product writing.

Process Writing

· • Involves multiple stages.

· • Aims to develop various learner skills.

· sentences, announcements, letters, essays.

· • Text/visual serves as a resource.

· • Ideas are the starting point.

· • Involves more than one draft.

· • Global focus on purpose, theme, text type, with emphasis on reader.

· • Collaborative effort.

· • Highlights the creative process.

Product Writing

· • More traditional approach.

· • Learners mirror a model text.

· • Usually involves early presentation and analysis of the model.

· • Imitation of the model text.

· • Organization of ideas is prioritized over the ideas themselves.

 · • May involve just one draft.

· • Highlights specific features with controlled practice.

· • Individual effort.

· • Focus on end product.

The Writing Process

Pre• writing

· • Reflecting, brainstorming, listing, making timelines, clustering.

· • Discussions or reading.

· • Automatic or free writing.

Draft

· • Learners write the first draft.

· • Focus on getting ideas down, not on spelling or grammar.

· • Shaping text for self• critique or peer review.

Revision

· • Incorporates feedback to create another version.

· • Revision may occur multiple times until clarity is achieved.

· • Editing focuses on grammar, spelling, punctuation, and cohesiveness.

· • An editing checklist can guide the process.

Variations in Writing Process

 · • Pre• writing can be done orally or in writing, individual or group.

· • Drafts may be prepared in class or as homework.

· • Individual discussions with learners for clarification.

· • Class time may focus on specific areas, like topic sentence development.

· • Writing is a time• consuming process that requires thoughtful preparation.

====================

There are many skills a learner needs to build to write effectively.

Macro skills focus on the overall content and organization of writing. Examples include arranging
paragraphs logically, identifying main ideas or topic sentences, and using transition words to create
smooth connections. Writing effectively requires learners to have well-developed macro skills to
generate ideas, organize them properly, and express them clearly for the intended audience.

=========================================================

In the context of teaching English, **macro skills** refer to the four primary language skills that learners
need to develop for effective communication. These are:

1. **Listening** – The ability to understand spoken language in various contexts, such as conversations,
lectures, or media. It involves skills like identifying main ideas, making inferences, and recognizing tone
or intent.

2. **Speaking** – The ability to express thoughts, opinions, and ideas verbally. This includes
pronunciation, fluency, grammar, and coherence in spoken interactions.

3. **Reading** – The ability to understand and interpret written texts. It includes recognizing
vocabulary, comprehending meaning, identifying themes, and making inferences.

4. **Writing** – The ability to produce written texts clearly and effectively. This includes grammar,
punctuation, organization, and coherence.

Some educators also include a **fifth macro skill**:

5. **Viewing** – The ability to interpret and analyze visual media, such as videos, infographics, or digital
content, which is increasingly important in modern communication.

These macro skills are essential in English language teaching (ELT) because they enable learners to
engage with and use the language in real-world situations. Effective teaching strategies should integrate
all these skills to help learners become proficient in English.
===========================================================

Micro skills focus on the accuracy and correct usage of written forms. These include correct spelling and
punctuation, standard formats, choosing appropriate vocabulary, and using proper grammar and
structure. At the micro level, learners practice specific writing tasks emphasizing accuracy, such as
substitution exercises, sentence completion with different grammatical forms, spelling exercises,
information-gap tasks, and reordering activities.

============================================================

Micro Skills in Teaching English

While macro skills focus on broad language abilities (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and viewing),
micro skills refer to the smaller, more detailed components that contribute to mastering those macro
skills. These micro skills involve specific linguistic and cognitive abilities that learners need to develop
proficiency in English.

Examples of Micro Skills for Each Macro Skill:

Listening Micro Skills:

· Recognizing phonemes, intonation, and stress patterns.

· Understanding reduced forms of words (e.g., contractions, elisions).

· Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings.

· Identifying discourse markers and connectors (e.g., "however," "on the other hand").

Speaking Micro Skills:

· Using appropriate pronunciation, stress, and intonation.

· Employing correct grammatical structures.

· Choosing appropriate vocabulary for context.

· Using cohesive devices for fluency (e.g., transitions, connectors).

· Adjusting speech based on social and cultural contexts.

Reading Micro Skills:

 · Recognizing letters and word patterns.

· Identifying main ideas and supporting details.

· Understanding word formation (prefixes, suffixes, root words).

· Making inferences and predictions based on context.

· Skimming (for general ideas) and scanning (for specific details).

Writing Micro Skills:

· Using proper spelling and punctuation.

· Structuring sentences correctly (syntax).

· Organizing paragraphs logically (coherence and cohesion).

· Applying various writing styles (formal, informal, persuasive, etc.).

· Editing and revising for clarity and accuracy.

Viewing Micro Skills (if included as a macro skill):

· Interpreting images, graphs, and charts.

· Understanding visual storytelling techniques.

· Recognizing bias and perspective in multimedia content.

Why Are Micro Skills Important?

Micro skills are the building blocks that support the development of macro skills. Teachers should focus
on both levels—helping students practice detailed aspects of language (micro skills) while also engaging
them in holistic communication (macro skills). By combining both, learners can develop fluency,
accuracy, and confidence in English.

=================================================================

To structure an effective writing lesson, follow a similar format to lessons for listening and speaking.

26. Step 1: Opening - Start with engaging learners, referring to prior lessons if possible. Explain what
 will be covered and how, highlighting the importance of the new learning.

27. Step 2: Introduction of new material - Address any misunderstandings and keep learners
engaged. Reinforce the importance of the new material, ensuring it is accessible through various
teaching methods and encouraging active participation.

28. Step 3: Guided practice - Maintain learner interest while clearly stating expectations. Provide
opportunities for practice, gradually increasing task difficulty. Monitor and assist learners as they
reproduce the targeted structure during controlled activities.

29. Step 4: Independent practice - Continue to engage learners and state clear expectations. Set
tasks where learners can demonstrate their understanding independently, potentially including
peer discussions for feedback. Encourage advanced activities for fast finishers to ensure all
learners are challenged.

30. Step 5: Closing - Keep learners interested while allowing time for them to summarize what they
learned and its significance. Provide all learners opportunities to show their understanding and
consider setting a homework activity for further assessment.

Writing lessons should adhere to this 5-step format as in listening and speaking lessons.

Consider the following points when designing activities:

· - Is there a communicative purpose for the task?

· - Will it motivate and engage learners?

· - Is the task suitable for their level?

· - Will learners produce complete texts?

· - Is the writing relevant to learners’ needs?

· - Is the task authentic, representing a real-life situation?

· - How much preliminary teaching is needed?

· - Who is the intended audience for the activity?

· - What levels can the activity serve?

· - Does the task require more than one lesson to finish?

Some common types of writing activities include gap-fills where learners choose answers, reproducing a
model text to write something similar, interactive writing through correspondence, composing essays,
and writing dialogues with specific terms included.

When planning, consider if the task meets essential criteria:

· - Communicative: Does it require meaningful communication?

· - Integration: Does it create a complete message alone or with a series of messages?

· - Authentic: Is it a real-life task?

· - Readership: Is there an intended audience?

· - Level: Is it appropriate for the learners’ skill level?

Each criterion holds equal importance, and if many tasks do not meet these criteria, they may not
adequately prepare learners for writing skills.

=========================================

Effective Writing Strategies, Exercises And Activities

· • Importance of various writing strategies for learners

· • Aim for practical, enjoyable, and productive activities

Strategies

· • Research indicates many learners lack strategies in L2 writing

· • Rewriting spelling patterns

· • Copying texts

· • Writing sentences with studied structures

· • Translating writing from L1 to English

 · • Note• taking for practice

· • Finding amusing punctuation examples

· • Writing word connections for later use

· • Consulting textbooks and dictionaries

· • Summarising larger texts

· • Highlighting usable language chunks

· • Highlight the value of proficient writing

· • Regularly assign short writing tasks

· • Provide writing guidelines

· • Share personal writing learning difficulties

· • Facilitate peer feedback on writing

· • Stress the importance of writing skills for future careers

· • Share anecdotes on the implications of substandard writing

· • Read quality writing examples aloud

· • Encourage noticing grammar and punctuation in various texts

· • Use poorly structured sentences for improvement exercises

Some Writing Activities

· • Copying text for beginners

· • Word grouping under headings

· • Substitution tables for sentence creation

· • Matching tables for careful thinking

· • Gap• filling exercises for tense practice

· • Tables and charts to personalize tasks

 · • Reordering words/sentences for correct structure

· • Sentence completion options

· • Transformations for changing passages

· • Dictation from familiar texts

· • Short essays based on pictures

· • Completing dialogues creatively

· • Writing informal/formal letters

· • Writing predictions in stories or videos

· • Group projects involving surveys or collating information

=======================================================

6.4

Reading is an essential skill that allows learners to explore and learn outside of the classroom. It involves
various skills and should be approached in multiple ways. Effective teachers will engage their students
while also challenging them. In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes, the main focus of reading is
to acquire and understand the new language, rather than interpreting creative ideas.

Intensive reading involves detailed analysis of texts, allowing students to interact with the material and
practice their language skills through various exercises. In contrast, extensive reading offers learners the
chance to read a variety of texts, often from class or school libraries, but this is often overlooked in
educational settings.

Many teachers cite curriculum demands as obstacles to accommodating extensive reading, yet it is
essential for developing independent readers who find joy in reading. This process may take time and
resources, but it is possible.

Learners' attitudes toward reading can vary greatly, from enthusiasm in younger students to indifference
in older ones. It's important to make reading enjoyable by selecting interesting topics and fun exercises,
steering away from boring passages and tedious comprehension questions. Just as writing has a purpose,
reading should also have a clear reason, whether it's for information or entertainment.

To make reading engaging, teachers can ask students about their towns and the problems they face.
They can then read a letter addressed to local authorities about these issues and compare it with
promotional materials. Students can write their own letters in response. This method combines various
language skills and fosters enthusiasm for reading.

Several challenges can hinder reading, such as linguistic difficulties and the need for coherence in
understanding connections between sentences. Background knowledge is crucial for comprehension, as
it helps learners make connections based on their experiences. Lengthy texts may overwhelm some
learners, leading to a lack of focus. Additionally, cultural differences and limited past reading experiences
may affect students’ appreciation for extensive reading.

=============================

Here are the critical reading skills a learner needs to develop:

Silent reading is essential for effective and quick reading. It allows readers to move their eyes swiftly
over the page, recognizing words and understanding their meaning without saying them out loud. Lip
movements should be discouraged as they can slow down reading.

Skimming helps readers quickly understand the general idea of a text without needing to comprehend
every word. Learners should accept that unknown words will appear in texts and practice guessing their
meanings based on context.

Scanning involves searching a text for specific information.

Some teachers frequently have learners read aloud, but this may not be necessary for many. Reading
aloud is a skill few people need unless they are advanced learners. Reading silently is more efficient, but
reading aloud can take time away from it.

Challenges with reading aloud include the need to either ignore mistakes or constantly interrupt to
correct them, silent readers often reading faster than those reading aloud, and the potential anxiety for
some learners. It's important to determine the amount of reading aloud appropriate for the classroom.

Unprepared reading aloud might not be effective unless learners are advanced and fluent. If a teacher
wants students to read aloud in class, giving them time to prepare is beneficial for their confidence and
for making the experience enjoyable for others.

Silent reading is more productive for learners who are somewhat fluent. They can read independently
and engage in follow-up activities, allowing them to read at their own pace. Homework reading can also
be assigned.

Reading aloud as a teacher occasionally is good for adding tone and engagement, while beginners
should have all readings done by the teacher.

========================================

If your learners want to improve their reading skills, they should use a variety of reading strategies and
activities. It's important to make these activities practical, productive, and enjoyable for them, especially
for younger adults.

Some effective strategies for reading include guessing word meanings from context, using clues from
word formation, understanding grammar and sentence structure, analyzing reference words, predicting
content, and learning to use dictionaries well.

There are also several engaging activities you can try. For example, you can have learners match or
contrast the traits of two characters from a story. Timelines can help them see how a text is structured,
especially with changes in tense or important words. Character studies can be more interesting by having
students fill out reports about the characters.

They can also write summaries, create new endings for stories, re-enact scenes, or conduct interviews
based on the text. Listening carefully to keywords from videos or audio recordings, role-playing cultural
experiences from the text, asking true/false and factual questions, filling in gaps in sentences,
distinguishing between fact and opinion, drawing conclusions, and connecting readings to their own
experiences are other effective activities.

Choose reading topics and exercises that are fun and engaging for both younger and older learners. You
can modify activities for different age groups.

For distractions, bring one learner from each group to the front and have them read while you try to
distract them in fun ways. Points can be awarded for the first person to finish or for keeping a straight
face.

Using a DVD control panel drawing on the board, read a story together, adjusting their pace and style in
response to 'buttons' they hit, like speed up or slow down. This can include adding facial expressions or
singing along.

· In a "one learner one word" activity, form teams and have each student read one word of the
text; if someone makes a mistake or takes too long, the other team gets a point.

· In a "read to me circle," have learners read to each other in pairs, switching partners when
instructed.

· For "walk and read," let learners read while walking around, jumping or skipping.

· In "upside down reading," pair students to read the text upside down and switch partners each
round.

· For "banned words," announce a grammatical word that cannot be used while reading; when it
comes up, they must replace it with a sound or a different word.

· Lastly, in "reading bingo," students choose ten words from a reading extract, and as you read
random sentences, they mark off their words. The first to mark all ten wins.

Many activities for speaking, writing, and listening can also be adapted for intensive reading, like
identifying mistakes or reordering sentences.