BCHEE202

MODULE 1
CHEMISTRY OF ELECTRONIC MATERIALS

1. Explain the classification of materials as conductors, semiconductors and insulators on

the basis of band theory.
Band theory is a theoretical model that describes the states of electrons in solid materials. In-band
theory of solids, there are numerous energy bands. However, the most important energy bands in
solids are as follows:
1. Valence band
2. Conduction band
3. Forbidden band
Classification of the materials as conductors, semiconductors, and insulators based on band theory

Conductors:
Metals such as copper (Cu), aluminum (Al) are having no forbidden gap present in between
conduction band and valence band, since they overlap. There is a continuous availability of
electrons in these closely spaced orbitals. This kind of materials allow electricity to flow through
them. They conduct electricity because they allow electrons to flow easily inside them from atom
to atom.
Example: Copper, Gold, Silver etc
Insulator: An insulator has a large gap between the valence band and the conduction band. The
valence band is full as no electrons can move up to the conduction band. As a result, the conduction
band is empty. (Generally band gap is >9eV)
Quartz is 99.999% pure SiO2, it is lack of free valance electrons.
Example: Examples: Quartz (8.9 eV).
Semiconductor: Semiconductors have a small energy gap between the valence band and the
conduction band. Electrons can make the jump up to the conduction band, but not with the same
ease as they do in conductors.(Generally band gap is >1.0 eV)
Example: Silicon and Germanium (1.1eV) and (0.7 eV)

2. Describe the purification of electronic grade silicon from quartz by

Czochralski process.
Step 1: Production of Electronic grade silicon ( Polycrystalline) from Quartz by Union Carbide
process
Step 2: Production of single crystalline silicon by Czochralski process

Step 1: Production of Electronic grade silicon ( Polycrystalline) from Quartz by Union

Carbide process
Quartz or silica (SiO2) is reduced to silicon using carbon (or coal as reducing agent) in an electric
arc furnace heated to 1500-2000˚C. Molten Silicon obtained is tapped from the bottom of the
furnace and is subjected to refining.

Refining of silicon
The crude silicon obtained in the above method is taken in a large ladle and treated SiO2 and
lime/limestone (CaO/CaCO3). The less noble elements than silica such as Al, Ca and Mg are
oxidized as their oxides.

Production of semiconductor grade silicon

The metallurgical grade silicon is treated with dry HCl gas at 3000 C to form trichlorosilane & a
small amount of tetrachlorosilane. The mixture is distilled to get pure trichlorosilane.
 At fixed bed columns containing quaternary ammonium ion exchange resin as catalyst,

Pyrolysis

Silicon obtained is polycrystalline.

Step 2:It is converted to single Crystalline by
i) Czochralski process (CZ) and
ii) Float Zone (FZ) methods

Czochralski process (CZ)

Principle: The Czochralski-technique is a method to
pull a monocrystal with the same crystallographic
orientation of a small monocrystalline seed crystal
out of melted silicon

Working
1. Polycrystalline silicon and small quantity of doped silicon is taken in a Quartz crucible (SiO2)
heated to a temperature of 1414˚C in an argon atmosphere using RF coil.
2. The silicon melt temperature is kept constant roughly above the silicon melting point.
3. A rotating puller rod with a monocrystalline silicon seed crystal with the desired crystal
orientation (e. g.<100>, <110> or <111>) is immersed into the melt and acts as a starting point for
the crystal formation supported by the heat transfer from the melt to the already grown crystal.
4. The seed crystal is slowly pulled out of the melt, where the pull speed determines the crystal
diameter.
5. The puller rod is pulled out at the rate of 1.5-5 cm/hour and simultaneously rotated at a speed
of 100 rpm.
 6.As the rod is pulled away from the surface, silicon solidifies and a single crystal of silicon having
the same crystal structure as that of the seed crystal is obtained.
7. During crystal growth, the crystal as well as the crucible counter-rotate in order to improve the
homogeneity of the crystal and its dopant concentration.
Advantages:
1. Capable of producing large diameter crystals from which large diameter wafers can be cut
2. Lower production cost per wafer.
Disadvantages:
1. Impurities such as oxygen and carbon from the quartz and graphite crucible which lower the
minority carrier diffusion length in the finished silicon wafer.
2. Less homogeneity in dopant concentration in axial position.

3. Discuss the float zone method of purification of silicon.

Principle: When a melt of polycrystalline silicon and crystal seed is supported by surface tension.
Impurities are less soluble in the crystal than in the melt, and as the melt carries impurities with it,
highly pure monocrystalline silicon is formed.
1.High-purity polycrystalline rod and a monocrystalline seed crystal (e. g. <100>, <110> or
<111>) that are held face to face in a vertical position inside a quartz pipe filled with inert gas
(Ar).
2.A small area of the polycrystalline silicon rod is melted by induction heating using RF coil.
3. The silicon melt is supported by the surface tension between the melting silicon and the growing
solid silicon seed. A monocrystalline silicon seed crystal is in contact with the melt of polysilicon
which, after cooling down, forms monocrystalline silicon.
3. The RF coil and the melted zone move along the entire ingot.
4. Impurities are less soluble in the crystal than in the melted silicon, the molten zone carries the
impurities away with it.
6. The impurities concentrate near the end of the crystal where finally they can simply be cut away
5. This procedure can be repeated one or more times in order to reduce the impurity concentration.
6. Dopants can be added in the gaseous form of (PH3) or diborane (B2H6) to the inert
gas atmosphere.
Advantages:
1. FZ technique can grow Si crystals with lower impurities than that prepared by CZ method.
2. Dopant concentration in the final crystal is rather homogeneous
Disadvantages:
1. FZ silicon is more expensive than CZ silicon
2. The crystal diameter is limited to eight inches
4. A polydisperse sample of polystyrene is prepared by mixing three monodisperse samples
in the following proportions. 1g of 10000 molecular weight, 2g of 50000 molecular weight
and 2g of 100000 molecular weight. Determine number average and weight average
molecular weight. Find the index of polydispersity.

Sl No No of Molecules(N) Molecular Mass( M) g/mol

1 𝑁1 = 1g 𝑀1 = 104
2 𝑁2 = 2g 𝑀2 = 5 ∗ 104
3 𝑁3 = 2g 𝑀3 = 2 ∗ 105

Number average molecular mass (𝐌̅n) is given by:

N1 M 1  N 2 M 2  N 3 M 3  ......
Mn 
N1  N 2  N 3  .......... .......... ...

1(1∗104) + 2(5∗104 )+2(20∗ 104)

𝐌̅n = 1+2+2

104 (1+ 10+40)

𝐌̅n = 1+2+2
 104 ∗51 𝑔
𝐌̅n = 5
= 10.2 ∗ 104 ⁄𝑙

Weight average molecular mass (𝐌̅w) is given by:

N1 M 1  N 2 M 2  N 3 M 3  .......
2 2 2

MW 
N1 M 1  N 2 M 2  N 3 M 3  .......... ..

1∗(104 )∗(104 ) + 2∗(5∗104 )∗ (5∗104 ) +2∗(20∗104 ) ∗ (20∗104 ) 851

𝐌̅w = 1(1∗104) + 2(5∗104 )+2(2∗ 105)
= 51
=16.68 x 104 g/l

𝐌̅w=16.68 x 104

Mw 16.68 x 104
PDI  =
10.2∗104
= 1.63
Mn
PDI >1, the given polymer is less homogeneous and poly disperse in nature.

5. Define number average molecular weight and weight average molecular weight of a
polymer. In a sample of a polymer, 20% molecules have molecular mass 15000 g/mol,
35% molecules have molecular mass 25000 g/mol, and remaining molecules have
molecular mass 27000 g /mol, calculate the number average and weight average
molecular mass of the polymer.

Number Average Molecular Weight (𝐌̅n)

The total weight of all the polymer molecules in a sample, divided by the total number of molecules
in a sample.
N1 M1  N 2 M 2  N3 M 3  ......
Mn 
N1  N 2  N 3  .......... .......... ...

Weight – Average Molecular Weight (𝐌̅w)

Sum of the products of total mass of groups of molecules and their respective molecular mass is
divided by the total mass of all the molecules.
 No of Molecules(N) Molecular Mass( M) g/mol
1 𝑁1 = 20 𝑀1 = 15000
2 𝑁2 = 35 𝑀2 = 25000
3 𝑁3 = 45 𝑀3 = 27000

The number average molecular mass of the polymer is given by

Mn 
 NiMi
 Ni
20 X 15000 35X 25000 45 X 27000
  23900 g / mol
20  35  45

The weight average molecular mass of the polymer is given by

Mw 
 Ni Mi 2

 Ni Mi
N1 M 1  N 2 M 2  N 3 M 3
2 2 2

MW 
N1 M 1  N 2 M 2  N 3 M 3

20 X (15000) 2  35X (25000) 2  45X (27000) 2

MW   24761g / mol
20 X 15000 35X 25000 45 X 27000

6. Explain the preparation, properties, and commercial applications of graphene oxide.

Synthesis of Graphene Oxide by Hummers method

Properties of Graphene Oxide
Monolayer GO (produced by a modified Hummer's method) possess very good mechanical
properties.
Graphene Oxide is hydrophilic, can easily disperse in organic solvents, water, and different
matrixes.
Graphene oxide functions as an electrical insulator, because of the disturbance of its sp2 bonding
networks.
It is important to reduce the graphene oxide so as to recover the honeycomb hexagonal lattice of
graphene, in order to restore electrical conductivity.
Applications of Graphene Oxide
GO used in fabricating transparent conductive films (TFCs)
Functionalized graphene oxide can be used as fluorescence and photo luminescent means in
cellular imaging.
Chemically-altered graphene oxide used in the production of bio devices and optoelectronics,
and for use in drug delivery.
GO is used to treat waste water and reduce pollutants.

7. What are conducting polymers? Give the synthesis of Polyacetylene and mention the
applications. Discuss the conduction mechanism in Polyacetylene through oxidative
doping technique.

Conducting polymers are polyconjugated organic polymers that conduct electricity because of
their conjugated π-bonds.

Synthesis of neutral Polyacetylene

Applications of Conducting Polyacetylene

1. Used as electrode material in lightweight rechargeable batteries.
2. Used in making Glucose Sensor.
3. Used in making Transistors
4. Light Emitting Diodes

Polyacetylene is converted to conducting polyacetylene using oxidizing agent such as iodine

in CCl4.
Mechanism of conduction:
 The addition of an electron to the polymer back bone by using a reducing agent generates a
radical ion or polaron.
 A second reduction of chain containing polaron gives Bipolaron.
 Recombination of radicals of Bipolaron produces Soliton.
 The negative charges on Soliton are mobile in two directions and current carriers for
conduction.

8. What is electroless plating? Describe electroless plating of copper in the manufacture of

double-sided PCB.

Electro less plating is a method of depositing a metal or alloy over a substrate (conductor or
non-conductor) by controlled chemical reduction of the metal ions by a suitable reducing
agent without using electrical energy.
 Constituents Purpose

CuSO4 Provides metal ions (Source) 16g/L

HCHO Reducing reagent 20g/L

Rochelle salt Complexing agent 15g/L

NaOH Provides alkaline medium 14g/L

EDTA Exaltant & Complexing agent

pH 11.0

Temperature 25˚C

Electroless plating of copper in the manufacture of double-sided PCB.

Pretreatment and activation of the surface: Metals like Fe, CO, Ni etc do not need pretreatment.
Non-metallic materials (e.g. glass, plastics, printed circuit boards, PCB) are activated by first
dipping in SnCl2 and HCl solution, followed by dipping in PdCl2 solution and dried
 Constituents Purpose

CuSO4 Provides metal ions (Source) 16g/L

HCHO Reducing reagent 20g/L

Rochelle salt Complexing agent 15g/L

NaOH Provides alkaline medium 14g/L

EDTA Exaltant & Complexing agent

pH 11.0

Temperature 25˚C
Reactions:

Oxidation of reducing reagent : 2HCHO + 4OH¯  2HCOO¯ + 2H2O + H2 + 2e–

Reduction of metal ion over object surface : Cu2+ + 2e–  Cu

Overall reaction : Cu2+ + 2HCHO + 4OH¯  Cu + 2HCOO¯ + 2H2O + H2↑

 MODULE 2
Energy Source, Conversion and Storage

1 What are batteries? Explain the classification of batteries with suitable examples.
A battery is a device consists of two or more galvanic cells arranged in series or parallel or both that can
generate electrical energy. Batteries are mainly classified into three types.
a Primary (single-discharge) Batteries
These are the batteries in which net cell reaction is not completely reversible, therefore these are not
rechargeable.
Example: Leclanche cell (Zn-MnO2), Magnesium cell (Mg-MnO2), Zn-air cell (Zn-O2), Lithium primary cell
etc.
b Secondary Batteries: These are the batteries in which net cell reaction is completely reversible and therefore
these are rechargeable.
Example: Lead-acid, Nickel- cadmium, Nickel-metal hydride, Lithium-ion batteries.
c Reserve Batteries: A battery in which one of the key component is kept away from the battery and
incorporated when there is a need of electricity. A reserve battery is designed to provide high power for short
span of time and therefore used for military applications. Ag-Cu2O and Ag-MnO2

2. Explain the construction and working of Sodium-ion battery. Mention its applications.
The sodium ions are transferred to the negative
electrode through the electrolyte to be inserted there
into the active material. Accordingly, an oxidation
(positive electrode) and reduction (negative electrode)
reaction take place at the respective electrode. The cell
voltage increases as the cell is charged.

Anode: Sodium metal intercalated on graphite is used as anode and copper foil is used to collect charges.
Cathode: Layered carbon is intercalated with NaCoO2 or NaMnO2
Electrolyte: Commonly used electrolytes are NaPF6 in PEC and PPC
Separator: Polymer membrane
Battery representation: NaxC6 / NaPF6 in PEC / Na(1  x)CoO2
NaPF6 sodium; hexafluorophosphate
3 Explain the construction and working of Lithium-polymer battery. Mention its applications.
A battery which uses solid electrolyte is called as solid state battery. Example: Li-polymer battery
Construction:
Anode: Anode contains a lithium carbon (such as graphite) and copper foil as a charge collector
Cathode: The cathode contains a lithium metal oxide (such as lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2)) and
aluminium is used as a charge collector
Electrolyte: A solid polymer electrolyte such as poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(acrylonitrile)
(PAN), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF), and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)

Battery representation:
LixC6 / PMMA / Li(1  x)CoO2

Discharging and charging reactions:

Working:
The anode and cathode are separated by an electrolyte that interacts with the anode to generate electrons,
which creates a charge gradient in the cell. As the anode becomes negatively charged, the electrons travel
along a conducting wire to the cathode, creating an electrical current. The whole system undergoes redox
reaction, where the anode loses electrons and becomes oxidized while the cathode gains electrons and is
reduced.
Voltage produced by LiPo batteries varies from 3.7 to 4.2V
 Applications of Li-Polymer batteries
Mobile devices, Power banks, Very thin laptop computers, Wireless controllers for video game consoles,
Wireless PC peripherals, Batteries for Drones
Advantages of LiPo batteries
1. Weight of the battery is less than lithium-ion battery therefore possess better energy density
2. Low internal resistance of a battery improves the shelf life.
3. Higher voltage compared to Lithium-ion battery.
4. Higher capacity
Disadvantages:
1. Cycle life is low ie: 300 to 400 cycles.
2. Its chemistry leads to fire when the LiPo battery is punctured.
3. It requires special care during charging, discharging, and storage.
4. It is expensive. The cost is almost double that Li-Ion battery.
4. What are flow batteries? Explain the construction and working of Vanadium redox flow battery.
Mention its applications.
Vanadium redox flow battery: The vanadium redox battery (VRB), also known as the vanadium flow
battery (VFB) or vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), is a type of rechargeable flow battery. It employs
vanadium ions as charge carriers.
Construction: A vanadium redox battery consists of an assembly of power cells in which two electrolytes
are separated by a proton exchange membrane.
Electrodes: The electrodes in a VRB cell are carbon based such graphite and CNT’s
Anode: V2+/V3+ redox couple in H2SO4 electrolyte circulated over carbon based electrode. (Vanadyl Sulphate
VSO4)
Cathode: V4+/V5+ redox couple in the form of oxygenated species (VO)2+/(VO2)+ in H2SO4 electrolyte
circulated over carbon based electrode.{(VO)2+ - Oxidation state of V is (IV) and (VO2)+ - Oxidation state of
V is (V)} (V2O5)
Electrolytes: Vanadium salt dissolved in sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte. The electrolyte in the
positive half-cells contains VO2+ and VO2+ ions, while the electrolyte in the negative half-cells consists of V3+
and V2+ ions. Membrane: The most common membrane material is perfluorinated sulfonic acid (PFSA)
(Nafion). polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon). (Proton Exchange Membrane)
 Application: Vanadium batteries are typically used for grid energy storage, i.e., attached to power
plants/electrical grids. ( DC-AC and AC-DC)
UPS
To store energy from renewable sources such as wind, solar
5 What are fuel cells? Mention the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells.
Fuel cells are the galvanic cells which convert chemical energy of a fuel- oxidant system directly into
electrical energy by catalyzed redox reactions.
 A fuel cell may be represented as: electrode/fuel/ electrolyte / oxidant/ electrode
Advantages:
1. High efficiency and no harmful pollutants (ecofriendly).
2. Charging is not required for fuel cells.
3. Silent operation.
4. They can produce direct currents for long periods at a low cost.
5. They offer high energy conversions (75%).
Limitations:
1. Cost of power is high as electrodes are costly.
2. Fuels in form of gases and oxygen need to be stored in tanks under pressure.
3. Power output is moderate.
6 What are fuel cells? Explain the construction and working of methanol oxygen fuel cell.
Fuel cells are the galvanic cells which convert chemical energy of a fuel- oxidant system directly into
electrical energy by catalyzed redox reactions.

It consists of two porous carbon electrodes. Anode is coated with

platinum catalyst and cathode with Palladium. A silver membrane
is placed near cathode.. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of
H2SO4. The Methane gas is continuously supplied at the anode and
oxygen is supplied at the cathode. Methanol diffuses through the
anode is adsorbed on the electrode surface. At the cathode Oxygen
diffusing through the electrode is adsorbed and gets reduced. A
membrane is placed adjacent to cathode to prevent the diffusion of
methanol to cathode.

Working
Anode CH3OH + H2O  CO2 + 6H+ + 6e
Cathode 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e  3H2O
Overall CH3OH + 3/2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Advantages
  Methanol has low carbon content and decreases carbon emissions.
 Easy oxidation of the fuel.
 Methanol is highly soluble in water.
Applications

1. Used in trains, ships and vehicles as a source of electrical energy.

2. Supplying electrical power for residential or industrial utility.

3. Used in military applications.

6 Explain the construction and working of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells.
Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFC) are electrochemical devices, converting the chemical energy of fuel
directly into electrical energy.
Anode: Porous carbon coated with platinum and hydrogen is used as fuel
Cathode: Porous carbon coated with electro catalyst platinum and air or oxygen is used as Oxidant
Electrolyte: The most typical polymer electrolyte membrane is the perfluorosulfonic-acid- type ion
exchange membrane such as Nafion.

Anode: H2 → 2H+ + 2e−

Cathode: ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O
Overall reaction: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O
Applications: Vehicles, portable applications,
telecommunications, waste water treatment plants Advantages
etc High power density
Disadvantages Operating temp less than 100˚C
Heat produced cannot be used for co-generation Longer life
additional power Easy oxidation of fuel (Spontaneous)

7 What are photovoltaic cells? Describe the construction and working of a photovoltaic cell. Mention its
advantages and disadvantages.
Photovoltaic cells or Solar cells are the semiconductor devices which converts sunlight into direct current
electricity.
A typical silicon photovoltaic cell is composed of a thin
poly crystalline silicon wafer consisting of an ultra-thin
layer of phosphorus doped. (n-type) silicon on top of
boron doped (p-type) silicon. Hence a p-n junction is
formed. A metallic grid forms one of the electrical
current contacts of the diode and allows light to fall on
the semiconductor between the grid lines as shown in
Fig. An antireflective layer between the grid lines
increases the amount of light transmitted to the
semiconductor. The cell’s other electrical contacts is
formed by a metallic layer on the back of the solar cell.
PV cell works on the principle of photoelectric effect E=hγ, When light radiation falls on the p-n junction
diode, electron – hole pairs are generated by the absorption of the radiation. The electrons are drifted to and
collected at the n-type end and the holes are drifted to p-type end. When these two ends are electrically
connected through a conductor, there is a flow of current between the two ends through the external circuit.
Thus photoelectric current is produced.
Advantages of PV cells: Disadvantages of PV cells:
 Fuel source is vast and infinite.  Sunlight is relatively low density energy.
 No emissions, no combustion or radioactive  High installation cost.
residues for disposal.  Energy can be produced only during daytime.
 Does not contribute to global warming or
pollution.
 Low operating cost and high reliability.
 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

1 Define corrosion. Mention any four implications of corrosion.

Destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction when a metal is in contact with corrosive medium is
called corrosion.

Implications or ill effects or disadvantages of corrosion:

1. It is estimated that 20% of Iron ore produced by mining is used to replace damaged Iron objects.
2. Corrosion causes poor appearance of the object.
3. Increases the maintenance and operating cost of metallic structure.
4. Severe corrosion of machinery and tools leads to shutdown of production plants
5. Loss of valuable products due to leakage.
6. Effects on safety and reliability in handling hazardous materials.

2 Define corrosion. Describe electrochemical theory of corrosion. OR Explain electrochemical theory of

corrosion with iron as example.
Definition of corrosion: Corrosion is defined as the destruction of metals or alloys by the surrounding environment
through chemical or electrochemical reactions.

Electrochemical theory of corrosion: According to electrochemical theory, when a metal such as iron is exposed to
corrosive environment, following changes occur. A large number of tiny galvanic cells with anodic and cathodic
regions are formed.

O2
Fe2+Fe2+ OHOH H2O

Anodic region Cathodic region

Electrons

Iron Metal

Reactions:
Reaction at anodic region: As mentioned above, oxidation of metal takes place at anode.
e.g. Fe  Fe2+ + 2 e-
2+
The Fe ions dissolve, so corrosion takes place at the anodic region.The electrons travel through the metal from the
anodic region to cathodic region.
Reactions at cathodic region: The metal is unaffected at the cathodic region. At cathode, the reaction is either a)
liberation of hydrogen or b) absorption of oxygen.
a) Liberation of hydrogen ( in the absence of oxygen)
In acidic medium the reaction is
2 H+ + 2 e-  H2 
In neutral or alkaline medium, the reaction is
2 H2O + 2 e-  2 OH- + H2 
b) Absorption of oxygen ( in the presence of oxygen)
In acidic medium, the reaction is
4 H+ + O2 + 4 e-  2 H2O
In neutral or alkaline medium, the reaction is
2 H2O + O2 + 4 e-  4 OH-
Overall reaction:
Fe + 1/2 O2 + H2O  Fe(OH)2 
2 Fe(OH)2 + 1/2 O2 + H2O  Fe2O3 . 3 H2O

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

3 Discuss galvanic corrosion with a neat labeled diagram and reactions.

Differential metal corrosion OR Galvanic corrosion

Zn metal Fe metal Fe metal Cu metal

Anode Cathode Anode Cathode

This type of corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other and are exposed to a corrosive
environment. The two metals differ in their electrode potentials. The metal with lower electrode potential acts as
anode and the other metal with higher electrode potential acts as cathode. The anodic metal undergoes oxidation and
gets corroded. A reduction reaction occurs at the cathodic metal. The cathodic metal does not undergo corrosion.

The reactions may be represented as follows:

At anode: M  Mn+ + ne

At cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e  4OH

Factors affecting rate of galvanic corrosion:

 Higher the potential difference between the anodic and cathodic metals, higher is the rate of corrosion.
 Smaller anodic area and larger cathodic area increases the rate of galvanic corrosion.

4 Explain differential aeration corrosion OR Write a note on differential aeration corrosion.

Iron

More O2, (Cathode)

Less O2, (Anode)

Water

This type of corrosion occurs when two different parts of the same metal are exposed to different oxygen
concentrations. (e.g. An iron rod partially dipped in water.) The part of the metal which is exposed to less oxygen
concentration acts as anode as shown in Fig. The part which is exposed to more oxygen concentration acts as cathode.
The anodic region undergoes corrosion and the cathodic region is unaffected.

The reactions may be represented as follows:

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

At anode: M Mn+ + ne (Oxidation of M)

At cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e-  4OH (Reduction of O2)

5 Explain waterline corrosion OR Discuss the waterline corrosion with a labeled diagram.

Water line corrosion: This is an example of differential aeration corrosion.

When a steel tank is partially filled with water for a long time, the inner portion of the tank below the water line is
exposed only to dissolved oxygen, whereas, the portion above the water line is exposed to more oxygen. Thus the
portion below the water line acts as anode and undergoes corrosion. The upper portion acts as cathode and is
unaffected.
A distinct brown line is formed just below the water line due to the deposition of rust.
The reactions may be represented as follows:
At anode: M  Mn+ + n e- (Oxidation of metal, M)

At cathode: 2 H2O + O2 + 4 e-  4 OH- (Reduction of oxygen)

Highly oxygenated
Poor oxygenated cathodic part
anodic part is corroded (protected)

H2O  H+ + OH
Fe  Fe2+ + 2e
4H+ + O2 + 4e  2H2O
Fe2+ + 2OH  Fe(OH)2

6 Discuss pitting corrosion with reactions.

Pitting corrosion: This is an example of differential aeration corrosion. When a small dust particle gets deposited on
a steel surface, the region below the dust particle is exposed to less oxygen compared to the remaining part. As a
result, the region below the dust particle acts as anode undergoes corrosion and forms a pit. The remaining region of
the metal acts as cathode and is unaffected. The pit is filled with highly unstable, porous, highly conducting corrosion
product, which enhances the rate of reaction at localized place.

Fe2+ + 2OH  Fe(OH)2

Corrosion product
More oxygenated
More oxygenated
cathode
cathode

e e
Anode is attacked
Pit
Iron
Fe/EFe2+ + 2e

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

The reactions may be represented as follows:

At anode: M  Mn+ + n e-

At cathode: 2 H2O + O2 + 4 e-  4 OH-

Formation of a small anodic area and a large cathodic area results in intense corrosion below the dust particle.

7 What is galvanizing? Describe galvanizing of iron.

Galvanizing is the process of coating a metal surface such as iron with zinc metal. Galvanizing of iron is an example
of anodic metal coating on the surface of a cathodic metal.

Galvanization is carried out by hot dipping method as shown in Fig.2.6. It involves the following steps
1. Solvent Cleaning: The metal surface is washed with organic solvents to remove organic impurities on the surface.
2. Alkali Cleaning: Residual organic impurities are removed by treating the object with alkali such as NaOH.
3. Picking: Rust and Scale is removed by washing the object with dilute sulphuric acid H2SO4
4. Finally, the article is washed with water and air-dried.
5. The article is then dipped in a bath of molten zinc at 430˚C to 470˚C (Molten zinc is covered with a flux of
ammonium chloride to prevent the oxidation of molten zinc.)
6. The excess zinc on the surface is removed by passing through a pair of hot rollers.
Application
Galvanization of iron is carried out to produce roofing sheets, fencing wire, buckets, bolts, nuts, pipes etc.

17 What is anodizing? Describe anodizing of aluminium.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

A type of inorganic coating, in which top layer of the metal is converted to its oxide, which acts as a protective barrier
and reduces corrosion is called as anodizing.
Conditions

Anode Aluminium

Cathode Steel or Copper

Electrolyte 5-10% Chromic acid

Temperature 35 0C

Applied potential 0-50V

The article to be anodized is degreased, polished, then made as anode and copper or lead is made as cathode. The
electrolyte consists of 5-10% chromic acid, oxalic acid, the temperature of the bath is about 350C. At a suitable voltage
an opaque layer of 2-8μm thickness Al2O3 is formed. The article or object is immersed in hot water bath containing
cobalt or nickel sulphate to improve corrosion resistance.

At Anode: (Al  Al3+ + 3e)  2

2Al3+ + 3H2O  Al2O3 + 6H+ 
At Cathode: 6H+ + 6e  3H2
2Al + 3H2O  Al2O3 + 3H2 

Applications:

(i) Anodization is used for aluminium pressure cookers and cooking pots.
(ii) Aluminium window frames are anodized.
(iii) Sliding doors of office cabins.
(iv) Commercial and residential building products.
(v) Furniture.

8 Explain cathodic protection by sacrificial anode method OR Explain corrosion control by sacrificial anode
method.
It is a method of offering cathodic protection to a specimen (metal) against corrosion by providing electrons from an
external source.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

In sacrificial anode method, the metal to be protected is electrically connected to a more active metal using insulated
copper wire. For example, when steel is to be protected, it may be connected to a block of Mg or Zn. In such a
situation, steel acts as cathode (high electrode potential) and is unaffected as shown Fig.3.10. Mg and Zn act as anode
(low electrode potential) and undergo sacrificial corrosion. When the sacrificial anode gets exhausted, it is replaced
with new ones.

Advantages: (i) The method is simple.

(i) Low installation cost and low maintenance.

(ii) Does not require power supply.

Disadvantage: Replacement of consumed anodes

9 Define corrosion penetration rate. A sheet of carbon steel one meter wide by three meters long has lost 40g to
corrosion over the past six months. Convert that mass loss to a penetration rate of the steel in mm units and
mpy units. What would be the corrosion rate? (Carbon steel density=7.8g/ cm3) To calculate CPR in mmpy.

Given CPR mm/yr

K 87.6
W 40g 40X1000 mg
ρ 7.8g/cc 7.8 g/cc
A 1mx3m=3m2 3x100X100 cm2
t 6 months 6x30X24 hrs

𝐾𝑊
CPR= 𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡

87.6 𝑋 40 𝑋 1000𝑚𝑔
CPR= g = 3.466 X10-3 mm/yr
7.8 𝑋3x100X100 𝑐𝑚2 𝑋 6x30X24 hrs
cc
CPR= 0.003466mm/yr
To calculate CPR in mpy
Given CPR in mpy
K 534
W 40g 40 x 1000 mg
ρ 7.8g/cc 7.8 g/cc
A 1mx3m=3m2 3 x1550 inch2
t 6 months 6 x 30 x 24 hrs
1 sq mt= 1550 sq inch
𝐾𝑊 534 𝑋 40 𝑋 1000𝑚𝑔
CPR= 𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡 CPR= g = 0.1363mpy
7.8 𝑋3x1550 𝑖𝑛2 𝑋 6x30X24 hrs
cc

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

10 A piece of corroded steel plate was found in a submerged ocean vessel, it was estimated that the original area was
10inch2 that approximately 2.6kg had corroded away during the submersion. Assuming a corrosion penetration rate
of 200mpy for this alloy in sea water, estimate the time in years, density of steel 7.9g/cc.

Given CPR in mpy

K 534
W 2.6kg 2.6 x 1000 x1000 mg
ρ 7.9g/cc 7.9 g/cc
A 10 inch2 10 inch2
𝐾𝑊 𝐾𝑊
CPR= t X X hrs and t=𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑐𝑝𝑟
𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡

534𝑋2.6𝑋106 𝑚𝑔
t= 7.9 𝑔/𝑐𝑐𝑋10𝑖𝑛2 𝑋200𝑚𝑝𝑦 t= 87873.41hrs

87873.41
t= 365𝑋24 = 10.03𝑦𝑟𝑠

Calculate the CPR in both mpy and mm/yr for a thick steel sheet of area 100 in2 which experiences a weight loss of
485g after one year. (density of steel=7.9g/cm3).

Given CPR in mpy

K 534
W 485g 485 x1000 mg
Ρ 7.9g/cc 7.9 g/cc
A 100 in2 100 inch2
𝐾𝑊
CPR= T 1 yr 365 X 24 hrs
𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡
534 𝑋 485 𝑋 1000𝑚𝑔
CPR= g
7.9 𝑋100 𝑖𝑛2 𝑋 365 X 24 hrs
cc
CPR=37.424mpy

Given CPR in mm/y

K 87.6
W 485g 485 x1000 mg
Ρ 7.9g/cc 7.9 g/cc
A 100 in2 100 x 6.45cm2 1 in2 = 6.45cm2
T 1 yr 365 x 24 hrs 1 cm2= 0.155 in2

𝐾𝑊 87.6 𝑋 485 𝑋 1000𝑚𝑔

CPR= 𝜌𝑋𝐴𝑋𝑡 CPR= g =0.9518mm/y
7.9 𝑋100X6.45 𝑐𝑚2 𝑋 365X24 hrs
cc

11 Account for the following.

(i) Iron bolt in copper vessel is undesirable.
(ii) Ship sailing in water suffers differential aeration corrosion while the ship sunk in sea water does not.
(i) Iron bolt in copper vessel is undesirable.
When Iron metal is in contact with copper vessel severe and intense galvanic corrosion takes place on Iron metal
due to smaller anode and larger Cathodic area.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

Galvanic corrosion Explanation

Consider steel screws on Copper vessel. Electrode potential of steel is -0.44V ( Iron is one of the metal in steel) and
electrode potential of copper is +0.34V. Anodic metal(steel) undergoes corrosion and cathodic copper sheet no
corrosion is taking place.

Corrosion reactions:
At anode: M Mn+ + ne (Oxidation of M)
At cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e-  4OH (Reduction of O2)

Therefore, it is necessary to have copper screws on steel sheet.

ii) Ship sailing in water suffers differential aeration corrosion while the ship sunk in sea water does not.
Consider a ship sailing in water, a portion of a metal
in contact with water experiencing dissolved oxygen,
acts as anode and another portion of the ship above
the water surface is in contact with more oxygen, acts
as cathode. Thus, oxygen concentration cell is
formed and corrosion is initiated at the anode.
Corrosion product is formed below water level.
Therefore, it is called as waterline corrosion a type
of differential aeration corrosion.
Corrosion reactions: On the other hand, when the ship is sunk in sea water
At anode: M Mn+ + ne experiences same amount of oxygen and therefore no
At cathode: 2H2O + O2 + 4e-  4OH corrosion is taking place

12 Identify and explain the type of corrosion taking place in the following cases.
(i) Bolt and nut made up of two different metals in contact with each other.
(ii) Presence of dust particles on the metal surface for a long time.
(i) Bolt and nut made up of two different metals in contact with each other.
Give explanation of Galvanic Corrosion ( Taking steel screws on copper sheet)

ii) Presence of dust particles on the metal surface for a long time.
Give explanation of pitting corrosion.
13 Demonstrate the type of corrosion taking place in the following cases:
i) A Steel crew on Copper sheet
ii) Partially buried pipeline in soil.

i) A Steel crew on Copper sheet

Explain the Differential metal corrosion with diagram showing copper sheet with steel screw.
ii) Partially buried pipeline in soil.
Explain differential aeration corrosion with diagram showing two different parts of metal.

14 What is e-waste? Explain the methods of e-waste disposal.

E-waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that’s been discarded”.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

To avoid the toxic effects of e-waste, it is crucial to dispose them in proper manner, so that items can be recycled,
resold, or reused.

Following methods are used to dispose e-waste:

Landfills: In this method, large trenches are made in the soil to bury e-waste. But this is not a good method to dispose
e-waste because e-waste contains toxic substances like lead, mercury, etc., that leak into the earth and harm the
underground water and soil.

Incineration: In this method, the e-waste is burned at high temperatures in specially designed incinerators. Due to
which the volume of e-waste is reduced and the energy produced by this method is also utilized separately. But this is
also not a good method because when the e-waste burns, it releases harmful gases which harm our environment.

Acid Bath: In this method, the e-waste is soaked in powerful sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric acid solutions that remove
the metal from the e-waste. The recovered metal is further reused to create other products. This method also has
drawbacks, like the acid solutions sometimes dumped into the water resources which is harmful for living things.

Recycling: This is the most efficient method and also environmentally friendly. Recycling involves dismantling,
processing and end processing. In this method, separation is done to recover used circuit boards, ICs, motherboard,
etc from the e-waste and recycle them. Precious metals like copper, lead, etc., are separated from the e-waste using a
PCB recycling machine without harming the environment.

Re-use: It includes direct second hand use or use after slight modifications to the original functioning equipment like
Inkjet cartridge is used after refilling. Old working computers can be donated to schools or organization working in
the field of education. Computers beyond repairs can be returned back to the manufacturers. This can considerably
reduce the volume of E-Waste generation converted into less hazardous compounds.

15 Explain the ill effects of toxic materials used in manufacturing electrical and electronic products
Electrical and electronic equipment contain different hazardous materials which are harmful to human health and the
environment if not disposed off carefully.
Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium,
or brominated flame retardants. Improper disposal of e-waste is highly dangerous to the global environment involving
significant risk to the health of workers and their communities
The Negative effect on human health
E-waste contains hazardous metals such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, polyvinyl chlorides (PVC),
brominated flame retardants, beryllium, antimony. Long term exposure to these chemicals damages internal organs of
human.
2. The Negative Effects on Air
Unscientific dismantling, shredding and melting of e-waste causes air pollution. Breathing of polluted air causes
respiratory problems.
3. The Negative Effects on Soil
When improper disposal of e-waste in regular landfills, the heavy metals and flame retardants can seep directly from
the e-waste into the soil, causing contamination of groundwater and contaminations of crops of that area.
4. The Negative effect on water bodies
The heavy metals from e-waste, such as mercury, lithium, lead and barium, then leak through the earth and reach
groundwater and eventually make their way into ponds, streams, rivers and lakes.

16 Explain the health hazard due to exposure to e-waste.

Electrical and electronic equipment contain different hazardous materials which are harmful to human health and the
environment. The following list gives a selection of the mostly found toxic substnances in e-waste.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

Solder: Solder contains lead that damages the nervous system, blood system, and kidney and also affect the
development of brain in children.

Relays, Switches and Printed Circuit Boards

Mercury present in these elements leads to brain damage, disorders in the respiratory system and skin diseases.

Corrosion Protectors
Asthmatic bronchitis and DNA damage are caused due to the Hexavalent Chromium present.

Cabling and Computer Housing

When burn these produce dioxin, which causes problems of reproduction, destruction of the immune system, and
regulatory hormones are damaged too.

Brominated Flame Retardants: BFRs increases contamination of the environment, wildlife, and people. Long
exposure to BFR causes behavioral problems in infants and children, and thyroid gland malfunctioning in adults.

Arsenic: Arsenic is a poisonous metallic element which is present in dust and soluble substances. Chronic exposure
to arsenic can lead to various diseases of skin and decrease nerve conduction velocity. Chronic exposure to arsenic
can also cause lung cancer and can often be fatal.

Barium: Barium forms toxic oxides when reacted with air. Short term exposure to barium could lead to brain
swelling, damage to heart, liver and spleen.

Beryllium: Exposure to Beryllium causes lung cancer. People working in beryllium atmosphere will suffer from
Beryllicosis, a disease primarily affects lungs.

17 Explain about sources, composition of e-Waste.

Major Sources of E-Waste is comprised of

a) Large Household appliances such as Refrigerator, Freezers, Microwaves, Electric heating appliances, CD players,
TVs, radios, drillers. , air-conditioner, grinder, iron, heater.

b) Informal communications and technology equipment such as Computers, Laptops, Computer accessories, Printers,
Fax machines, photocopiers, toners, ink cartridges, re-chargeable batteries, digital calculators, CRT monitors,
smart panel used in schools and colleges, LCD projectors Mobiles, Ipods etc
c) Consumer electronics include Toasters, Coffee machines, Clocks, Watches, Hair dryer, Sharvers.

Constituents of e-waste
COMPONENTS CONSTITUENTS
Printed circuit boards Lead & cadmium
Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) Lead oxide & Cadmium
Switches & flat screen monitor Mercury
Computer batteries Cadmium
Capacitors and transformers Poly Chlorinated Bi-phenyls (PCB)
Printed circuit boards, plastic Brominated Flame Retardant casings cable
Cable insulation/coating Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-3 Corrosion Science & E-waste management

18 What is e-waste? Describe the extraction of copper and gold from e-waste.

The electronic waste also contains fair percentage of precious metals like Cu, Ag, Au, Pd, Rh etc.
Techniques such as Pyrometallurgy, Hydrometallurgy and Bio-hydrometallurgy are used to recover precious metals
like copper, silver and gold.
Hydrometallurgy for extraction of Copper and Gold from e-Waste
Stage I Leaching
1 .PCB’s, CPU’s and mother boards are crushed to 1mm size particles and soaked in 100mL HNO3 to leach 99%
copper
2. The pieces are soaked in 100mL of 3M HNO3 to leach 99% Copper.
3. The solution is filtered to separate the leachate and residue. The leachate contains cooper ions.
Stage II Leaching
4. Filtered residue was then treated with 3M NaBr containing 3M H2SO4 of 100mL to dissolve gold and silver.
5. Solution is heated in a three neck flask at 50˚C
Solvent Extraction
a) Recovery of Copper: The pH of Stage I leachate was adjusted to 3.5 by controlled addition of NH4OH
800g of Phenolic Oxime was mixed with 1L kerosene and added to above solution and stirred for 2hrs at 20˚C.
Organic and acid layers are physically separated, organic layer was stripped in sulphuric or nitric acid.
Further, purification is done by electrolysis using 100% Copper as cathode.

a) Recovery of Gold: Stage II leachate was treated with 0.1M organic amide in toluene, stirred for 2hrs at 20˚C.
Organic and acid layers are physically separated and Organic layer was stripped in 1.0M Sodium Hydroxide.
Further, purification is done by electrolysis using 100% Gold as cathode.

19 Explain the advantages of recycling in e-wastes.

Advantage of Recycling:
Saves landfills: Recycling the e-waste helps to manage solid waste effectively and reduces waste sent to landfills and
incinerators.
 Conserves natural resources: Recycling recovers valuable materials from old electronics that can be used to
make new products. As a result, we reduce pollution, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and save natural resources
by extracting fewer raw materials from the earth
 Protects Environment: E-waste recycling provides proper handling and management of toxic chemical
substances like mercury, lead and cadmium contained in the e-waste stream. Nowadays, e-waste contributes to
more than 70% of the environmental pollution, hence recycling of e-waste can reduce environmental pollution.
 Save Energy: Reduces consumption of energy by minimizing product development lifecycle
Creates Jobs: E-waste recycling creates new jobs for professional recyclers and creates a second market for the
recycled materials and hence produce economic benefits.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE202

MODULE 4: Nanomaterials and Display Systems

1. What are nanomaterials? Explain any two size dependent properties of nanomaterials.
A set of substances where at least one dimension is less than 100nm is called nanomaterial.

One nm= 10−9 m

The properties of materials can be different at the Nanoscale for two main reasons:
1. Increased relative surface area.
2. Quantum confinement effect.
Surface properties:
When a bulk material is subdivided into materials on the nano scale, the total volume remains the same
but the collective surface area is increased. This results in increase of surface to volume ratio at
nanoscale as compared to bulk materials. This results in more number of atoms or molecules on the
surface as compared to its number inside the volume in a nanomaterial.

For example, a particle of size 3 nm has 50% of its particles on the surface; at 10 nm, 20% of its
particles are on the surface; and at 30 nm, 5% of its particles are on the surface. Therefore, materials
made of nanoparticles have a much greater surface area per unit volume ratio compared with the
materials made up of bigger particles.

Catalytic property:
When the size of the object is reduced to the nanometer range, a large fraction of atoms is located at
the surface of the nanomaterials, which will modify its properties. Catalytic chemical reactions occur
at surfaces; the surface area of the nanoscale catalyst is larger than the normal catalyst and therefore
nano-catalyst increases the rate of reaction.

Example: Normal gold is non-catalytic and nano-gold is catalytic in nature

Conducting properties: Conducting property of nanomaterial is different from normal material due
to quantum confinement effect.

Nanomaterials have lower thermal and electrical conductivities than bulk materials. Conducting
properties decreases at nano-scale because nanomaterials possess discrete energy levels.
Examples:
If the nanotube structure is armchair then the electrical properties are metallic
If the nanotube structure is chiral then the electrical properties can be either semiconducting with a
very small band gap, otherwise the nanotube is a moderate semiconductor
2. Describe the synthesis of nanomaterials by sol-gel method with example.

1. Preparation of Sol: Dispersion of Solute in solvent gives sol. It is prepared by hydrolysis

followed by polycondensation.
MOR+H2O   MOH + ROH (hydrolysis)

MOH + ROM 
 M-O-M + ROH (condensation)

2. Conversion of sol o gel: Condensation of a sol into a three-dimensional network

produces a gel.
3. Aging of the Gel: Polycondensation reactions until the gel transforms into a solid mass,
accompanied by contraction of the gel network and evaporation of solvent from gel
pores.
4. Drying of the Gel: Water and solvents are removed by heating to 100˚C.
5. Dehydration: Metal hydroxide is converted into a nano-metal oxide by annealing.
1. Preparation of Sol: Dispersion of Solute in solvent gives sol. It is prepared by hydrolysis
followed by polycondensation.
MOR+H2O   MOH + ROH (hydrolysis)

MOH + ROM 
 M-O-M + ROH (condensation)

2. Conversion of sol o gel: Condensation of a sol into a three-dimensional network

produces a gel.
3. Aging of the Gel: Polycondensation reactions until the gel transforms into a solid mass,
accompanied by contraction of the gel network and evaporation of solvent from gel
pores.
4. Drying of the Gel: Water and solvents are removed by heating to 100˚C.
5. Dehydration: Metal hydroxide is converted into a nano-metal oxide by annealing.

3. Describe the synthesis of nanomaterials by Co-precipitation with example.

 An inorganic metal salt, such as chloride or nitrate is

dissolved in water to form metal hydrate.
 Metal cations exist in the form of metal hydrate species,
Al(H2O)3+ or Fe(H2O)63+.
 Metal hydrate species is hydrolyzed by the addition of
NaOH or NH4OH.
 The hydrolyzed species condensed with each other to
form metal hydroxide.
 The obtained product is washed, filtered, dried and
calcined at elevated temperature in order to obtain the
final product.
MX  H2O   MX  nH2O
MX  nH2O 
 M  OH  NaX
Advantages:
 Simple and rapid preparation
 Easy control of particle size and composition
 Low temperature and energy efficient
 Does not involve use of organic solvent.

Disadvantages:
 Not applicable to uncharged species
 Trace impurities may also get precipitated with the product
 Does not work well if the reactants have very different precipitation rates
 Impossible to control the size of the particles, the agglomeration of the particles.

4. Write a note on Nanofibers and Nanosensors.

Nanofiber: A threadlike structure in which one dimension is less than 100nm is called nano fiber
 Properties of Nanofiber
 Nanofibers are unique for their large surface area-to-volume ratio.
 Nanofibers have high aspect ratio (length in μm and diameter in nm)
 It has a high porosity
 Highly flexible and good mechanical strength
 Nano fibers have the ability to filter and decompose toxins

Applications:
 Nanofiber water filters (including microfiltration webs, nanofiltration webs) used for heavy
metal removal.
 Nanofibers can be applied for photovoltaic panels, rechargeable batteries and
supercapacitors, through the use of electroactive polymers,
 Used for making membranes for sensors and actuators.
 Nanofibers are used for the production of more efficient car filters.
 To manufacture nanosuits for military personnel's due to their ability to filter and
decompose toxins.

Nanosensors:
Nanosensors are nanoscale devices that measure physical quantities and convert these to signals
that can be detected and analyzed.

Types of Nanosensors
1. Optical nanosensor
2.Electro Chemical Nanosensor
3.Biosensor
4.Physical and biological nano sensor

Properties:
1.Optical nano sensors measures any change in the light intensity
2.Electrochemical nano sensors measures the changes in electric distribution
3.Biosensors or biological sensors are capable of measuring any change in enzyme activity
4.Piezoelectric materials measures the change in mass of an object
5.Calorimetric nano sensors measures any change in heat of a system and surrounding

Applications:
There are numerous areas where nanosensors and nano-enabled sensors are used, including
1. Transportation (GPS tracker, Vehicle parking, Traffic signal )
2. Communications ( Wireless communication)
3. Construction and buildings (Ambient Light Nanosensors, Proximity Nanosensors)
4. Healthcare, safety (Glucose sensor, Pulse Oximeter etc)
5. National security, which includes both military operations and home defense.
6. Agriculture (Soil sensor, sensors for water pumps)
5. What are perovskite materials? Give the properties and applications of perovskite
materials in optoelectronic devices.
Perovskite is a calcium titanium oxide mineral, with the chemical formula CaTiO3. Perovskite
structure is anything that has the generic form ABX3, and the same crystallographic structure as
perovskite (the mineral).

Properties:
 Perovskite quantum dots are nanocrystal semiconductors.
 They have excellent quantum yields of photoluminescence and high colour purity
 They possess intrinsic properties like broad absorption spectrum, fast charge separation
 Long transport distance of electrons and holes, long carrier separation lifetime
 Perovskite materials exhibit ferroelectric, dielectric, pyroelectric, and piezoelectric behavior
 They exhibit a number of interesting chemical properties including heterogeneous catalytic
activity.

Perovskite materials Applications:

 Perovskite quantum dots are used to construct LED displays
 Perovskite quantum dots are used to construct nanostructured solar cell.
 Perovskite x-ray detector- four-fold improvement on the best-in-class medical imaging
devices
 Light-emitting perovskite nanoantennas are used incompact optoelectronic devices such as
optical chips, light-emitting diodes, or sensors.
 Perovskite materials exhibit ferroelectric, dielectric, pyroelectric, and piezoelectric behavior

6. What are liquid crystals? Explain the classification of liquid crystals with suitable
examples. Mention their applications.

The liquid crystals are a unique state of matter between solid (crystalline) and liquid (isotropic)
phases.
 i) Thermo tropic liquid crystal
A liquid crystal is said to be thermo tropic if molecular orientation is dependent on the
temperature.
Example:

a) Nematic (or thread-like liquid crystals) : The molecules move either sideways or up and
down. Increase in temperature decreases the degree of orientation.
Example: p-azoxyphenetole

b) Smectic (or soap-like liquid crystals): The molecules in smectic crystals are oriented parallel to
each other as in the nematic phase but in layers.

c) Cholesteric liquid crystals: Molecules in successive layers are slightly twisted and form helical
pattern.
d) Discotic liquid crystal: Molecules are arranged in a column arranged with disc like structure.
Lyotropic liquid crystals: The orientational behaviour of Lyotropic crystals is a function of
concentration and solvent. These molecules are amphiphilic – they have both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic ends in their molecules. At low concentrations, molecules are randomly arranged and
higher concentration produces a definite pattern heads out and tail in. Soaps and detergents form
Lyotropic crystals when they combine with water
7. What are OLED’S? Mention its properties along with their applications.

OLEDs are thin film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched between two
electrodes. OLEDs operate by converting electrical current into light via an organic emitter”.
Properties of OLED
1. OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable for use in curved or flexible
displays.
2. OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, and produce images with vivid and rich colours.
3. OLEDs have a fast response time, resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video content.
4. OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, and image quality is maintained even when viewed from
different angles.
5. OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not require a backlight like traditional LCD displays.
Applications of OLED
1.OLED displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and other electronic
devices.
2.OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including automotive
lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.
3. OLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines, to produce high-
resolution and accurate images.
4.OLED displays can be used in advertising displays, such as digital billboards and signage, to
produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals.

8. What are QLED’S? Mention its properties along with their applications.
Quantum dot light emitting diodes
QLEDs are thin film devices consisting of a stack of NANO CRYSTAL layers sandwiched between
two electrodes. QLEDs operate by converting electrical current into light via an organic emitter”.
Properties
1. QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and vibrant colours because the QDs reemit
light of specific colour after excitation.
2. QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays because they do not require as
much backlighting.
3. QLED displays have high contrast ratios therefore produces more detailed and lifelike images.
4. QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays
5. QLED displays have fast response times, which means that they can display fast-moving images
without motion blur or ghosting
Applications of QLED
1. QLED displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and other electronic
devices.
2. QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including automotive
lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.
3. QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines, to produce
high-resolution and accurate images.
4. QLED displays can be used in advertising displays, such as digital billboards and signage, to
produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals

9. Write a note on nanophotonics and nanosensors.

Nanophotonics or nano-optics the scientific study of the interaction of matter and light at the
nanometer scale objects.
Properties:
1. Capable of exhibiting confinement of light ( Different from quantum confinement of electron)
Nano well to nanowire to quantum dots (CdS, InP)
2. Nano-photonic materials exhibit blue shift.( absorbs light in the visible range)
3. These are zero thickness materials and shows perfect conductivity.
4. Nanophotonic crystal shows dual nature means behaves as insulator and conductor (Cd QDs).

Applications of Nanophotonic materials

1. Display system such as OLED’s and QLED’s
2. Bio-imaging process
3. QDSSC’s ( Quantum dot solar cells) to harness solar energy
4. Memory devices to store data ( Ultra High Density Data storage)
5. Used in Cancer therapy
Nanosensors:
Nanosensors are nanoscale devices that measure physical quantities and convert these to signals
that can be detected and analyzed.
Types of Nanosensors
1. Optical nanosensor
2. Electro Chemical Nanosensor
3.Biosensor
4.Physical and biological nano sensor

Properties:
1. Optical nano sensors measures any change in the light intensity
2. Electrochemical nano sensors measures the changes in electric distribution
3. Biosensors or biological sensors are capable of measuring any change in enzyme activity
4. Piezoelectric materials measures the change in mass of an object
5. Calorimetric nano sensors measures any change in heat of a system and surrounding

Applications:
There are numerous areas where nanosensors and nano-enabled sensors are used, including
1. Transportation (GPS tracker, Vehicle parking, Traffic signal )
2. Communications ( Wireless communication)
3. Construction and buildings (Ambient Light Nanosensors, Proximity Nanosensors)
4. Healthcare, safety (Glucose sensor, Pulse Oximeter etc)
5. National security, which includes both military operations and home defense.
6. Agriculture (Soil sensor, sensors for water pumps)
 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

1 What are reference electrodes? Describe the construction and working of Calomel electrode.
Reference electrodes are those whose potentials are known.
Construction and working of CALOMEL ELECTRODE

The calomel electrode consists of a glass vessel containing a

layer of Hg over which is placed a paste of an Hg, Hg2Cl2 and
KCl. Above this there is a solution of KCl saturated with the
Mercurous salt. A platinum wire is fused in the glass tube for
electrical connection Fig: 3.13. A salt bridge is used to couple
with other half-cell.

The half-cell is represented as Net reversible electrode: Hg / Hg2Cl2 (sat) / KCl (sat)

Net reversible electrode reaction is

Hg2Cl2 + 2e- 2Hg + 2Cl-
Electrode potential is calculated using Nernst equation,

2. What are reference electrodes? Describe how potential of the given electrode using calomel electrode
measured.
Reference electrodes are those whose potentials are known.

Measurement of electrode potential using calomel electrode

To determine electrode potential of a given electrode calomel electrode is taken as reference electrode. The
potential of Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE ) is +0.241V. The electrode whose potential has to be
determined such as Zn electrode is coupled with SCE as shown below.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

Cell representation Zn/Zn2+ (1M) ||KCl ( sat),Hg2Cl2 //Hg

The emf of a cell is 1.001V
Therefore the electrode potential of Zn electrode can be calculated as follows
E0cell=E0cathode-E0anode
E0cell=E0SCE-E0Zn
0
1.001= 0.241- E Zn
E0Zn = - 0.760V

3 Define concentration cell .Explain the construction and working of concentration cell.
Concentration cell consists of two half cells having two identical electrodes and identical electrolytes but
with different concentration. EMF of this cell depends upon the difference of concentration.
Construction:
A typical example of Zinc concentration cell is shown above. It consists of two zinc electrodes are immersed
in two different concentrations of ZnSO4 solutions. These two electrodes are externally connected by
metallic wire and internally by a salt bridge as shown in Fig;. The cell can be represented as,

The cell can be represented as,

Zn(s)| Zn2+ (C1) || Zn2+ (C2) | Zn(s)
By convention left hand electrode is the anode and right hand electrode is cathode.

At anode : Zn(s)  Zn2+ + 2e

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

At cathode: Zn2+(C2) + 2e  Zn(s)


Net cell reaction: Zn2+(C2)  Zn2+(C1)

Ecell = Ecathode  Eanode … (1)

0.0591 0.0591
Ecell  log C2   log C1  … (2)
n n
Ecell 
0.0591 C 
log 2 at 298 K … (3)
n C1 

4 What are ion selective electrodes? Explain the construction and working principle of glass electrode.
Mention the advantages and disadvantages of glass electrode.
Ion selective electrode is one which selectively responds to a specific ion in a mixture and the potential developed at
the electrode is a function of the concentration of that ion in the solution.

Construction:
A glass electrode is an ion selective electrode where potential depends upon the pH of the medium.The glass
electrode consists of a glass bulb made up of special type of glass which consisting of 72% of SiO 2, 22%
Na2O and 6% CaO, has low melting point and relatively high electrical conductivity. (Fig:1.3) The glass
bulb is filled with a solution of constant pH (0.1 M HCl) and insert with a Ag-AgCl electrode, which is the
Internal reference electrode and also serves for the external electrical contact. The electrode dipped in a
solution containing H+ ions (Fig:)

Internal solution

Concentration C1
Glass
0.1 M HCl [C1] Gel layer of the
bulb
glass membrane
Ag.AgCl E2 E1 External solution
H+ solution [C2 Concentration C2
Glass

The electrode representation is, Ag-AgCl | 0.1 M HCl | Glass.

Working Principle:
If a thin walled glass bulb containing an acid is immersed in another solution containing H+ ions, a potential
is developed across the glass membrane. This is due the ion exchange reaction taking place at the gel layers
of glass membrane. This is called boundary potential Eb.

Na+Gl- + H+ H+Gl- + Na+

The boundary potential is due to the difference in potential (E1-E2) developed across the gel layer of the
membrane between the two liquids.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

The electrode representation is, Ag-AgCl | 0.1 M HCl | Glass

Consider, C1 > C2
The boundary potential is given by Nernst equation at membrane Eb = E1 – E2
2.303RT 2.303RT
Eb  log C1  log C2
nF nF
Therefore Eb = 0.0591 log C1  0.0591 log C2
Eb = K + 0.0591 log C1 where K = 0.0591 log C2
OR
Eb = K  0.0591pH
Since pH = log [H+]

The glass electrode EG has three components

Therefore EG= Eb+ EAg | AgCl + Easy

EG = K – 0.0591 pH + EAg | AgCl + Easy
EG  E0G  0.0591pH where, E0G  K  EAg|AgCl  Easy

Advantages
1. This electrode can be used to determine pH in the range 0  9, with special type of glass even up to 12
can be calculated.
2. It can be used even in the case of strong oxidizing agents.
Disadvantages
1. The glass membrane though it is very thin, it offers high resistance. Therefore ordinary potentiometers
cannot be used; hence it is necessary to use electronic potentiometers.
2. This electrode cannot be used to determine the pH above 12
Solution
Cell representation: Ag(s)  AgNO3 (0.05 M)  AgNO3 (1 M)  Ag(s)
5 A concentration cell was constructed by immersing two silver electrode in 0.05 M and 1 M AgNO3 solution.
At anode : Ag (0.05 M)  Ag + (0.05 M) + e
Write the cell representation, cell reactions and calculate the EMF of the cell.
At cathode: Ag+ (1 M) + e  Ag (1 M)
Solution
Solution
Cell
Cell representation:
representation: Ag(s)
Solution Ag(s)  AgNO
AgNO33 (0.05
_______________________________________ M)  AgNO
(0.05 M) AgNO33 (1 M)  Ag(s)
(1 M) Ag(s)
At
Cell
At anode
anode :
: Ag
Ag (0.05
representation:
(0.05 M)
M) 
Ag(s)
  AgNO
Ag
Ag + (0.05
+
At anode : Ag (0.05 M)  Ag (0.05 M) + e
+ (0.05 M) +
3 (0.05
M) + e
e

  AgNO3 (1 M)  Ag(s)
M)


Net
At cell reaction:
anode
At cathode:
cathode: : Ag
Ag + (1 Ag
Ag(0.05
+ (1 M)
+ M) M)(0.05
++
e 

eAg


M) + (1
AgM)
(0.05
+Ag
Ag (1 M) +Age+ (0.05 M) + Ag
+M)
_______________________________________
At cathode: Ag+ (1 M) + e  Ag (1 M)
0.0591  CAg 
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
Net
Net  reaction:
Ecell cell
cell log  Ag
reaction:
2 (0.05 M) + Ag+  Ag+ (0.05 M) + Ag
 (0.05 M) + Ag+  Ag+ (0.05 M) + Ag
Net cell
E n log  C
reaction:
0.0591
 0.0591 CAg (0.05 M) + Ag+  Ag+ (0.05 M) + Ag
C 
1 2

 0.0591 log  CC22 

cell
Ecell n
E cell  log  C1 
 111 
n
0.0591  C11
cell
n
Ecell
E cell 

0.0591
0.0591 log
log  1
 
E  0.0591
n
n 1
0.05
log  0.05
log 
cell 
Ecell n 0.05
n  0.05 
Ecell = 0.0768 V
E
Ecell =
cell = 0.0768
Ecell
cell= 0.0768 V
0.0768 V
V

6 The emf of a cell Ag/AgNO3 (0.02M)//AgNO3(X)/Ag found to be 0.084V at 298 K. Write the cell reactions
and calculate the value of X.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

Solution:

0.0591  C 2 
E cell  log 
n  C1 
0.0591  X 
Ecell  log 
1  0.02 

𝑿 𝑬𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝑿 𝒏
Log [𝟎.𝟎𝟐] = 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟏

𝑿 𝑬𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝑿 𝒏
= 𝑨𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟎.𝟎𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟏

𝑿 0.084 𝑿 1
0.02
= 𝑨𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈 0.0591

𝑿
𝟎.𝟎𝟐
= 𝑨𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟏)
𝑿
= 𝟐𝟔. 𝟑𝟔
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐

𝑿 = 0.5272𝑴

7 Explain how the pH of the given solution is determined using glass electrode.
When a thin glass membrane is placed between two solutions of different pH values, a potential difference
arises across the membrane. The potential difference varies as the pH of these solutions varies. In practice,
pH of one of these solutions is kept constant and therefore the electrode potential depends on pH of the other
solution i.e .experimental solution.

Hg(l)| Hg2Cl2|Cl-||Solution of unknown pH|glass|0.1M HCl|AgCl |Ag(s)

The emf of the above cell, Ecell is measured using an electronic voltmeter with a pH meter.
The emf of the cell is given by

E cell=E cathode-E anode …………….1

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

E cell=EG- ESCE

EG  E0G  0.0591pH
0
E =E – 0.0591 pH  E
cell G SCE

E0G  ESCE  Ecell

pH 
0.0591

8 Explain the working principle and applications of electrochemical sensor.

Electrochemical sensors
Sensors which convert the effect of electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode surface into a
useful signal are known as electrochemical sensors.

Working: Electrochemical sensor consists of a transducer element covered by a recognition element.

The recognition element interacts with target analyte and signal is generated.
Electrochemical transducers transform the chemical changes into electrical signals.
The electric signals are related to the concentration of analyte. Now, the potential difference between the
two electrodes is measured as output.These sensors are often called as electrochemical cell.
Applications
1. Electrochemical sensors are used for the detection of blood glucose
2. Electrochemical sensors are used for pH measurements
3. Used to detect pesticides
4. Used in the detection of hydrocarbon pollutants
5. Optical sensors are used to measure the concentration of coloured analyte.

9 Explain how the strength of a weak acid determined using a conductometric sensor.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

Conductometric sensors are electrode devices, measures the electrical conductivity in sample solution
between the electrodes.

When a potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is an electrical field within the electrolyte, so
the positively charged ions move towards cathode and negatively charged ions are move towards anode.
Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused by the ion movement towards the electrodes where the ions are
neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms or molecules. This chemical change is recognized by working
electrode and transducers converts this chemical change into electrical signal.

Conductometric estimation of weak acid;

Conductometric titration is based on Ohm’s law: E = I R

Specific conductance is measured in this experiment:

𝜅 Depended on number of ions, charge and mobility and temp.

H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- -------------------- Na+ Cl- + H2O

CH3COOH + Na+ + OH- --------------------- CH3COO- Na+ + H2O

Principle:

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

Procedure:
Beaker: weak acid CH3COOH
Burette: Std NaOH (0.01N)
Electrode: Conductivity cell (2 Pt electrodes)
Instrument: Conductivity bridge

NaOH is added in the increments of 0.5mL and conductance values are measured. The reading increases
due to salt formation. Five additional reading are taken after equivalence point. Specific conductance verses
volume of NaOH is plotted to obtain neutralization point. Amount of acetic acid is calculated using
equivalence point.
𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑋 𝐸𝑞 𝑃𝑡
Calculation: 𝑁𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 = 𝑉𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

Amount of acetic acid = Normality of acetic acid X 60

Other applications:
1. Estimation of hydrochloric acid
2. Estimation of a weak base using strong acid
3. Estimation of mixture of acids

10 What are potentiometric sensors? Explain the principle, instrumentation and the application of
potentiometric sensor in the estimation of iron.
Potentiometric sensors measures the potential difference between working electrode and reference
electrode, where potential of working electrode depends on analyte solution.

Potentiometric estimation of Iron:

Principle: Redox titrations can be carried out potentiometrically using platinum and calomel electrode.

Potentiometry is based on Nernst equation:

Re duced form  Oxidised form  n electrons

The potential is given by Nernst equation
0.0591 [Oxidised form]
E  Eo  log
n [Re duced form]

Ecell= 𝐸𝐶 - 𝐸𝐴
E0 is the standard electrode potential of the system.

Instrumentation:

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

Procedure:
Platinum electrode: It is an indicator electrode, used to measure the potential of the analyte solution
comparing with that of reference electrode.
Calomel electrode: It is a reference electrode and used for the determination of the analyte by maintaining
the fixed potential.
Burette: Standard K2Cr2O7 solution.
Beaker: Test solution (FAS) and 5ml of dilute Sulphuric acid( K2Cr2O7 is a strong oxidizing agent in acidic
medium)

K2Cr2O7 is added in the increments of 0.5mL until a sudden jump in the potential and five additional readings
are taken after jump. A plot of change in potential against volume is characterized by a sudden change of
potential at the equivalent point. At the end point, potential is determined by large jump in the potential
value.

Vol. of K2Cr2O7 Emf E ∆V ∆E ∆E/∆V

(V) ml (mv) (V2V1) ml (E2-E1) (mv/ml)

𝑁𝐊𝟐𝐂𝐫𝟐𝐎𝟕 𝑋 𝐸𝑞 𝑃𝑡
Calculation: 𝑁𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Amount of Iron in 1L = Normality of Iron solution X Eq wt of Iron

Other applications:
1. Estimation of chromium in steel sample
2. Estimation of Cobalt

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

11 What are optical sensors? Discuss the principle, instrumentation and application of colourimetric sensor.
Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light rays into electrical
signals.
Example: Colourimetric Sensors

Principle: Colourimetric sensors are working on the principle of Beer-Lamberts law

Beer’s Law Aα C at constant thickness of the medium

Lambert’s Law Aα t at constant molar concentration

Beer-Lambert’s law: A= Ct

When a monochromatic light is made to pass through a transparent coloured solution the intensity of incident
light decrease with increasing concentration and thickness of the absorbing medium.

Instrumentation:

1- Light Source; 2- Lens;3- Diaphragm;4- Slit; 5- Cuvette;6- Photo detector 7-Read out

Application: Estimation of copper in brass solution

When a copper solution is treated with ammonium hydroxide, it forms a deep blue colured cuprammonium
complex. Intensity of the colour increases with increase in concentration of copper ions. The absorbance of
the blue colour solution is measured at 620nm.
Cu 2  4NH 3 
 [Cu(NH 3 ) 4 ]2
Cupraammonium complex

Procedure: Pipette out 2, 4, 6, 8, &10 ml of standard copper sulphate solution into 25ml standard flasks.
Add 2.5ml of ammonia solution into each of them and make up to the mark with distilled water and mix
well. Set the filter to 620nm. Adjust the initial reading to zero by using blank solution in the sample tube.
Measure the absorbance for each standard flask solution and plot the graph of absorbance v/s concentration
of copper sulphate Fig.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology

 BCHEE102/202 MODULE-5 SENSORS in Analytical Techniques

Absorbance
Concentration of CuSO4 solution
Graph of Colorimetry

12 What are thermometric sensors? Explain the working of thermometric sensors with example.
A thermometric Sensor is a device which detects the change in heat of an object, environment or
a system.
The temperature sensor is one of the most frequently used sensors, which is widely used in computers,
automobiles, kitchen appliances, air conditioners, and household thermostats.
Example
i. Thermocouples
ii. Thermistors
iii. Resistance Temperature Detector
iv. Analog thermometers
v. Digital thermometer
Working of thermocouple:
Thermometric sensors (Temperature sensors) generate output signals due to change in output voltage.

The combination of two different conductors or semiconductors is called a thermocouple. When two
different conductors or semiconductors A and B are connected to each other to form a loop, as long as
the temperature at the two nodes is different, there will be a current in the circuit. The temperature at one
end is T, which is called the working end, while that at the other end is TO, which is a free end, and the
electromotive force at this moment is called thermal electromotive force. The electromotive force is
generated due to different temperatures, which is measured as an output voltage.

Prof. Padmavathy N Department of Chemistry Cambridge Institute of Technology